Polymers

 are macro (large) molecules made from smaller repeating units called monomers.
 Monomers are the building blocks of polymers.
 A polymer might be made from identical monomers or different types of monomers.
 Homopolymers- from only one type of monomer.
 E.g., polyethylene is synthesized by the polymerization of one type monomer, ethene (ethylene)

 Copolymers - prepared by polymerizing more than one kind of monomer unit.

 E.g. ethane (H2C=CH2) and propene (H2C=CH–CH3) can be copolymerized to produce a polymer
that has two kinds of repeating units:

 classified as random or regular, based on the way the monomers are arranged along the polymer chain
 Random polymers contain repeating units arranged in a random fashion.
 Regular polymers contain a sequence of monomers in regular alternating repeating units.

Where, A and B represent monomer units.

 On the basis of their source, polymers are classified as synthetic and natural.
 Natural polymers, - found in nature. E.g. proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids & natural rubber
 Synthetic polymers are man–made polymers. Most synthetic polymers are organic compounds.
 E.g. nylon, polyester (Dacron), Teflon, Bakelite, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride.

POLYMERIZATION
 The process by which monomer units combine together to form polymers.
 can be carried out either through addition polymerization or condensation polymerization.

Addition Polymerization
 requires a large number of monomer molecules which can be polymerized by addition reactions
 also known as chain growth polymerization.
 E.g. addition polymerization of
 ethylene molecules yields polyethylene
 styrene molecules gives polystyrene

1
  N.B. the molecular formula of a polymer is n times that of the monomer and upon polymerization, the double
bond is converted to a single bond.

 If a polymer is given, you can identify the monomer unit that is repeated in it.

Condensation Polymerization
 involves the combination of monomer molecules, with the elimination of simple molecules like water
 also known as step growth polymerization.
 to produce a condensation polymer, the monomers involved must have two or more functional groups

 E.g. when an alcohol with two –OH groups, HO–R –OH, reacts with a dicarboxylic acid, HOOC–R’–COOH.
- ester formed still has a reactive group at both ends of the molecule.

 The COOH group at one end of the ester molecule can react with another alcohol molecule.
 This process can continue, leading eventually to a long-chain polymer containing large number of ester groups.
 The general structure of the polyester can be represented as

Example. Polyethylene terephthlate or Dacron is prepared from ethylene glycol (HO–CH2–CH2–OH) and
terephthalic acid.
A.Write the structural formula of the ester that formed when one molecule of ethylene glycol reacts with one
molecule of terephthalic acid.
B. Draw a section of polyethylene terephthalate.
Solution

2
Exercise
1. Draw the structures of the monomers that would be used to make the following polymers

2. Consider a polymer made from tetrachloroethylene. a. Draw a portion of the polymer chain.
b. What is the molar mass of the polymer if it contains 3.2 × 103 tetrachloroethylene?
c. Calculate the percentage of C and Cl in the polymer?

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
 The first semi-synthetic polymer produced was Bakelite in 1909.

Addition Polymers
Polyethylene
 is a polymer made by the addition polymerization of ethylene.

where, n is a very large number.

 has no taste or odour and is light weight, nontoxic and relatively cheap.
 uses in making squeeze bottles, plastic wrapping, garment bags, trash bags and electrical insulation
Polypropylene
 The monomer of polypropylene is propylene (propene).
 produced by the addition polymerization of propylene

3
  is stronger than polyethylene.
 used for making food containers that can safely be washed in a dishwasher.
 used for making ropes, fishing nets, carpets, and bottles
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 third most widely produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene
 used for making pipes, leather-like materials, shoes, raincoats, aprons, wallpaper, floor tile, and phonograph
records.
Exercise 6.3
1. Write the molecular formula and structure of monomers of each of the following polymers.

2. Describe major uses of: a. polyethylene b. polypropylene c. polyvinyl chloride

3. Make a list of materials in your home made of PVC.
4. What is the basic structural difference between low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene
(HDPE)?
Polymethyl methacrylate (Perspex)( PMMA),
 is sold under the trade name Lucite or plexiglass.
 is prepared by the polymerization of methyl methacrylate

Note : acrylic acid is the common name of 2-propenoic acid, CH2=CHCOOH ,

PMMA- is a lightweight glass-like polymer
- used as a glass substitute for example, in airplane windows and streetlights.

Polytetrafluoroethylene, PTFE, Teflon

 is prepared by the addition polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.

4
  has good resistance to chemical attack, and it can be used at any temperature between –73°C and 260°C with
no effect on its properties
 has a very low coefficient of friction, which makes it waxy or slippery to touch. As a result, it is particularly
suited to applications in food preparation
 E.g. bread dough does stick to a Teflon-coated surface.
 is used for coating cooking utensils and for making electrical insulation.
Polystyrene
 produced by the addition polymerization of styrene.
 one of the most widely used polymers.
 example, it is used for making packing materials especially for impact-absorbent. Its other uses include
preparing CD and DVD cases, toys, flowerpots and architectural models.

Condensation Polymers
Nylons
 are polyamides.
 produced by the condensation reaction of diacids and diamines.
 common polyamides is nylon 66.
 a copolymer and is prepared by the condensation of 1, 6-diaminohexane
(hexamethylene diamine) and 1,6-hexanedioic acid (adipic acid).
 The basic amine reacts with the acid to form a salt. Heating removes water and forms the amide bonds.

 There are hydrogen bondings between the polymer chains.

 Uses of nylon --making parachutes, ropes, clothes, stockings, hair combs, and rugs used to reinforce
automobiles tires

Polyester (Polyethylene terephthalate or Dacron)

 a copolymer and formed when equimolar amounts of 1, 4-benzene dicarboxylic acid (terephthalic acid) and 1,
2-ethanediol (ethylene glycol) react.
5
  strong and impact resistant.
 colourless and has high transparency.
 mainly used for synthetic fibers.
 Mixing it with various amounts of cotton gives fabrics that are durable, easily dyed and crease-resistant.
 also used for making bottles and packaging materials.

Exercise 6.4
1. Write the structure of the following polymers and also indicate the monomer units involved in the formation of
these polymers. A.Nylon 66 B. Dacron
2. Describe the major uses of nylons and polyethylene terephthalate.
3. Kevlar is used in bulletproof vests. The structure of Kevlar is:

Which monomers are used to make Kevlar?

4. Nomex is used in fire-resistant clothing. It is a copolymer of:

draw the structure of the Nomex polymer.

5. How do Kevlar and Nomex differ in their structure?

Bakelite
 Its monomers phenol and formaldehyde.
 reaction between phenol and formaldehyde is not a simple reaction.
 The reaction takes place in the presence of an acid or a base as a catalyst.
 The chemical representation of the reaction is:

 used for making rotary-dial telephones, whistles, billard balls, dominos, chess, checkers, porcelain etc.

6
Thermoplastics and Thermosetting Polymers
 Based on their response to heat, polymers can be divided into two groups:
 thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

 Thermoplastics

 soften on heating
 can be moulded into different shapes.
 become hard on cooling.
 The process of heating and cooling can be repeated many times without causing any change in their
properties.
 E.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, Teflon, polymethyl methacrylate, nylon and
polyester (Dacron) are thermoplastics.
 consist of linear or slightly branched molecules which do not chemically bond with each other when
heated
 the polymer molecules are held together by weak Van der Waals forces.
 Thermosetting plastics
 can be moulded into different shapes by heating
 become hard when cooled.
 once solidified and set they cannot be softened or remoulded by heating.
 E.g. Bakelite is a thermosetting plastic.
 Consist of chain molecules that chemically bond, or cross-link, with each other when heated.
 Thermoplastic materials can be recycled, whereas thermosetting cannot.
 Difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics

Exercise 6.5
1. What are the monomers of Bakelite? 2. Write the major uses of Bakelite.
3. Explain the difference between thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers,using examples.
4. What makes thermoplastic materials recyclable, whereas thermosetting ones are not?

Impacts of Synthetic Polymers on Environment

 production of plastic produces substantial amounts of toxic chemicals (e.g. ethylene oxide, benzene and
xylenes) to air and water.
 Many of the toxic chemicals released in plastic production can cause cancer and birth defects and damage the
nervous system, blood, kidneys and immune systems.
7
  These chemicals cause serious damage to environment
 dumping plastic wastes in urban drainage systems pollutes water courses and causes flooding
 they carry disease into the household
 The burning of plastics encourages airborne pollution, the majority of which is extremely toxic and can cause a
host of health problems (cancer, asthma, etc.).
 landfilling and recycling reduce the waste problem, each has considerably negative consequences:
 Landfills leak and often contaminate the ground water with toxic liquids and residues.
 Recycling of plastic is associated with skin and respiratory problems, resulting from exposure to and
inhalation of toxic fumes, especially hydrocarbons and residues released during the process.
 One of the features that we value in plastics, is also a problem for us.
 When plastics are disposed into the environment, they remain there for a very long time, degrading very
slowly, and continue to pollute our environment.

Exercise 6.6
1. What are the major problems caused by plastics?
2. Is there any relationship between durability of plastics and pollution? Explain your answer.

6.4. NATURAL POLYMERS

 found in nature
 mainly produced by plants and animals.
 appeared on the earth about a million years ago
 the number of natural polymers is almost constant, but number of new synthetic polymers is growing very fast

6.4.1 Natural Rubber

 Natural rubber is obtained from rubber tree.
 monomer of natural rubber is isoprene or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene

 Since isoprene has two double bonds, it retains one of the double bonds after polymerization reaction.
 Natural rubber has the cis-configuration of methyl groups

 Rubber is an example of elastomer type of polymer, in which the polymer can return to its original shape after
being stretched.
 Natural rubber is a soft and sticky solid.
 Rubber softens in hot weather and gets hard in cold weather.
 It is soluble in organic solvents such as carbon disulfide, petrol, ether and so on.
 properties of natural rubber improved by introducing cross linkages between its polymer chains.
 This can be achieved by heating natural rubber with sulphur.
 This process is known as vulcanization.
 Vulcanization establishes cross-links between linear polymer chains.

8
Vulcanized rubber has the following properties.
* It is hard and nonsticky.
* It has higher elasticity, which occurs over a higher range of temperature.
* It has high tensile strength.
* It is insoluble in solvents.
* It is not oxidized readily
6.4.2 Synthetic Rubber
 is produced either by the polymerization of conjugated dienes in the presence of a catalyst or by
copolymerization of conjugated dienes with other olefinic compounds.
Neoprene
 is a polymer of 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene and is obtained by addition polymerization.

 is a linear thermoplastic polymer.

 Because of its resistance to chemicals, used for making hoses for chemicals, petrols, and oils.

Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)

 is a copolymer of styrene with butadiene

 vulcanized in a similar manner as natural rubber.

 is superior to naturalrubber with regard to mechanical strength.
 Its primary application is in the manufacture of tires and other mechanical goods.

Butyl Rubber
 is a polymer made by the polymerization of 2-methylpropene (isobutylene) with 1-2% of 2-methyl-1,3-
butadiene (isoprene).

9
 
Exercise 6.7
1. What are the monomers of a natural rubber? c SBR? neoprene? d butyl rubber?
2. What is vulcanization of rubber and how does it affect the properties of rubber?
3. What are the major uses of neoprene and SBR ?

6.4.3 Carbohydrates
 compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 Green plants produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis.
 In this process, carbon dioxide from air and water from the soil are the reactants and
sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll is the energy source.

 that were purified and analysed had molecular formulas that corresponds to CnH2nOn or Cn(H2O)n.
 were considered to be "hydrates of carbon" or carbohydrates.
 defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes, polyhydroxy ketones or compounds that yield such substance
upon hydrolysis
 E.g. glucose is a polyhydroxy aldehyde, and fructose is a polyhydroxy ketones.

 classified on the basis of their acid-catalyzed hydrolysis products as monosaccharide, disaccharides and
polysaccharides

A. Monosaccharides - simple sugars,

 are carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller compounds.
 with three to seven carbon atoms are found in nature.

10
  A three-carbon monosaccharides is called a triose, and those that contain four, five and six carbon atoms are
called tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses, respectively.
 classified as aldoses and ketoses based on the carbonyl group present.
 Aldoses are monosaccharides that contain an aldehyde functional group. Ketoses are monosaccharides that
contain a ketone functional group.
 are often classified by both their number of carbon atoms and their functional group.
A six-carbon monosaccharide with an aldehyde functional group is an aldohexose.
Afive-carbon monosaccharide with a ketone functional group is a ketopentose.
Monosaccharides are also often called sugars. The word sugar is associated with“sweetness” and most
monosaccharides have a sweet taste.
Both monosaccharides and disaccharides are called sugars.
The simplest aldotriose and ketotriose are glyceraldehyde and dihydroxylacetone.

The most common monosaccharides are glucose, galactose, fructose and ribose.
Glucose and galactose are aldohexoses, fructose is a ketohexose, and ribose is aldopentose.
All four of these monosaccharides are water soluble, white and crystalline solids.

glucose and galactose differ only in the configuration of the – OH group and – H group on carbon-4.
Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide in nature.
Cells use this glucose as a primary energy source.

In the human body, galactose is synthesized from glucose in the mammary glands for use in lactose (milk sugar).
Fructose is the sweetest-tasting of all sugars and is found in many fruits. It is also present in honey, in equal amounts
with glucose. From the third to the sixth carbon the structure of fructose is identical to that of glucose. Differences at
carbons 1 and 2 are related to the presence of a ketone functional group in fructose and of an aldehyde functional
group in glucose

11
.
Ribose is a component of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
2-deoxyribose is a component of deoxyribonucleic acid molecules (DNA).
prefix deoxy indicates that the oxygen at carbon-2 is removed.
 monosaccharides containing five or more carbon atoms, their open-chain structures are in equilibrium with two
cyclic structures and the cyclic structures are the dominant forms at equilibrium.
 Cyclic forms of monsaccharides result from the ability of their carbonyl group to react intramolecularly
(within the molecule) with the hydroxyl group.
 The result is a cyclic hemi-acetal or cyclic hemi-ketal.
 If a six member ring is formed, it is called pyranose.
 The pyranose ring is formed by the reaction of the –OH group on carbon-5 with the carbonyl group on carbon-1.
 The name pyranose is derived from pyran, which is the name of the six-member heterocyclic ether

 If the –OH attached to anomeric carbon is below the ring or down, we use and when –OH is above the ring,
we use .

12
  Galactose, like glucose, forms a sixmembered ring, but both fructose and ribose form a five-member ring sugar
called furanose.
 This name derived from furan, which is the name of five-member heterocyclic ether.

 The furanose ring is formed by the reaction of the –OH group on C–5 with the carbonyl group on C–2.

Exercise 6.8
1. Are carbohydrates “hydrates of carbon”? Explain your answer.
2. Classify each of the following monosaccharides by its number of carbon atoms and its type of carbonyl group.

3. Write the cyclic forms of galactose and ribose.

4. Write the molecular formula of ribose, glucose, galactose and fructose.
5. What are reducing sugars? Which of the following monosaccharides behave as reducing sugars?A. Glucose
B. Galactose C. Fructose D. Ribose
b. Disaccharides
 are dimers made up of two monosaccharide molecules.
 Monosaccharides may be either the same or different.
 monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage between anomeric carbon of one monosaccharide and the
– OH group of the other.
 The most glycosidic linkage is between the 4-hydroxyl group of one monsaccharide and the or position of
the anomeric carbon.
 This kind of linkage is called -1,4- or -1,4- glycosidic linkage or bond depending on the
configuration at the anomeric carbon atom.
Maltose
 called malt sugar, is produced whenever the polysaccharide starch breaks down.
 This happens when seed germinates in plants and during starch digestion in human beings.
 is made of two glucose units, one of which must be -glucose and the other can be or glucose.

13
  Note that since the orientation of OH at carbon-1 is either or , we represent it by .

 The glycosidic linkage between the two glucose units is called an -1, 4- linkage.
 The two –OH groups that form the linkage are attached, respectively, to carbon-1 of the first glucose unit (in
the -configuration) and to carbon-4 of the second glucose unit.
Cellobiose
 Like maltose, cellobiose contains two glucose units.
 It differs from maltose in that the glycosidic linkage is -1, 4-linkage.

 Maltose and cellobiose have different biological behaviors.

 Maltase, the enzyme that breaks the glucose-glucose -1,4-linkage present in maltose, is found both in the
human body and yeast.
 maltose is digested easily by humans and is readily fermented by yeast. Both the human body and yeast lack
the enzyme cellobiase needed to break the glucose-glucose -1, 4-linkage of cellobiose.
14
  Therefore, cellobiose cannot be digested by humans or fermented by yeast.

Lactose
 made up of a -galactose unit and an or a glucose unit joined by a -1,4-linkage

 is the major sugar found in milk.

 The souring of milk is caused by conversion of lactose to lactic acid by bacteria in the milk

Sucrose
 Sucrose, common table sugar, is the most abundant of all the disaccharides.
 The two monosaccharide units in sucrose molecule are -glucose and -fructose.
 The glycosidic linkage is , -1,2-linkage. The –OH group on carbon-2 of fructose reacts with the –OH
group on carbon-1 of -glucose.

 Sucrose is commercially produced from the juice of sugar cane and sugar beets.
Exercise 6.9
1. What monosaccharides are produced from the hydrolysis of the following disaccharides?
A. sucrose B. lactose C. maltose D. cellobiose
2. What type of glycosidic linkage is present in the following disaccharides? A.sucrose B. lactose C.maltose
D. cellobiose
15
3. Write the molecular formula of: A. sucrose B. lactose C. maltose D. cellobiose
4. In making candy, sucrose is boiled in water with little acid, such as lemon juice.
A. What is the purpose of adding the lemon juice?
B. Why does the product mixture taste sweater than the starting sucrose solution?

C. Polysaccharides
 are polymers.
 Consists of a large number of monosaccharide units bonded together by glycosidic bonds.
 The three important polysaccharides, all made up of glucose units, are cellulose, starch and glycogen.
Cellulose
 most abundant polysaccharide.
 structural component of the cell walls of plants.
 Structurally, cellulose is a linear (unbranched) glucose polymer in which the glucose units are linked by -1,4-
glycosidic bonds

 Cellulose is not a source of nutrition for humans because humans lack the enzyme cellulase which can
hydrolyze the -1,4-glycosidic bonds and produce free glucose from cellulose.
 animals such as horses, cows and sheep contain bacteria in their intestine that produce cellulase and produce
free glucose from cellulose.
 grasses and other plant materials are sources of nutrition for these animals. Cotton is composed of pure
cellulose.

Starch
 used for energy storage in plants.
 If excess glucose enters a plant cell, it is converted to starch and stored for later use.
 can be separated into two principal polysaccharides, amylose and amylopectin.
 Amylose is a straight-chain glucose polymer and accounts for 20-25% of starch.
 The glucose units in amylose are connected by -1,4-glycosidic bonds.
 The number of glucose units present in amylose chain depends on the source of the starch.

16
 Amylopectin is a highly branched glucose polymer, which accounts for 75-80% of starch.
Similar to the case in amylose, all the linkages in amylopectin are -linkages.
A branch occurs in amylopectin about once in every 25-30 glucose units.
The branch points involve 1,6-linkages. Because of the branching, amylopectin has a large average
molecular mass than the linear amylose.

 All of the glycosdic linkages in starch (both amylose and amylopectin) are of the -type.
 In amylose, they are all -1,4-linkages and in amylopectin both -1,4 and -1,6-likages are present

Glycogen
 a glucose storage polysaccharide in humans and animals.
 called animal starch.
 Liver cells and muscle cells are the storage sites for glycogen in humans.
 Like amylopectin, glycogen units are joined by -1,4- and -1,6-glycosdic bonds.
 It is about three times more highly branched than amylopectin.
 When excess glucose is present in the blood, the liver and muscle tissues convert the excess glucose to
glycogen, which is then stored in these tissues.
 If the glucose blood level decreases, some stored glycogen is hydrolyzed back to glucose.

Exercise 6.10
1. Describe the structural differences and similarities between the following pairs of polysaccharides:
A. glycogen and amylopectin B. amylose and cellulose C. amylose and amylopectin D amylose and glycogen
2. Match each of the following structural characteristics to the polysaccharides. You can use the characteristics in
column B more than once.
Column A Column B
i .Amylopectin A. Contains both -1,4-and -1,6-glycosidic linkages
ii .Amylose B. Composed of glucose monosaccharide units
17
iii .Glycogen C. Composed of unbranched glucose chains
iv. Cellulose D. Contains only 1,4-glycosidic linkage
3. Humans can digest starch but not cellulose. Why?

6.4.4. Proteins
 comes from the Greek word “proteios” which means “primary”.
 indicates the relative importance of these compounds.
 All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
 Many proteins also contain sulphur.
 Proteins are made by the polymerization of the twenty naturally occurring amino acids.
 An amino acid is a compound that contains both an amino (–NH2) group and a carboxylic acid (–COOH)
group.
 The amino acids found in proteins are always -amino acids (the amino group is attached to the carbon atom
adjacent to the carboxyl group).
The structural formula for an -amino acid is:

 The R group present in an - amino acid is called the amino acid side chain. The nature of this side chain
distinguishes - amino acids from each other.
Based on the side chain polarity, amino acids can be grouped into four categories:
1. Nonpolar amino acids;
2. Polar neutral amino acids;
3. Polar acidic amino acids; and
4. Polar basic amino acids.

Nonpolar amino acids

 contain one amino group, one carboxyl group, and a nonpolar side chain.
 hydrophobic or “water-fearing” and are not attracted to water molecules.
 found on the interior of proteins, where there is limited contact with water.
 There are eight nonpolar amino acids.

18
 Note that either three letters or one letter can represent each amino acid

Polar neutral amino acids

 contain one amino group, one carboxyl group, and a side chain that is polar but neutral.
 There are seven polar neutral amino acids.

Polar acidic amino acids

 contain one amino group and two carboxyl groups.
 The second carboxyl group is part of the side chain.

19
  There are two polar acidic amino acids.

Polar basic amino acids

 contain two amino groups and one carboxyl group.
 The second amino group is part of the side chain.
 There are three polar basic amino acids.

Exercise 6.11
1. Which of the following structures represents a-amino acids?

2. Give two examples for each of the following amino acids, together with their structures.
a .Nonpolar amino acids c. Polar acidic amino acids b. Polar neutural amino acids d. Polar basic amino acids

Physical Properties of Amino Acids.

i) They have high melting points.
ii) They are colourless crystalline substances.
iii) They are soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents.
 Thus, they resemble ionic compounds. This occurs due to the fact that amino acids contain both an acid
20
 (–COOH) and a base (–NH2) functional groups.
 These acids and basic groups react with each other to form a dipolar ion or internal salt.
 The dipolar ion of an amino acid is called zwitterion.
 A zwitterion has no net charge.

 A zwitterion structure changes when the pH of a solution containing an amino acid is changed from neutral
either to acidic (low pH), by adding an acid such as HCl, or to basic (high pH), by adding a base such as
NaOH.
 In acidic solution, the zwitterion accepts a proton (H+) to form a positively charged ion.

 In a basic solution, the – NH3+ of zwitterion loses a proton, and a negatively charged species is formed.

 Thus, in a solution, three different amino acid forms can exist (zwitterion, negative ion, and positive ion).

 In acidic solution, the positively charged species on the left predominates.

 In neutral solutions have the middle species (the zwitterion) as the dominant species.
 In basic solution, the negatively charged species on the right predominates.

Peptide Bond Formation

 A peptide (amide) is a bond formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of
another amino acid.
 If two amino acids are allowed to react, the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of
the other amino acid.
 The products are a molecule containing the two amino acids linked by an amide bond or a peptide bond and
water.

 A compound containing two amino acids joined by a peptide bond is called a dipeptide.
21
  Either end of the dipeptide can undergo a condensation reaction with another amino acid to form a tripeptide,
tetrapeptide and so on.
 In the preparation of nylon 66, adipic acid contains two acid functional groups and hexamethylene diamine
contains two amine functional groups.
 A polypeptide is a sequence of amino acids, containing up to 50 amino acid units, in which the amino acids are
joined together through amide (peptide) bonds.
 Proteins are polypeptides that contain more than 50 amino acid units.
 Table 6.2 Some Functions of Proteins.

 By convention the sequence of amino acids in a peptide is written with the N-terminal amino acid at the left
and the C-terminal amino acid at the right.
 The individual amino acids within a peptide chain are called amino acid residues

Exercise 6.12
1. Draw the appropriate structural form for the amino acid alanine that predominates in a solution at each of the
following pH values. A. pH = 1 B. pH = 7 C. pH = 11
2. What two functional groups are involved in the formation of a peptide bond?
3. How do amino acids, peptides, and protein differ?
4. Write a chemical equation that indicates the formation of a dipeptide from glycine and alanine.

22