INTERNATIONAL

CRI331
WHAT’S BEHIND EACH INCIDENT
OF TERRORIST VIOLENCE?
The deeply held belief system
that has motivated the
perpetrator

Such systems are, at their

core, extremist systems
characterized by intolerance.
WHAT IS
Extremism is a quality that is “radical in
opinion, especially in political matters;
ultra; advanced.”

Extremism is a radical expression of

political values.

Extremism is a precursor to terrorism—it

is an overarching belief system terrorists
use to justify their violent behavior.
The World of the Extremist

• different—and at times fantastic—world views

• set themselves apart as protectors of truth or as the

true heirs of a legacy

• They create a worldview that sets them apart from

society
When extremists adopt a religious
belief system, their worldview
becomes one of a struggle between
supernatural forces of good and evil.
They view themselves as living
righteous life that fits with
their interpretation of God’s will.
Common Characteristics of Violent Extremists

1. Intolerance – a hallmark of extremist belief systems and

terrorist behavior

(The cause is considered to be absolutely just and good, and

those who disagree with are cast as the opposition)

2. Moral Absolutes - a morally correct vision of the world and is

used to establish moral superiority over others.
Thus, no matter how offensive or reprehensible one’s
thoughts or words are, they are not by themselves acts
of terrorism.

Only those who violently act out their extremist

beliefs are terrorists.
 What is Terrorism?
the use or threat of violence
that aims to spread fear in a
population, and
to advance a political,
ideological or religious cause.

“terror” comes from the Latin word

“terrere” which means “to frighten” or
“to scare.
“Not all violent acts are terrorist acts”

Why?

Terrorism is more of a strategy than just a

random act of violence.
The criteria for Terrorism

“acts of violence by non-state

actors, perpetrated against civilian
populations, intended to cause
fear, to achieve a political
objective.” – Global Terrorism
Database
To be considered an act of terrorism, an
action must be:

1. Violent / Threaten Violence

2. Carried out for political, economic,

religious, or social purposes.

violent acts committed without a political, economic, religious, or social

goal are not classified as terrorism, but instead as ‘violent crimes’
3. designed to have far-reaching
psychological repercussions beyond
the immediate victim or target

action must aim to create terror through

“its shocking brutality, lack of
discrimination, dramatic or symbolic
quality and disregard of the rules of
warfare”.

4. targeting noncombatant, neutral, or

randomly chosen people
5. Terrorist actions must be also conducted
either by an organization or by individuals or a
small collection of individuals directly
influenced by the logical aims

Or typically referred to as a ‘lone wolf’

attack)

6. must be perpetrated by a subnational group

or non-state entity.
Whittaker notes the following descriptions by terrorism experts:

1. contributes the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political

objective when innocent people are targeted (Walter Laqueur)

2. a strategy of violence designed to promote desired outcomes by

instilling fear in the public at large (Walter Reich)

3. the use or threatened use of force designed to bring about

political change (Brian Jenkins)
Terrorism VS other forms of violence
killings perpetrated by non-state actors HOMICIDE
against civilians, which are not
ideological in nature
without political or social intent to hate crime
cause widespread fear
involving open combat between state-based armed conflict (if
opposing armed forces at least one of the parties is the
government of a state)
none of the parties is the government non-state conflict
of a state
violence perpetrated by governments one-sided violence
against civilians
AS HOMICIDE:

Example: Gang-Related Homicide

In a city, there is a notorious criminal gang that is involved in illegal
activities such as drug trafficking and territorial disputes. Members of
this gang engage in violent activities, including homicides, as part of
their criminal operations. However, their actions are primarily driven by
a desire for power, control over certain territories, and economic
interests rather than a specific political or ideological agenda.

Perpetrators: Members of the criminal gang (non-state actors).

Targets: Civilians who may be rival gang members
Motivation: The killings are not driven by a political or ideological agenda but
rather by the gang's criminal activities and desire for dominance in the local
criminal landscape.
Hate Crime Characteristics:

•Motivation: Hate crimes are motivated by prejudice or bias

against a specific group.
•Targets: Victims are selected based on their affiliation with a
particular race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.
•Intent: The intent is often to intimidate, harass, or cause
harm to the targeted group, and it can be meant to send a
message beyond the individual victim.
Example: Syrian Civil War
•Parties Involved:
• Syrian Government Forces: The armed forces loyal to the
government of President Bashar al-Assad.
• Opposition Forces: Initially, a variety of opposition groups seeking
political change, including both secular and Islamist factions. Over
time, the conflict has involved a complex array of actors, including
extremist groups.
Non-State Actor:

•New People's Army (NPA): The NPA is the armed wing of the Communist Party
of the Philippines (CPP). It was established in 1969 with the goal of overthrowing
the Philippine government and establishing a communist state.

•Non-State Conflict:
•The conflict between the NPA and the Philippine government is a non-state
conflict. The NPA is not a government entity but rather a communist insurgent
group with political and ideological objectives. The conflict has involved armed
clashes, bombings, and attacks in various regions of the Philippines.
Example: Syrian Civil War (Government-led Violence)
•Perpetrator: Syrian Government Forces
•Targets: Civilians, including those living in opposition-held areas
•Nature of Violence:
• Aerial Bombardments: The Syrian government has been accused of using
airstrikes, barrel bombs, and other aerial bombardments in densely populated
civilian areas.
• Siege Tactics: The government has employed siege tactics, restricting the flow
of food, medicine, and other essential supplies to opposition-held areas,
causing severe humanitarian crises.
Political extremism is one of the most pernicious,
destructive, and nihilistic forms of human expression

20TH CENTURY - more than 100 million people had their

lives taken
 Types of Terrorism

State terrorism. Terrorism from above is committed by governments

against perceived enemies. State terrorism can be directed externally
against adversaries in the international domain or internally against
domestic enemies.

Dissident terrorism. Terrorism from below is committed by nonstate

movements and groups against governments, ethno-nationalist groups,
religious groups, and other perceived enemies.
Religious terrorism. Terrorism motivated by an absolute belief
that an otherworldly power has sanctioned—and commanded—
the application of terrorist violence for the greater glory of the
faith. Religious terrorism is usually conducted in defense of what
believers consider the one true faith.

International terrorism. International terrorism spills over onto

the world’s stage. Targets are selected because of their value as
symbols of international interests, either within the home country
or across state boundaries.
TERRORISTS OR FREEDOM FIGHTERS?
PERSPECTIVES

❑“One person’s terrorist is another person’s freedom fighter.”

❑“One man willing to throw away his life is enough to terrorize

a thousand.”

❑“Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice.”

❑ “It became necessary to destroy the town to save it.”

Participants in a Terrorist Environment

1. The terrorists - the perpetrators of a politically violent

incident, they target the enemy public or uncommitted
bystanders.

2. The supporter – patrons. who provide a supportive

environment apparatus.
3. The victim - From the terrorists’ point of view, high-
profile attacks that victimize an audience are useful as
wake-up calls for the victims to understand the
underlying grievances of the movement.

4. The target – is usually symbolic. property targets or

human targets.
5. The onlooker - broad audience to the
terrorist incident. They can be affected
directly at the scene or indirectly by mass
media.

6. The analyst - interpreter of the terrorist

incident.
Combatant and Noncombatant Targets

Combatants - refers to conventional or unconventional

adversaries who engage in armed conflict as members of
regular military or irregular guerrilla fighting unit

Non-combatants - includes civilians who have no connection

to military or other security forces
Indiscriminate and Discriminate Force

Indiscriminate force - application of force against a

target without attempting to limit the level

Discriminate force - more surgical use of limited

force. Moral use of force.
ELEMENTS OF TERRORIST
ACTIONS
• A. Political Objectives
• B. Violence
• C. Target Audience
• D. Organization
• E. Actions other than
states involved
• F. Weapon of the Weak
• G. Attacking Civilians
A. POLITICAL OBJECTIVES

The political objectives separate terrorism from

violence that is launched for financial reasons or
because of personal issues. Kidnappings of prominent
political leaders or corporate executives to make political
statements are different from those kidnappings that
serve as criminal ventures to raise money for the
abductors.
B. VIOLENCE

Requests for changes, demonstrations, and petitions are not

terrorism, no matter how disconcerting they may be to a
government

Why? Because no direct threat of violence

One situation in which the threat of violence might be present would
be one in which a group issues an ultimatum requiring action; if the
appropriate action does not occur, violence will result.

The threat of violence = Technique

Ex: hijackings, hostage takings, kidnappings, mass shootings, car

bombings, and, frequently, suicide bombings
C. TARGET AUDIENCE

For violence, and even political violence, to qualify as terrorism, it

must include a target audience beyond the immediate victims.

Sample scenario no. 1:

If a political leader is assassinated with the goal of removing that
individual in order to permit the next in line to move up.

Terrorism or Not?
Take note: For an assassination to be a terrorist act, it must
involve parties beyond the assassin or assassins and the
immediate victim.

Scenario no. 2

If a political leader is assassinated in order to send a message to other

members of the political elite that they need to change policies or make
concessions in order to avoid a similar fate.

YES, TERRORIST ACT.

D. ORGANIZATION

political violence to be terrorism there must be an identifiable

organization. A lone individual is unlikely to be able to carry out
the actions.

Large organizations do not have to be as concerned about

casualties among the members, while smaller organizations
have to conserve scarce resources (members).
Lone wolf

Theodore Kaczynski - Unabomber in the United States,

upset over the pace of modernization

With Organizational Structure

Al Qaeda - maintain linkages with each other and even

support or cooperate with groups that are not a formal
part of the organization.
E. ACTORS OTHER THAN STATES INVOLVED

three situations in which terrorism can occur within this definition:

1. dissident may target a government.

2. governments may target a group of their own citizens or support

groups that target a group of their own citizens;

3. groups may target each other with such violence independent of

government.
PURPOSES:

❑ to change policies
❑ to bring about other changes in a political system
F. WEAPON OF THE WEAK

• They are attempting to improve their power situation – to increase their

probability of being able to influence political decisions.

• Terrorist campaigns are frequently mounted by organizations that have

failed to bring about their desired changes by other means, i.e. they are
politically weak.

Terrorism remains a tool to be used by groups that lack the possibility of these
kinds of peaceful or violent protests against a current government.
G. ATTACKING CIVILIANS

Some definitions of terrorism include the specification that the

targets of terrorist violence are civilians.

Civilians are often the targets for terrorism because the target
population consists mainly of civilians and terrorists usually attack
members of the target audience.

PURPOSE? to increase the resulting fear

 TERRORISM AS PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE

❑The goal of the terrorist group is to spread fear in the target

population in order to bring about some kind of change.

❑ The goals of the terrorists have been met when the greatest
amount of fear has been caused by the terrorist attack

❑The most effective terrorist actions are those that reach the
largest number of people.
GOALS IN TERRORISM
Poverty – is considered a
basic cause of terrorism.

AGREE OR NOT?
Some studies have found a connection
between poverty and terrorism, but most
have failed to find any direct connection
(Maleckova, 2005)

Why?

Terrorist activity has not occurred in the

poorest countries of the world or the ones
with the greatest differences between rich
and poor.
Another factor that has contributed
to outbreaks of terrorism involves the
strains associated with
modernization and globalization

Globalization - increasing connections

among societies and cultures in terms
of economic, social, political, and
communications linkages.
1. CHANGES IN POLICIES

Some terrorist groups seek

changes in the domestic policies
of a government.

want fairer treatment

2. CHANGES IN POLITICAL
LEADERSHIP

Seek changes in the associated group

that is in power in the government.
The objective of the group goes beyond
the removal of just one leader.
3. CHANGES IN THE POLITICAL
SYSTEM

They may hope to replace a military

regime or a one-party government with
a democratic system.

may want to replace a monarchy with a

republic or reestablish a monarchy to
replace a republic.
4. CHANGES IN STATE
BOUNDARIES

Anti-colonial movements seek to

create independent states that are
no longer parts of the empires that
contained them.
5. RELIGIOUS GOALS
• In some cases, the religious group may have
sought or may be seeking to reduce secular
influences and introduce more religious laws
into the land.

• Extreme Islamic groups sought to force the

incorporation of more Islamic prescriptions
into national legal codes.

• sought to gain autonomy for their religion or

greater rights for their group
6. ETHNIC OR NATIONALIST GOALS

Minority ethnic groups may become

dissatisfied with their position in particular
states, and some members may turn to
terrorism as part of an effort to gain
autonomy or independence

The majority group may also engage in

terrorism targeting ethnic minorities
because they are feared or disliked.
The actions by the majority group may eventually reach
the level of ethnic cleansing where there is an effort to
drive out those that are “different”.

and what is this?

GENOCIDE
7. IDEOLOGICAL GOALS

LEFT WING/LEFT RIGHT WING/RIGHT

seek to promote greater accept greater inequalities as

equality for individuals in natural and expected in society,
society. support existing institutions,

Ideologies of the left include

communism and its variations, Right-wing ideologies include
socialism, anarchism, and conservatism, Christian
labor (and in the United States democracy, and monarchism.
liberalism)
https://www.diffen.com/difference/Left_Wing_vs_Right_Wing
8. COMBINATIONS OF OBJECTIVES

These groups have mixed motives and

objectives.

Ex: terrorist groups have formed alliances of

convenience with criminal organizations,
especially those involved in drug
trafficking.

CRIMINAL GROUP X POLITICAL DISSIDENTS

EX: an alliance between the drug cartels and
leftist groups in Colombia
ULO-B
Causes of Terrorist Violence

Terrorism can occur in a variety of manners and

instances. Terrorists may be deprived, uneducated,
affluent and from both sexes. It can occur in
developed and undeveloped countries, in a variety
of regimes. It encompasses ideology and religion
Societies that are more exposed tend to be:

• Poor societies with weak state structures

• Undergoing societal changes brought through

modernization

• Weak and collapsed states that contribute to

international terrorism
Social movements are campaigns that try
either to promote change or to preserve
something that is perceived as threatened.
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

Why do individuals join a terrorist group in the first place,

and, secondly, why do they continue to stay with the group?
A. Psycho-Pathological Theories

The simple basic assumption of such pure

psychological theory of terrorism is that nonviolent
behavior is the accepted norm and that those
engaged in terrorist activities therefore necessarily
must be abnormal
Terrorist personality:
• Spoiled Jerrold Post claims that there is a
• Disturbed special logic of terrorist
• cold and calculating reasoning. He terms this the
• perverse ‘terrorist psycho-logic’
• exited by violence
• psychotic - that their special psychologic is
• maniac constructed to rationalize acts they
• irrational, are psychologically compelled to
• and fanatic commit
B. Psycho-Sociological Theories.

focus on individual characteristics and mechanisms is

supplemented by recognition of the influence of the
environment focus on individual characteristics and
mechanisms is supplemented by recognition of the influence
of the environment
1.Relative deprivation theories

Dollard et al. first assumed that aggressive behavior always

originated in frustration

‘DFAlinkage’: deprivation produces frustration, which

eventually turns into aggression against the state

Deprivation may be absolute, or alternatively, it may be relative,

produced by an increasing gap between expectations and
satisfaction.
Relative
Deprivation
Theory
IN BISAYA AND TAGALOG TERM…

NAIBOG/NAINGGIT
Relative deprivation should be
contrasted with absolute deprivation
when a group has been deprived of the
basic necessities for survival by a
government or social order

denied adequate shelter, food,

healthcare, and other basic necessities.
These conditions can also lead to
political violence.
2. Social distance and mass casualty terrorism

Senechal de la Roche - terrorism is most likely to occur under

conditions of high levels of ‘social distance or ‘social
polarization’ between perpetrators and victims, including a high
degree of cultural and relational distance, inequality, and
functional independence
3. Sexuality, masculinity, and terrorism

Baruch has suggested that the ‘traumatic’

gender segregation in Islamic societies ‘is a
major cause of fundamentalism and the
search for violent political activity.

Suicide bombing is one result of hating one’s

sexual impulses.’
Promiscuity and gender
equality promoted through
Western films and movies are
seen as fundamentally
threatening to a Muslim man
and his honor, as they violate
‘the sanctuary of his home’,
and jeopardize his ‘mastery’
over his family.
4.The contagion theory of
terrorism

terrorism is ‘contagious’

there is a clear trend of periodical cycle in the

occurrence of terrorist attacks, or waves of
terrorism.

decision by terrorist groups to launch an

attack is influenced by similar attacks
elsewhere, hence, the ‘concept of contagion’
1.2 SOCIETAL EXPLANATIONS

A. The Impact of Modernization

1. Rapid economic growth and terrorism

- industrialization and economic modernization influence society in

such a way that individuals are willing to resort to terrorism

2. Resource wars

- export of natural resources, especially oil, mineral impedes the

creation of democratic order and increases the likelihood of civil wars
where political institutions are weak, corruption is pervasive, and elite
groups fight over the spoils
3. From tribal societies to mixed market-clientelist economies.

- from Autocratic clientelist to ‘mixed market-clientelist

economies because of the exposure to pressures to adopt values
and beliefs from liberal market democracies

4. Economic inequality and terrorism.

- rooted in relative deprivation theory and related

hypotheses

5. Poverty and terrorism

- most violent conflicts occur within (and between) poor or
underdeveloped countries,
The Impact of Economic and Cultural
Globalization on Terrorism
IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION:

• contributes to or at least increases the visibility of inequality in

society.

• encourages the spread of technology that allows terrorists to

operate more widely and with more lethality

TRANSNATIONAL TERRORISM OCCURS BECAUSE OF GLOBALIZATION

A.State Sponsors

‘state sponsored terrorism’ as an explanation for the

growth of international terrorism since the 1960s

Former Israeli Prime minister, Benjamin Netanyahu:

claims that ‘there is no international terrorism without the
support of sovereign states’; if this state support is
removed, ‘the entire scaffolding of international terrorism
will collapse into dust’
B. NGOs and the Rise of Transnational Private Support Networks

State sponsorship has not become irrelevant, but alternative sources

of sponsorship have emerged and increased in importance.

Examples:
immigrant communities, NGOs, refugee camps, religious
organizations, sympathetic guerrilla movements, and wealthy private
individuals
3.3 State Strength: Weak and Collapsed
States

a cause of concern as potential ‘breeding

grounds for instability, mass migration, and
murder

Number of weak states where suspected al-

Qaeda terrorists and Islamist guerrillas had
strong footholds, including: ▪ Afghanistan ▪
Uzbekistan ▪ Kyrgyzstan ▪ Djibouti ▪ Georgia ▪
Philippines, ▪ and Western Africa.
3.4 Armed Conflicts as a Source of Terrorism

A. Terrorism as armed conflict

B. Terrorism as spillover, by-product, and a reminder of armed conflicts

- transnational terrorism reflects a civil war taking place between a
government and its opposition movements

C. Armed conflicts as inspirational sources, radicalizing catalysts, and training

arena for terrorism

- extensive impact on human brains and have sociopolitical consequences

that extend well beyond the devastation of the war-torn community.
Terrorist Violence and the Role
of the Media
If terrorism is a strategy characterized by symbolic
attacks on symbolic targets, it is also a strategy
characterized by intentional manipulation of the news
media:

“Terrorist attacks are often carefully choreographed to

attract the attention of the electronic media and the
international press.”
UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA

SOCIETY WITH FREEDOM OF THE PRESS - Tension

exists between the media’s professional duty to
objectively report the news and terrorists’ desire to
promote their cause.

(Some media purposely use provocative language and

photographs to attract an audience)
Mass Communications and the
Terrorists’ Message

mass communications include:

• print media
• radio
• television
• the Internet and social media
 two critical components to mass
communication

Thus, if one’s message is efficiently delivered and timely,

it will have a stronger impact on the target audience.
Mass Communications and
the “New Media”
✓ talk-show models
Use existing technologies and ✓ tabloid (sensational) styles
alternative broadcasting ✓ celebrity status for hosts
formats to analyze and ✓ strong and opinionated
disseminate information, political or social
commentary
✓ media that use digital
How?
technology - social media
and the use of internet
Reporting Terrorism

Problem: the media have not been consistent about which

incidents they report or how they report them

Take Note: news media are owned and controlled by large

corporations largely motivated by market share and profit.

Objective reporting is often outweighed by other factors, such as

trying to acquire a larger share of the viewing market
The Contagion Effect

- theoretical influence of media exposure on the future

behavior of other like-minded extremists

TERRORIST ATTACK GARNERED WIDE

EXPOSURE/SYMPATHY FROM THE MEDIA AND
AUDIENCE Other terrorists may be motivated to
replicate the tactic or strategy
READ ALSO THE FOLLOWING:

CAUSES OF TERRORISM IN BRIEF (Last part

of the ULO-B SIM)
OKAY, BYE. ☺
ULO-D
CRI331
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM
International terrorism occurs when the
target is a global symbol and the political
psychological effects go beyond a purely
domestic agenda.
The Spillover Effect

Those who engage in political

violence on an international scale do
so with the expectation that it will
have a positive spillover effect on
their cause at home—thus reasoning
that international exposure will bring
about compensation for perceived
injustices.
The following characteristics distinguish
international terrorism as a specific type of
terrorism:

• Domestic Attacks Against Victims With an

International Profile

• Operations in a Foreign Country

Case: Hijackings as International Spillovers

International passenger carriers are relatively soft

targets that attract international media attention when
attacked.

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP)

staged a series of aircraft hijackings as a way to
publicize the cause of the Palestinians.
Reasons for International Terrorism

• Some act in cooperation with others - waging an

international campaign against a perceived
lobal enemy.

• As expressions of solidarity with international causes

- France’s Direct Action, Germany’s Red Army
Faction, and Italy’s Red Brigade
frequently attacked symbolic targets
Underlying reasons extremists select
international terrorism as a strategy:

• 1. Ideological Reasons: Modern “isms” and International

Revolutionary Solidarity

• 2. Practical Reasons: Perceived Efficiency

• 3. Tactical Reasons: Adapting Theory to Operations

 Assuming that there was a new inhabitant
from another city in your little town, he lives next
door to your house. Later, he occupied the territory
outside his border and even had complete control
over the entire neighborhood… As a resident, how
would you feel?
1. Ideological Reasons: Modern “isms” and
International Revolutionary Solidarity

Reasons for this resistance: the overt presence of foreign

troops, administrators, and business interests in the newly
emerging countries

other reasons: the policies and ideologies of the Western

powers.
The conceptual labels commonly used by violent extremists—both
secular and religious—include the following:

• Imperialism - Western powers had traditionally deemed empire

building (imperialism) a legitimate manifestation of national prestige
and power.

• Neocolonialism - referred to exploitation by Western interests,

usually symbolized by multinational corporations.

• Zionism - was officially sanctioned by the Balfour Declaration of

November 2, 1917; this was a statement by the British government
that favored establishing the Jewish nation in Palestine as long as
the rights of non-Jewish residents were guaranteed.
Practical Reasons: Perceived Efficiency
international terrorism - is that it is perceived by many extremists to
be “a highly efficient (if repugnant) instrument for achieving the
aims of terrorist movements.

• The Potential for Maximum Publicity - get maximum media

exposure

• Inflicting the Potential for Maximum Psychological Anxiety -

creates security problems and psychological anxiety everywhere

• Pragmatism - Demanding concessions –(secured ransoms for

hostages, prisoner releases,)
Tactical Reasons: Adapting Theory to
Operations
Fish swimming in the sea of the people - more difficult to root
out a movement that uses cells prepositioned in several
countries,

Enraging the beast - provoking a powerful

adversary into overreacting—and thus creating a heightened
revolutionary consciousness among the people
 INTERNATIONAL TERRORIST NETWORKS
Many revolutionary movements have proclaimed their solidarity
with other movements

They are naturally presumed one or more of the following

environments:
• Terrorist groups talk to each other.
• The international terrorist environment is basically
conspiratorial.
• Terrorist groups support each other.
• Governments sponsor terrorists
THE INTERNATIONAL
DIMENSION OF THE
NEW TERRORISM
Movement Case: The Afghan Arabs at War

- 1979 Soviet invasion, produced a large cadre of hardened

Islamic fighters and led to a sustained guerrilla insurgency that
eventually forced the occupying Soviet army to withdraw after
losing 15,000 personnel killed in action.

- The war was considered a jihad in the eyes of the insurgents,

who declared themselves mujahideen in a holy war against
nonbelievers.

- led to the creation of the Al Qaeda network and domestic jihadi

Organization Case: Al Qaeda and International
Terrorism
Al Qaeda is a transnational movement with
members and supporters from throughout the
Muslim world.

Two overarching goals:

• to link together Muslim extremist groups
throughout the world into a loose pan-Islamic
revolutionary network

• to expel non-Muslim (especially Western)

influences from Islamic regions and countries.
Case: International Cells
Operatives who were trained or inspired by Al Qaeda established
cells in dozens of countries and regions

- cells and larger groups became resident in the following

predominantly Muslim countries Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia,
Chechnya, Indonesia, Iraq...

- Other cells were covertly positioned in the following Western

and non-Muslim countries: Britain, France, Germany, Israel,
Spain, the United States
Not all cells are sleeper cells, defined as groups of
terrorists taking up long-term residence in countries before
attacks.

For example, most of September 11, 2001, hijackers

entered the United States for the express purpose of
committing terrorist acts; they were never prepositioned
as sleepers to be activated at a later date.