Horticultural crops Production level II

Unit of Competence: Establish Horticultural crops

Module Title: Establishing Horticultural crops
LG Code: AGR HCP 2 M07 10 12
TTLM Code: AGR HCP 2TTLM 07 1012

LO 1: Prepare Horticultural crops establishment operations

LO2: Prepare the site for crop establishment
L03: Carry out establishment operations
LO4:- Clean and store tools and equipments
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
following content coverage and topics –

 Prepare Horticultural crops establishment operations

 Prepare the site for crop establishment
 Carry out establishment operation
 Clean and store tools and equipments
Lo1: Prepare for horticultural crop establishment
1.1. Clearing and preparing land
Clearing means cutting down of vegetation and removing the dead plant materials from
cropping area. All un-wanted vegetation must be removed from the area including trees,
bushes and weeds; the woody remains should be burned and the remainder placed on the
compost heaps. Stones should be also removed and the soil roughly leveled.
Purposes of Clearing
 Avoiding competition of nutrients, water, light and air
 Reduction of shading and making the land convenient for cultivation
 Eliminating shelter of pests and diseases
 Enhancing good tea plants development
Land preparation is importance for many things, that is.
 Breaks up the soil layer and brings in  Also it helps in uniform germination
to suitable physical condition of seed
 It helps to control weeds
  It improves soil aeration and  It destroys most of pests and diseases
infiltration in the soil that expose to sun
 Improves drainage of the soil  Adds organic matter to the soil

Pulverizing and leveling soil

Preparation of soil for sowing and plantings are essential steps for cultivation of horticultural
crop. Digging is the first step followed by pulverizing and leveling. This steps including
ploughing helps for;

 Burying debris and weeds  Ensuring a frost tilth

 Aerating the soil  Ensure better water holding capacity
 Incorporating compost  Breaks up the soil compaction

1.2 OHS hazards

Good farm safety relies on:
 Understanding and dealing with the dangers on your farm
 Talking with workers to manage the dangers of each job
 Making sure everyone knows how to do their job having the right tools for the job.

Hazards may be identified through

 Visual inspection of the area

 Understanding of site plans
 And enterprise work procedures.

OHS Hazards may include

 Disturbance or interruption of  Manual handling, moving vehicle

services  Machinery and machinery parts
 Solar radiation  Sharp tools and equipment
 Dust  Uneven surfaces and flying and
 Noise falling objects
 Chemicals and hazardous
substances

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OHS requirements may include
  Identifying hazards
 Assessing and reporting risks
 Cleaning, maintaining and storing tools, equipment and machinery
 Appropriate use of personal protective equipment including sun protection
 Drinking to avoid dehydration
 Safe operation of tools, equipment and machinery
 Safe handling, use and storage of chemicals and hazardous substances
 Basic first aid; personal hygiene and reporting problems to supervisors

REPORTING
All employees should know how to report an injury or incident to you. When an injury occurs
that may result in a workers’ compensation claim you should advise your insurer within 48
hours.
The details of any injuries you need to keep are:
 The name, age, address and occupation of the injured worker
 The place in which the person was working
 The operation in which the person was engaged at the time of injury
 The date and time that the injury occurred
 A brief description of the type, cause and location of the injury and the treatment given
 The name of the first aid person in attendance
 Most insurers provide these registers free.
If there is a fatality or serious incident on your farm, you should notify Work Cover
immediately.

1.3 Identifying environmental implication

1. Climate (RF, temperature, light, etc.)

Climate largely determines the type of vegetation that grows naturally in any part of the
world and the kinds of agriculture that are possible. The three most important factors in
climate from the standpoint of plant response are temperature, water supply/precipitation/ and
light.
There are also other factors like humidity, solar radiation, wind and atmospheric gases but
generally they are of less influence than the three mentioned.

 Temperature 2
It is often the factor limiting the growth and distribution of plants. It influences the rate of
growth, development and number of flower that produce seeds. When temperature is below
15 oC frost or pale-yellow color of the plant parts occur. In any given locality, the length of
growing season is known to vary as much as 30 days for different years. The ranges of
maximum growth of the plant are 15-32 oC.

 Water supply/irrigation availability

Water supply is the most important factor in determining the distribution of a crop plant.
Although total annual precipitation is important, its distribution plays an essential role in crop
production. In case of plant growth for their seed, the most critical period or the period of
greatest need for moisture, is when fertilization of the flowers is taking place. Crop plants
differ in their water requirements, even though they are almost all require an average amount
of water.

 Light
Light affects the development of crop plants mainly through affecting their structural
development, their food production and the time required for certain species or varieties to
produce seeds. Many plants are influenced by the length of day, especially in regard to
flowering, fruiting, and the production of seed. This effect of light on plants is known as
photoperiodism. Some plants are known as long day plants and other as short day. The long
day plants need a comparatively long day for flowering and their vegetative growth increases
when the days are short. Wheat and oats are among the long day plants. The short day plants
such as maize, soybean and sorghum achieve their vegetative growth when the days are long
and flower and produce seed when the days are short.
2. Soil factors

Soil factors are nutrients and water, soil moisture, soil temperature, soil air, soil reaction
(acidity or alkalinity).

 Soil moisture: - the amount of soil moisture has impact on performance of individual
plants. If soil pores are completely filled with water, water logging condition is happen.
Then water logging resulting in shortage of oxygen, leaching of plant nutrients, poor
germination or nil, stunted growth, failure of seed formation, yellowing of leaves etc.
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 Soil temperature: - it is another soil factor that determining the growth of plants. It
influences the rates of absorption of water and solutes, germination of seeds, growth of
seeds, growth of roots, and decomposition of organic matter.
 Soil reaction (soil acidity or soil alkalinity): - Some soils contain such as an excess of
soluble salts that they interfere with crop growth. Plants are varying in their tolerance of
alkaline soil or acidic soil. Among the tolerant crops are sugar cane, sugar beet, cotton,
rye and many of the grasses. Grasses or cereals seem to be more tolerant than the
legumes. Many crops are tolerant to acidic soil conditions and often make satisfactory
growth. Some of these crops are tobacco, cow pea etc. Most legume crops differ greatly
in their adaption to acid soil most grow well on slightly or moderately acidic soil. Small
grains, maize, some legume are broadly tolerant, growing well within the pH ranges 5.8
to 7 or slightly or above.

3. Altitude/Elevation

The choice of a crop to be cultivated in a given locality is determined by its altitude. Based
on altitude or elevation field crops are classified in to different groups. These are: -
 Wurch: - greater than 3500m a.s.l.
 High land (Dega):- 2500-3500m a.s.l.
 Medium land (Woynadega):- 1500-2500m a.s.l.
 Low land (kola):- 500-1500m a.s.l.
 Desert (harrur):- less than 500m a.s.l.
4. Pests: - the presence or absence of particular diseases or pests that attack the proposed
crops should be checked.
5. Availability of inputs and other materials, tools and equipments
Different inputs like land, planting materials, labor, etc and other materials like tools and
equipments should be available.
6. Accessibility: - The site should be accessible to all times and preferably be near the road,
markets, processing facilities and ease for supervision

Best Management Practices to reduce problems

Conservation tillage Cover crops Windbreaks

Contour farming and strip Grassed waterways Grass barriers
cropping Terraces  Living snow fences 4
 1.4 Selecting suitable personal protective equipments
During establishment of field crops you should have to follow safety required to avoid
hazards. Skin contact with crop residues which may be toxicants during clearing, working
with sharp machinery and use of other chemical substances must be avoided. Wearing of
persons engages like: -hat, boots, overalls, gloves, goggles, respirator or face mask, hearing
protection, and sunscreen lotion is a must.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment is to include that prescribed under legislation, regulations and
enterprise policies and practices. Face masks are available for rubbing back and painting.
Selecting personal protective clothing and equipment
Suitable personal protective clothing and equipment is selected, used, maintained and stored
in accordance with Occupational Health and Safety requirements.
Select PPE based on the PPE Hazard Assessment
Consider these factors when selecting PPE:
 Type of hazardous materials, processes, and equipment involved
 Routes of potential exposure (ingestion, inhalation, injection, or dermal contact)
 Correct size for maximum protection
 Minimal interference with movement

Personal protective clothing and equipment may include:

 Boots  Gloves  Respirator or face mask

 Hat/hard hat  Protective eyewear  Sun protectio
 Overalls  Haring protection

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 Lo2: Prepare the site for crop establishment
2.1 clearing unwanted material
After the site selected for a particular crop is selected the land should be prepared to provide
suitable environment for the growth of the crop. It includes activities such as:-Ploughing or
digging, harrowing& making planting beds.
Clearing: Once the site for the farm has been selected and acquired, the farmer proceeds with
clearing. This involves cutting down the vegetation that is growing on the land, and then
removing the dead plant materials from the cropping area. In the traditional setting, clearing is
almost always selective.

The kinds of trees which are left standing fall into three groups:
 Any economic trees such as oil palms, locust
 Slender upright shrubs which will serve as live stakes for various climbing crop plants such as
yams, cucumbers and lima beans that will be planted on the farm.
 Very large trees such as silk cotton and oak tree, which are spares because of the high cost and
labor, required to cut them.
After the vegetation has been cut down, the traditional farmer resorts to burning in order to
remove the plant debris. Usually the vegetation is allowed to dry for few days before it is set on
fire. After the land has been cleared of plant debris, it is often necessary to go through it to
remove tree stumps and woody roots. This procedure is called stumping.
Care during burning:-it should be in such a way that there is no problem of erosion either by
wind or water. The land should not be fully naked or exposed &animals/birds/ beneficial insects
should not be killed in order to balance the ecology.

Benefits of burning:-
 It may kill harmful pests& weed seeds.
 It leaves an alkaline ash that serve as soil amendment and nutrient source such as K & Ca.

Adverse effects of burning:-

 Loss of N & S as oxides. 2. Loss of beneficial micro organisms & insects.
 Adverse effect on soil structure.
Leveling

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 The land may require leveling to improve surface drainage, for installation of irrigation
equipments, or to facilitate the use of farm machines and equipments. Leveling should be done
professionally to conserve the fertility of top soil.

2.2 Soil treatment & amendment

A soil test is a test which is used to gather information about the composition of the soil in a
particular area. In a classic soil test, multiple samples are taken from the region of interest and
tested before being averaged, ensuring that a random area of contaminated soil does not skew the
sample.
Purpose
A soil conditioner, also called a soil amendment, is a material added to soil to improve plant
growth and health. A conditioner or a combination of conditioners corrects the soil's deficiencies
in structure and-or nutrients.
The type of conditioner added depends on:-
 The current soil  Climate and
composition  The type of plant

Some soils lack nutrients necessary for proper plant growth. Some hold too much or too little
water, with water conservation aided in the latter. They can be incorporated into the soil or
applied to the surface.
Types of problem soil
Broadly there are two sets of soils as:
Physical nature:-Highly eroded soils, ravines, soils on sloping land, Soil physical constraints
Chemical nature:-saline soil, alkali soil, saline alkali soil, acidic soil.
1. Physical nature
Highly eroded soils, ravines, & soils on sloping land:-The erosion is mainly caused by wind,
water, & land slide
Soil physical constraints
Highly permeable coarse textured soil:-improved by soil compaction &clay mixing
Slowly permeable soil:-reclaimed by growing crops on raised beds, deep tillage through M.B
plough &chiseling to break the hard pan in sub soil
Crusting soils: - reclaimed by application of FYM or green manuring
Red soil: - incorporation of slow decomposing crop residue & other inorganic materials

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2. Chemical nature of problem soil
Salt affected soil:-Basic soils have a high saturation of base cations (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+).
This is due to an accumulation of soluble salts are classified as either:-
 Saline soil
 Sodic soil
 Saline-sodic soil or
 Alkaline soil.
All saline and sodic soils have high salt concentrations, with saline soils being dominated by Ca
and Mg salts and sodic soils being dominated by Na. Alkaline soils are characterized by the
presence of carbonates.

A. Saline soils:-these soil is characterized by EC more than4.0ds/m, ph less than 8.5,

exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than15.
Reclamation of saline soil:-
Physical approaches:-By leaching with good quality water
Biological approaches:-Mulching helps to reduce soil salinity which reduce the upward
movement of salt due to decline in evaporation loss. Addition of organic matter, grow tolerant
crops.

Relative tolerance of crops to salts

tolerant Medium tolerance sensitive

Barley, cotton, sugar beet Wheat, rice, oats, maize, Legumes, beans, ground nut
sorghum, potato

Alkali soil: - these soils is characterized by EC less than 4.0 ds/m, ph more than 8.5, ESP more
than 15.

Reclamation of alkali soils:-

Physical approaches:-deep ploughing is necessary to bring the soil in good physical condition&
to make the soil pervious.

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Heavy irrigation is applied after the addition of gypsum to facilitate the leaching of soluble salts
of Na. There should be sufficient provision for drainage.
Chemical approaches:-in order to replace the excessive amount of Na, application of Ca is
essential.
 Several amendments such as Gypsum, S, H2SO4, CaCl2, FeSO4, Iron pyrite, Al2 (SO4)3, etc.

Biological approaches:-the addition of organic matter is always good in improving soil

physical condition, grow tolerant crops.
Relative tolerance of crops to exchangeable sodium
tolerant Medium tolerance sensitive

Rice, sugar beet Wheat, Barley, oats, millets Legumes, maize, ground nut

Saline alkali soils:-these soil are characterized by EC more than 4.0 ds/m, PH more than 8.5,
ESP more than15. Soil showing high salinity & ESP should be reclaimed for both but first for
salinity & later for excessive exchangeable sodium.
Acid soil:-these soils are high in exchangeable Al+3 and H+ with a ph value less than 5.5&
respond to lime application.
Reclamation of acid soil:-first of all work out the lime requirement of the acid soil in the
laboratory. The liming material commonly uses along with their neutralizing value are given
below.
Liming material Chemical formula Neutralizing value

Burnt lime CaO 179

Slacked lime Ca(OH)2 136

dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 109

2.3 Site preparation

Tillage operation
Tillage: - refers to manual or mechanical manipulation of the soil to provide a medium for proper
crop establishment and growth.
Objectives of tillage: - to prepare the seed bed to a satisfactory level which promotes good
germination &establishment of germinated seeds or seedlings.

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The tillage operations are performed for the following purposes:
 To prepare the seed-bed: the operation cuts, heaves and shatters the dense soil to a desirable
depth and breaks the clods and crust to a desirable extent for a suitable seed-bed or main
field.
 To improve soil structure, aeration, infiltration, permeability and root penetration. It
decreases run-off and erosion.
 To incorporate crop residue, green manure, organic manure, fertilizers, amendments and
soil conditions.
 To prepare soil mulch and conserve soil moisture.
 To improve availability of nutrients by increasing the decomposition of organic matter.

Disadvantages of tillage:
 If field is not prepared within the required period, the soil may either lose or gain moisture
and become unworkable, or when the sowing season is delayed, especially in heaves soil.
 Tillage operations performed beyond or below the optimum soil moisture level cause
deterioration of physical condition.
 Tillage operations with heavy equipment result in formation of hard pan below the tilled
layer.
 Excessive tillage pulverizes soil too much and results in water and wind erosion.
 Excessive tillage destroys the soil structure (arrangement of soil particles).
 Excessive tillage increases the rate of oxidation of organic matter due to exposure to
sunlight.
Tilth: Tilth is the physical condition of soil in relation to the plant growth resulting from tillage.
It indicates two important properties of soil, viz. the size distribution of aggregates and
mellowness or friability of the soil. It permits adequate aeration and rapid infiltration of rain
water, and offer little resistance to root penetration.
For cultivation practices, following are the properties or characteristics of good tilth (seed-bed):
 When the soil sample is felt between the fingers, the soil granules are soft and friable and
crumble under the pressure.
 The aggregates should be stable enough to withstand erosion against wind and water.
 The capillary and non-capillary pores should be equal proportion, to facilitate free movement
of air and moisture in the soil and improve its capacity to absorb rainfall.

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Ideal tilth: ideal tilth is one that keeps the soil mellow, friable, and well aerated, provide good
infiltration of water and offer little resistance to root penetration. Ideal tilth for different crops
and different soil types will vary greatly.

Fine tilth: under this condition soil is finely prepared and there are no clods in surface layer. It
permits easy and early emergence of seedling and better root penetration. Such tilth is generally
required for small-seed crops like mustard, sesame, teff and wheat, which possess little quantity
of reserve food and have short coleoptile length.
Rough tilth: in this type of soil tilth there may be small-or medium-size clods. The proportion of
macro-pores is more compared with that of micro pores. This type of tilth is suitable for large-
size seed that stores more amount of reserve food and have coleoptile strong enough to emerge
out. This is common to large seeded crops like gram (Chicken pea), maize and peas.

Types of Tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped into two types on the basis of time period
during which they are carried out. They are on-season and off-season tillage.

On-season tillage: Tillage operations done for raising a crop in the same season or at the onset of
season are known as on-season tillage. It is of two types, viz. preparatory tillage and inter-tillage.
Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done not for immediately raising a crop plants but for
conditioning the soil suitably for the forthcoming main-season crop are known as off-season
tillage. It includes leveling the land to a desirable grade, leaching to remove salts, and reducing
the populations of harmful flora and fauna in the soil.
A, Preparatory tillage: tillage or cultural operations carried out after the harvest of previous
crop & before sowing and/or planting of succeeding crop.

Tillage is divided into:-

І) Primary tillage or ploughing: Ploughing is opening of the compact soil with the help of
different ploughs. It includes cutting and inversion of hard soil and separates it from lower
layers after the harvest of previous crop or of fallow land. It also uproots the established weeds
and stubbles and leaves the soil with clods.

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II) Secondary tillage: This refers to those lighter or finer tillage operations that are performed
on the soil after primary tillage to about a good soil tilth. Therefore in secondary tillage the soil is
not inverted. Rather it is stirred, clods are crushed and the remaining weeds, stubbles and
rootstocks are uprooted. The soil is made friable and mellow, and the desired tilth is obtained
with the use of disc harrow, cultivator and blade harrow.

B. Inter tillage: The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing crop, i.e. after sowing
or planting, and prior to harvesting of crop are called inter tillage. This is also known as inter-
cultivation or post-planting cultivation. It includes
 Cultivating
 Harrowing
 Hoeing
 Weeding
 Earthling-up
 Ridging and furrowing.
Inter tillage is shallow in nature and keeps the field free from weeds for a significant period of
time. It helps incorporate the top dressed manures and fertilizers to earth-up and to prune roots.
Inter tillage provides weed free field, better aeration and extra support against lodging (as in
sugarcane); more soil volume for better growth of tubers (as in potato); and facility for irrigation
(as vegetables).
Modern concept of tillage
This concept is known as “conservation tillage”. These concepts are:-
Minimum tillage: It is particularly advantageous in heavy clay &clay loam soils where it is often
difficult to create optimum conditions in the seed zone.

Zero or no tillage: In zero tillage no operation is performed before and after sowing a crop. Zero
tillage refers to planting of crop directly in the field without much tillage operations. Planting
seed like maize by removing soil plug with a soil-sampling tube, dropping the seed in holes and
filling the holes with the soil. The basic requirements for success of zero tillage or no-tillage
planting system are: =
 Effective herbicide
 No tillage planting
 Right type of soil and

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  Adequate plant residues.
Advantages of zero tillage:-
 Soil moisture conservation
 Prevention of wind &water erosion
 Crop residues serve as mulch
 Saves fuel
 Time is saved in land preparations
Disadvantages:-
 Abundance of weeds if chemical or herbicide is not available.
 Build up of disease/insects
 Hard pan creation
 Requires high level of management

Time, Depth &Intensity of tillage

Time: - early ploughing has a distinct advantage over late ploughing because it gives more
opportunity to kill weeds. Early ploughing may help in getting the soil granulated at the time of
sowing. The ploughing or primary tillage operation should be performed when the soil has
workable moisture. When the soil is too dry, it results in large-size clod formation, and when
ploughing is done under wet condition, the soil sticks to the plough, become compact, and on
drying becomes a hard pan. Soil structure is destroyed and clods on drying become very hard.
Depth &Intensity:-
The depth of primary tillage may range from 10 to 30 cm, but it mainly depends on effective
root-zone depth of the crop. Generally the crops with tap root system require greater depth of
ploughing, whereas fibrous or shallow rooted crops need shallow ploughing. Under dry
conditions deep ploughing improve soil moisture content.

The number of ploughing necessary to obtain a good tilth depends on:-

 The soil type
 Weeds and
 Crop residue on soil surface.
In heavy soil more number of ploughings (3-5) are require compared with that in light soil, where
only 1-3ploughings is an important factor in structural management of land and in the
maintenance of crop yield.
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Implementing crop protection measures
Fencing will be needed if crops are need to be protected from roving livestock; fences may be
established by growing thorny hedge plants or may be constructed from locally available
materials such as tree trucks as upright inter woven with branches of tree which are sufficiently
flexible. More elaborate permanent fences of concrete posts & wire are preferable, but these are
very expensive.
Windbreaks are the best way to protect soil from wind erosion. They can be in the form of rows
of shrubs or trees.

2.4 Planting pattern

Cropping systems
Cropping system refers to cropping patterns used on farm& their interaction with farm resources,
other farm enterprise& available technology.
Cropping pattern
It means the portion of area under various crops at a point of time in a unit area. It indicates the
yearly sequence& spatial arrangement of crop& fallow in an area. The productivity of land has
to be Increased by using modern agricultural technology including appropriate cropping systems
and cropping methods.

Cropping methods:-
 Shifting cultivation: - refers crops are grown for 1to3 years or until the productivity of the
land is depleted or land is infested with bio-agents such as weeds, pests and pathogens. After
2to3 years the farmers move to other site, leaving the land for regeneration of soil
productivity.

 Mono cropping: - refers to growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year. It
may be due to climatologically limitations or due to specialization of a farmer to grow a
particular crop.
 Multiple cropping: - is cropping of two or more crops in succession within a year. It
includes:-
 Double cropping: refers to growing of two crops in a sequence on the same land in a
year, e.g. rice-wheat, maize-wheat or potato, sorghum-gram etc.

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  Sequential cropping: is growing of one or more crops in a sequence on the same piece
of land in a farming year.
 Relay cropping: refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of preceding
crop.
 Intercropping: is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in
definite sequence of rows. In this system both crops complete their life-cycle together.
 Mixed cropping: refers to growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same
field with or without distinct row management. In this system seeds are either mixed or
sown by broadcasting or in line sowing or they may be sown separately.

Principles of inter cropping

 The crops having complementary effect should be preferred.
 The two crops should have different length of growing period.
 The plants of the crops should have been different in growth habit.
 The crops should be differing in water and nutrient requirement.
Crop rotation: defined as recurrent succession of crops on the same piece of land either for a
year or for a longer period of time.

Principles of crop rotation

The selection of crops to be grown in rotation should be based on the following principles:-
 A deep-rooted (tap root) crop should be followed by a shallow rooted (fibrous root) crop.
 The leguminous crop should be grown after non-leguminous crop.
 Low water requiring crops should be followed by high water requiring crops.
 Fertility-depleting crop should be grown after fertility-building crop.
Lo3: Carry out establishment operation
3.1 Selection of planting materials
Purpose and Importance of seed selection
The use of good quality seed has a great importance in crop production. Eventhogh, all
conditions require for growth is controlled, the yield will not be good if poor variety is used.
Therefore seed selection and preparation have irreplaceable role in.
 Adaptability- they have the capacity to overcome environmental and natural hazards.
 Yielding ability- increased yield performance
 Improve quality of the produce or nutritional value

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  Increase pest resistance trait (insect, disease, weed, etc.)
 To obtain a pure variety- no varietal mixture of the same crop

3.1.1 Seed selection criteria

Good seeds must not only belong to a good variety, but they must also have the following
characteristics:-
 They should have strong germination ability
 They should have uniform crop stand in the growing fields
 They should have high and stable yielding ability
 They should have resistance to pests
 Uniformity- uniform head or fruit producing ability
 They should have 1000 –grain weight

Characteristics of good quality seed

1. They are pure variety (true to type)
2. They are viable, and have germination capacity up to the standard
3. They have uniform size, shape, color, texture, structure and appearance
4. They are healthy free from inert matter
5. They are whole (no break) and contain the desired moisture level.

3.2 Seed treatment and its importance

Seed treatment is the process of applying physical, chemical or biological treatment to the seeds
to keep it viable and healthy.
For the purposes of this manual, seed treatments are defined as chemical or biological substances
that are applied to seeds or vegetative propagation materials to control disease organisms, insects,
or other pests.
Seed treatment pesticides include
 Bactericides  Fungicides and  Insecticides
 .

Most seed treatments are applied to true seeds, such as corn, wheat, or soybean, which have a
seed coat surrounding an embryo. However, some seed treatments can be applied to vegetative
propagation materials, such as bulbs, corms, or tubers (such as potato seed pieces).
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In agriculture, a seed treatment or seed dressing is a chemical, typically antimicrobial or
fungicidal, with which seeds are treated (or "dressed") prior to planting
Before sowing, certain seeds first require a treatment prior to the sowing process. This treatment
may be seed scarification, stratification, seed soaking or seed cleaning with cold (or medium
hot) water.

.
Fungicidal seed treatments are used for three reasons:
(1) To control soil-borne fungal disease organisms (pathogens) that cause seed rots, damping-
off, seedling blights and root rot;
(2) To control fungal pathogens that are surface-borne on the seed, such as those that cause
covered smuts of barley and oats, bunt of wheat, black point of cereal grains, and seed-borne
safflower rust; and
(3) To control internally seed-borne fungal pathogens such as the loose smut fungi of cereals

Figure 1. Reasons for seed treatment.

Objectives of seed treatment
 To prevent seeds from pests infestation.
 To break dormancy and induce higher germination percentage.
 To inoculate the seeds with rhizobium (bio-fertilizer).
 To induce resistance to salinity, drought, frost, etc.

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Types of seed treatment
 Physical seed treatment, soak in water.
 Biological seed treatments – rhizobium.
 Chemical seed treatment – fungicides.
Types of chemicals used for seed treatment
 Insecticides, e.g. endosulfan
 Fungicide, eg. Thiram
 Fumigant

Seed disinfectant: - is treatment that eliminates pathogen from within the seed.
There are three types of disinfectant
 Fungicides, e.g. Bowistin, topsin, etc.
 Insecticides, eg. Endosulfan, Thiram
 Fumigant
Seed Treatment Application
 Seed dressing; –is mixing of the seed with powder or liquid chemical shaking with rotary
seed dressing container.
 Seed soaking; –is immersing seeds in a chemical solution for certain period of time i.e., 10’
to 48 hr.
 Seed suffocating (fumigation)

Effectiveness of pesticides depends on:-

 Toxic property of chemical
 Stage of application
 Ways of application
 Sequences of application
3.3 handling & transporting planting materials
 Seed handling
It is the procedure of drying ,cleaning ,grading and packing seeds .in seed handling is to
maintain the temperature below 400C , not to dry seeds too fat, not to over dry ,to operate
carefully to avoid mechanical damage is necessary.
Seeds for planting should be handled very carefully at harvest time (harvest only matured seeds),
at threshing (prevent mechanical damage) and drying time (do not dry the seed too fast and over).
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 Storage condition
Even if the seeds are thoroughly dry before storage, they are subjected to the attacks of storage
pests. Therefore, to prevent these we should have to use the right storage structure with optimum
storage conditions. That is, temperature, relative humidity and moisture content of the seed
should be kept to the recommended standard.
 Low moisture content -12-14%
 Low temperature
 Low relative humidity-<70%
 Effective pest control
Factor affecting seed quality
1. Method of production: - which includes the activities from site and seed selection, cultivation
time and method of planting to farm management practices.
2. Method of handling: - seeds for planting should be handled very carefully at harvest time
(harvest only matured seeds), at threshing (prevent mechanical damage) and drying time (do not
dry the seed too fast and over).
3. Method of storage: - even if the seeds are thoroughly dry before storage, they are subjected to
the attacks of storage pests. Therefore, to prevent these we should have to use the right storage
structure with optimum storage conditions. That is, temperature, relative humidity and moisture
content of the seed should be kept to the recommended standard.

3.4 Planting
Methods of crop establishment
There are two different methods of crop establishment. One is by directly sowing seeds in the
main field and the second is by raising seedlings in the nursery and transplanting them to the
main field when they reach at a desired stage.
Direct seeding
Direct seeding may be done by broadcasting, drilling and dibbling or planting.
 Broadcasting
In broadcasting method, the seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land. It may be done
by hand or mechanical spreader. Broadcasting is suitable for close planted crops that do not
require specific crop or plant geometry. It is used when the number of plants per unit area is
more important than definite spacing from plant to plant. This is the usual method of sowing
field crops. Fodder crops and spices like coriander and cumin are sown by broadcasting.
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Disadvantages of broadcasting
Although broadcasting is simplest and popular sowing method to farmers and other seed
multiplier bodies, it has number of disadvantages:-
 Seeds at shallow depth emerge early and seeds fallen deep in the soil may not germinate.
 There is a lot of wastage of seeds.
 Agricultural operations like weeding, hoeing, and ear thing-up and bullock-drawn
implements cannot perform well.
 Plant population become sparse at some places and overcrowded at other.

 Drilling
Drilling is the practice is of dropping seeds in rows or lines. Furrows at specified distance are
made, and the seeds are dropped at definite depth and distance, covered with soil and are
compacted Fairley. Seed can be drilled with help of seed drills (bullock or tractor drawn) and
seeding funnels attached with country plough. Seeds and fertilizers can be drilled simultaneously.
Crops such as wheat, barley, mustard, carrot and sesame are sown by drilling.
Advantages of drilling
 It maintains uniform plant population per unit area.
 Reduce competition between plants.
 Reduce seed rate.
Disadvantages of drilling
 It requires more time, energy and cost.

Dibbling or planting
This method consists of putting or placing individual seed or seed material in a hole or pit, made
at pre-determined depth and spacing by manual labor or with the use of mechanical dibbler or
planter. Generally, the crops with bigger size seeds and those needing wider spacing and specific
crop geometry for their canopy development are sown by this method. This method is suitable to
plant crops like maize, cotton, potato, sun flower, sugar cane, onion, garlic, ginger etc.
Advantages of dibbling or planting
 It requires less seeds
 It gives rapid and uniform germination with good seedling vigor
 Disadvantages of dibbling
 It is more laborious

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  It is time consuming
 It is expensive compared with broad casting and drilling
Nursery raising and transplanting
Under intensive cropping and other situations when more than one crop is grown in a year on
some piece of land, the field is not vacated by the crop at appropriate time to plant the next crop.
On the other hand, taking care of germinating seeds or seedling over a large area of land/field is a
problem with regard to application of water, weed control, pest control etc . Therefore seeds are
sown in small area called nursery, to raise the seedlings. When seedlings attain proper size and
age, these are pulled out from nursery and transplanted in well-prepared field.

The nursery raising and transplanting is completed in three steps.

 Nursery raising
 Uprooting or pulling-up of seedlings and
 Transplanting.
Nursery rising: a nursery bed is an area where seed are sown densely to germinate and to
emerge. Buds, roots or other propagules are allowed to sprout and produce roots. They are
nourished for period to enable them to grow in to seedlings or transplants or other planting
materials until they are ready for transplanting in the field. The nursery bed may dry or wet or
may be raised flat or flat with furrows

Transplanting: Seedlings are transplanted on well-prepared and properly fertilized field. The
best time of transplanting is late in the evening when day temperature cools down and humidity
raises. Transplanting also can be done at any time of the day if it is cloudy, raining, dizzying or
about to rain.
Depending on the crop, proper row-to-row and plant-to-plant spacing should be maintained. At
each point of hill, two-three seedlings should be planted. During planting, root must have enough
contact with moist soil. The soil around root may be compressed lightly to provide more soil-root
contact and remove the air gap in the soil.
Advantages of nursery raising and transplanting
 It is easy, convenient and consume less time and input
 Weak and diseased seedling can be removed at the time of transplanting,
 Easy to maintain desired plant density with pure, true to type, healthy, strong and stocky
seedling.

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  Transplanting provide enough time for ripening
 Transplanting helps to escape from adverse atmospheric condition during germination,
emergence an establishment of the crop in comparison with direct seedling or sowing,
 Greater uniformity, higher yield of produce with precise quality can be obtained.
Disadvantages of Nursery bed and transplanting
 Total duration of the crop may be higher
 It increases labor and power requirement to raise the crop
 It increases cost of land preparation, uprooting and transplanting the seedlings.

Determining the time and depth of sowing

Time of sowing
Early sowing is the most cost effective way of increasing crop yield because it minimizes cost of
production. Out of all important factors, rain fall is the main factors that affect the time of
sowing. The optimum time of sowing for most tropical crop like maize, sorghum, pear millet,
pulse, sesame and groundnut is immediately after the onset of monsoon. I.e., June or July. The
optimum time of sowing for temperate crops like wheat, barley, and mustard is from last week of
October to the third week of November. The optimum time for most of summer crops is the first
of March.

Factors that affect sowing time

 Temperature: Time of sowing is crucial in temperate region, but in tropics appreciable
importance only at high altitude where soil is warms enough to permit rapid germination.
 Rain fall: Long duration annual crop must be sown at the beginning of rainy season, but
short season crop like maize and cow pea may be delayed.
 Occurrence of disease and pests: The strategy is usually to adjust the time of planting so
that the crop is on the field during the time when disease and pests are less prevalent.
 Day length: Crop should be planted at a time that allows the appropriate photoperiod to exist
at the flowering or tubering stage.
 Marketing: This is true for vegetables or other perishable crops. Planting is so adjusted when
crop is ready for harvesting, then its demand in the market should be highest so that farmers
can get best price.
 Cropping system: The place of crop in the rotation or in an intercropping system may
determine at what time of cropping cycle is planned.

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 Time taken for maturity: This determine the time between sowing and maturity
 Availability of labor and equipments: At the time of sowing, we have to get enough
number of workers and equipment to accomplish sowing at desired time.

Sowing depth
Proper sowing is also an important aspect of establishing a good crop stand. Shallow or deep
sowing results in lesser plant population as all seeds do not germinate. The crop shows un even
spread of plants with large gaps and serious weed problem. Therefore, essential to show the crop
at optimum depth for obtaining good crop stand.

Factors that influence sowing depth.

 Seed size: Crop with large seed like ground nut, castor, and sun flower can be sown even
up to 6cm. Small-sized seed like tobacco and teff have to be sown at shallow depth. The
optimum depth for most of field crop is 3-5cm.
 Moisture status of the soil: it is common to sow seeds deep in dry soil in order to place
the seed in contact with moisture. Therefore, small-sized should be watered frequently
incase of shallow sowing in dry soil to insure germination.
 Soil type: Seeds will emerge from greater depth on sandy soil than in clay soil, and warm
soil than in cold soil.
 Type of germination: Those seeds which have epigeal type of germination should be
sown at a shallow depth where as seeds those have hypogeal type of germination are
sown deep in to the soil.
Deciding recommended seeding rate
Seed rate is the amount of seed required to cover a specific area. It can also be the number of
plants per unit of land. Optimum number of plants per unit area or plant population per unit area
required to utilize efficiently the available light, water, and carbon dioxide for better yield.

Factors that influence plant population or seed rate

 Size of cultivar: Crops having tillering characteristics require less seed, dwarf cultivars
require more seeds and tall cultivars-less seed since they are subjected to lodging.
 Size of seed: Large seed-more seeds/ higher seed rate where as less seed rate for small-
sized seeds.

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  Amount of moisture available: for soil with good moisture status-less seed rate is
recommended.
 Fertility status of the soil: good fertility-less seed rate
 When number of crops grown together: Under this condition more seed is required.
 Sowing method: Broad casting require more seed rate than row sowing. Dibbling require
less seed rate.
 Germination capacity of the seed: High germination capacity-less seed rate and vice
versa.
 Sowing time: timely sowing require less seed rate than delayed sowing.
Lo4: Cleaning and storing tools and equipments

4.1. Cleaning and storing tools and equipments

Materials are returned to store or disposed of according to supervisor's instructions.
Tools and equipment are cleaned, maintained and stored according to manufacturers’
specifications and supervisor’s instructions.

4.2. Keeping Farm Records

Records are important to the financial health of your farm. Good records do not ensure your farm
will be successful; however, success is unlikely without them. Farm records are like report cards
students receive in school. With a farm report card, you can tell how well you are managing your
operation compared with other producers in your "classes. You also can see the strengths and
weaknesses of your farm operation.
Besides use as a management tool, farm records are essential for preparing income tax reports.
Also, most banks require extensive records from farmers to formulate credit ratings. Finally,
records are important in establishing eligibility for participation in government programs,
determining the proper level of insurance coverage, and negotiating lease arrangements.
Improving Farm Records
Accurate records are essential for evaluating your farm's performance: accurate analysis requires
accurate data. Too often farmers rely on publications which describe an "average" farm instead of
personal records that describe their farm. To make the best financial decisions concerning your
farm, use data collected from your farm. You can make your recordkeeping job easier. Consider
using forms and accounting systems designed especially for the farm. A good source for

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recordkeeping books is your local Extension agent or agricultural lender. Also, software
packages for farm recordkeeping can be purchased for your personal computer.

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