SHC 301 Final

Design of Highways, Bridges and Tunnels
SHC 301 – Highway Geometric Design

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SAUDI HIGHWAY CODE (SHC)
SHC STEERING COMMITTEE

SHC Project Director

SAUDI HIGHWAY CODE (SHC)
SHC SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE

SHC TECHNICAL TEAM

SHC ADMINISTRATIVE TAEM

SHC LEGAL TEAM

SHC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (SHC 301)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................................ I
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................... XIV
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... XXIV
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Summary of Chapters ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2. Scope ............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3. Reference Standards and Codes ..................................................................................................... 3
2. Functional Classification of Highways ................................................................................................ 4
2.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Purpose of Classification ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3. Highway Functional System ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3.1. Functional System Characteristics ............................................................................................................ 5
2.3.2. Multimodal Considerations ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.3. Project Design Types ................................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.4. Contextual Highway Classification ............................................................................................................ 8
2.3.5. Highway Access Management Classification .......................................................................................... 12
2.4. Categories of Highways ................................................................................................................. 14

2.4.1. Purpose of Highway Categories .............................................................................................................. 14
2.4.2. Principles Considered in Establishing Approach ..................................................................................... 14
2.4.3. Design Characteristics and Description of Each Highway Category ....................................................... 15
2.4.4. Arab MASHREQ International Road Network ......................................................................................... 23
2.5. Highway Design Concepts ............................................................................................................. 25

2.5.1. Design Flexibility ..................................................................................................................................... 25
2.5.2. Performance-Based Practical Design ...................................................................................................... 25
2.5.3. Safe System Approach ............................................................................................................................ 26
2.5.4. Concept of Complete Streets.................................................................................................................. 27
2.5.5. Concept of Self-Explaining Roads ........................................................................................................... 28
2.5.6. Concept of Sustainable Highway Design ................................................................................................ 29
2.6. Route Designations ....................................................................................................................... 31

2.6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 31
2.6.2. Purpose ................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.6.3. Route Numbers....................................................................................................................................... 32
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2.6.4. Freeways-Expressways ........................................................................................................................... 32
2.6.5. Additions, Deletions and Revisions......................................................................................................... 32
2.7. Approval Process ........................................................................................................................... 32

2.7.1. Policy ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
2.7.2. Specific Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 33
2.7.3. Form of Approval .................................................................................................................................... 34
2.7.4. Approval Schedule .................................................................................................................................. 34
2.7.5. Approving Authority ............................................................................................................................... 34
3. Predesign Elements ......................................................................................................................... 35

3.1. General .......................................................................................................................................... 35
3.2. Driver Performance and Human Factors ...................................................................................... 35
3.2.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 35
3.2.2. Driver Perception Reaction..................................................................................................................... 35
3.2.3. Older Drivers and Older Pedestrians ...................................................................................................... 36
3.2.4. The Driving and Guidance Task .............................................................................................................. 36
3.2.5. Stopping Procedure and Passing Maneuvers ......................................................................................... 39
3.2.6. Other Driving Performance Characteristics ............................................................................................ 40
3.3. Traffic Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.1. General Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 40
3.3.2. Traffic Flow Parameters for Design ........................................................................................................ 41
3.3.3. Speed Concepts ...................................................................................................................................... 41
3.4. Design Vehicles.............................................................................................................................. 43

3.4.1. Passenger Cars ........................................................................................................................................ 43
3.4.2. Powered Two-Wheelers ......................................................................................................................... 43
3.4.3. Heavy Vehicles ........................................................................................................................................ 44
3.4.4. Recreational Vehicles ............................................................................................................................. 46
3.5. Vulnerable Highway Users ............................................................................................................ 46

3.5.1. Pedestrians ............................................................................................................................................. 46
3.5.2. Bicyclists ................................................................................................................................................. 46
3.5.3. Micromobility ......................................................................................................................................... 47
3.6. Economic Analysis of a Highway Project ....................................................................................... 48

3.7. Corridor Studies and Environmental Assessment ......................................................................... 48
3.7.1. Background Data .................................................................................................................................... 48
3.7.2. Information to be Obtained During Study .............................................................................................. 52
II SHC 301
3.7.3. Field Investigation .................................................................................................................................. 53
3.7.4. Corridor Evaluation................................................................................................................................. 54
3.7.5. Reconnaissance Report .......................................................................................................................... 55
3.8. Surveys and Mapping .................................................................................................................... 56

3.8.1. Surveys ................................................................................................................................................... 56
3.8.2. Mapping.................................................................................................................................................. 56
3.9. Centerline Location and Preliminary Design ................................................................................. 56

3.9.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 56
3.9.2. Route Selection ....................................................................................................................................... 56
3.9.3. Large Scale Mapping ............................................................................................................................... 58
3.9.4. Centerline Projection .............................................................................................................................. 58
3.9.5. Centerline Evaluation and Preliminary Design Report Format ............................................................... 61
3.10. Geotechnical Engineering .................................................................................................... 65

3.11. Hydrology............................................................................................................................. 65
3.12. Traffic Surveys and Projections ........................................................................................... 65
3.13. Structural Design of Flexible or Rigid Pavements ................................................................ 65
3.14. Hydraulic Design .................................................................................................................. 65
3.15. Highway Lighting ................................................................................................................. 65
3.16. Traffic Control Plans ............................................................................................................ 66
3.17. Control of Traffic Through Construction Areas ................................................................... 66
3.18. Roadside Development ....................................................................................................... 66
3.19. Safety Barriers ..................................................................................................................... 66
4. Geometric Design of Highways ........................................................................................................ 67
4.1. General .......................................................................................................................................... 67
4.2. Terrain Classification ..................................................................................................................... 67
4.3. Design Speed Standards ................................................................................................................ 67
4.4. Highway Capacity and Level of Service ......................................................................................... 68
4.4.1. General ................................................................................................................................................... 68
4.4.2. Two-Lane Highways ................................................................................................................................ 68
4.4.3. Multilane Rural and Urban Highways ..................................................................................................... 68
4.4.4. Freeways - Expressways ......................................................................................................................... 69
4.4.5. Freeway / Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sections ............................................................................ 70
4.4.6. Streets and Intersections ........................................................................................................................ 70
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4.5. Access Control ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.5.1. General ................................................................................................................................................... 71
4.5.2. Warrants for Access Control ................................................................................................................... 71
4.5.3. Design Criteria ........................................................................................................................................ 72
4.5.4. Connection Types ................................................................................................................................... 75
4.5.5. Protection of Access Rights .................................................................................................................... 89
4.6. General Elements of Design .......................................................................................................... 90

4.6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 90
4.6.2. General Parameters for Sight Distance .................................................................................................. 90
4.6.3. General Parameters for Horizontal Alignment ....................................................................................... 96
4.6.4. General Parameters for Vertical Alignment ........................................................................................... 99
4.6.5. Combinations of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment .......................................................... 102
4.6.6. Cross-Section Design Parameters ......................................................................................................... 103
4.6.7. Other Appurtenances Affecting Geometric Design .............................................................................. 115
4.7. Geometric Design of Cross Sections............................................................................................ 115

4.7.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 115
4.7.2. Travel Lane Standards .......................................................................................................................... 115

4.7.3. Auxiliary Lane Standards ...................................................................................................................... 116
4.7.4. Shoulder Standards .............................................................................................................................. 117
4.7.5. Side Ditches .......................................................................................................................................... 120
4.7.6. Curbs and Gutters ................................................................................................................................. 120
4.7.7. Side Slopes ............................................................................................................................................ 124
4.7.8. Median Standards................................................................................................................................. 124
4.7.9. Typical Cross Sections ........................................................................................................................... 125
4.7.10. Traffic Quality and Typical Cross-Sections ............................................................................................ 127
4.7.11. Consideration of Other Traffic Modes .................................................................................................. 127
4.7.12. Structure Clearances and Elements ...................................................................................................... 127
4.7.13. Airway-Highway Clearances ................................................................................................................. 128
4.8. Special Design and Operation Considerations ............................................................................ 133

4.8.1. Transit Facilities .................................................................................................................................... 133
4.8.2. Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities ........................................................................................................... 133
4.8.3. Special Purpose Truck Highway Facilities ............................................................................................. 134
4.8.4. Bridge Geometric Design ...................................................................................................................... 135
4.8.5. Tunnel Geometric Design ..................................................................................................................... 135
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4.8.6. Climbing Lanes ...................................................................................................................................... 146
4.8.7. Emergency Escape Ramps .................................................................................................................... 146
4.8.8. Lane Reductions ................................................................................................................................... 151
4.8.9. Median Openings ................................................................................................................................. 152
4.8.10. Wildlife and Camel Crossings................................................................................................................ 152
4.8.11. Sand Abatement in Dune Areas ............................................................................................................ 154
5. Rural Highway Design .................................................................................................................... 157

5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 157
5.2. Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 157
5.3. Basic Design Principles ................................................................................................................ 157
5.3.1. Design Process ...................................................................................................................................... 157
5.3.2. Categories and Design Speed ............................................................................................................... 158
5.4. Cross-Sections ............................................................................................................................. 158

5.4.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 159
5.4.2. Cross-Section Components ................................................................................................................... 159
5.4.3. Cross-Section Clearances ...................................................................................................................... 160
5.4.4. Typical Cross-Sections .......................................................................................................................... 160
5.4.5. Traffic Quality and Typical Cross-Sections ............................................................................................ 164
5.4.6. Passing Lanes ........................................................................................................................................ 164
5.5. Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 166

5.5.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 166
5.5.2. Sight Distance ....................................................................................................................................... 166
5.5.3. Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................................................................ 169

5.5.4. Vertical Alignment ................................................................................................................................ 172
5.5.5. Three-Dimensional Alignment .............................................................................................................. 175
5.5.6. Superelevation ...................................................................................................................................... 177
5.5.7. Traveled-Way Widening ....................................................................................................................... 181
5.6. Special Design Features in Areas of Bridges and Tunnels ........................................................... 181
5.7. Highway Appurtenances ............................................................................................................. 182
5.8. Highway Use by Military Vehicles ............................................................................................... 182
5.8.1. General Aspects .................................................................................................................................... 182
5.8.2. Pavement Width ................................................................................................................................... 184
5.8.3. Safe Speeds ........................................................................................................................................... 184
6. Streets in Urban Areas ................................................................................................................... 187
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6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 187
6.2. Residential Streets....................................................................................................................... 187
6.2.1. General Design Considerations ............................................................................................................ 187
6.2.2. Basic Design Principles.......................................................................................................................... 188
6.2.3. Cross-Section Elements ........................................................................................................................ 188
6.2.4. Alignment ............................................................................................................................................. 189
6.2.5. Intersection Design ............................................................................................................................... 194
6.2.6. Other Design Issues .............................................................................................................................. 194
6.3. Collectors in Urban Areas ............................................................................................................ 197

6.3.4. Alignment ............................................................................................................................................. 199
6.3.6. Railroad-Highway at-Grade Crossings .................................................................................................. 204
6.3.7. Other Design Issues .............................................................................................................................. 205
6.4. Arterials in Urban Areas .............................................................................................................. 205

6.4.4. Alignment ............................................................................................................................................. 207
6.4.6. Frontage Highways and Outer Separations .......................................................................................... 212
6.5. Urban Freeways and Expressways .............................................................................................. 213

6.5.5. Interchange Design ............................................................................................................................... 219
6.5.6. Frontage Highways and Outer Separations .......................................................................................... 219
6.6. Special Design Features for Urban Freeways / Expressways ...................................................... 219
6.6.1. General Design Characteristics ............................................................................................................. 219
6.6.2. Depressed Freeways / Expressways ..................................................................................................... 220
6.6.3. Elevated Freeways / Expressways ........................................................................................................ 222
VI SHC 301
6.6.4. Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways ................................................................................................ 226
6.6.5. Combination-Type Freeways / Expressways ........................................................................................ 228
6.6.6. Special Freeway / Expressway Designs ................................................................................................. 230
6.6.7. Special Design Facilities ........................................................................................................................ 233
6.7. Complete Streets Concept .......................................................................................................... 243

6.7.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 243
6.7.2. Complete Streets Concepts .................................................................................................................. 243
6.7.3. Benefits of Complete Streets Network ................................................................................................. 243
6.7.4. Overview of Complete Street Principles and Components .................................................................. 244
6.7.5. Plan and Design Complete Streets ....................................................................................................... 245
6.8. Traffic Calming Engineering Measures ........................................................................................ 258

6.8.1. Street Width Reduction - Road Diet ..................................................................................................... 258
6.8.2. Vertical Deflection Measures ............................................................................................................... 263
6.8.3. Horizontal Deflection Measures ........................................................................................................... 271
6.8.4. Other Traffic Calming Measures ........................................................................................................... 276
6.8.5. Use of Traffic Control Devices for Traffic Calming ................................................................................ 277
6.9. Transit Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 277

6.9.1. Location of Bus Stops ........................................................................................................................... 278
6.9.2. Reserved Bus Lanes .............................................................................................................................. 279
6.10. Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities ........................................................................................ 279

6.10.1. Bicycle Traffic ........................................................................................................................................ 279
6.10.2. Pedestrian Traffic.................................................................................................................................. 280
6.11. Appurtenances for Urban Streets...................................................................................... 285

7. Controlled Access Highways .......................................................................................................... 286
7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 286
7.2. General Design Considerations ................................................................................................... 286
7.3.1. Design Process ...................................................................................................................................... 286
7.3.2. Categories and Design Speed ............................................................................................................... 287

7.3.3. Design Traffic Volumes and Level of Service ........................................................................................ 287
7.4. Cross-Sections ............................................................................................................................. 287

7.4.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 287
7.4.2. Freeway / Expressway Components ..................................................................................................... 288
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7.5. Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 292
7.5.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 292
7.5.2. Stopping Sight Distance ........................................................................................................................ 293
7.5.6. Superelevation ...................................................................................................................................... 301
7.6. Special Design Features in Areas of Bridges and Tunnels ........................................................... 306
7.7. Special Technical Design and Operation Considerations ............................................................ 307
7.7.1. Climbing Lanes ...................................................................................................................................... 307
7.7.2. Lane Reductions ................................................................................................................................... 308
7.7.3. Central Median Openings ..................................................................................................................... 310
7.8. Appurtenances for Controlled Access Highways ........................................................................ 310

8. Low Volume and Access Highway Design ...................................................................................... 311
8.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 311
8.2.1. Design Process ...................................................................................................................................... 311
8.2.2. Highway Categories .............................................................................................................................. 312
8.2.3. Highway Design Features ..................................................................................................................... 313
8.2.4. Design Speeds ....................................................................................................................................... 314
8.3. Cross-Sections ............................................................................................................................. 314

8.3.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 314
8.4. Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 317

8.4.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 317
8.4.2. Sight Distance ....................................................................................................................................... 317

8.4.6. Superelevation ...................................................................................................................................... 324
VIII SHC 301

8.4.8. Hairpin Curves ...................................................................................................................................... 327
8.5. Intersections................................................................................................................................ 329

8.6. Safety Considerations.................................................................................................................. 329
8.7. Low Volume Highway Appurtenances ........................................................................................ 330
9. Heavy Vehicle and Industrial Highway Design ............................................................................... 331
9.1. General Considerations ............................................................................................................... 331
9.2.1. Design Process ...................................................................................................................................... 331
9.2.2. Industrial Highway Categories .............................................................................................................. 332
9.2.3. Design Speeds ....................................................................................................................................... 332
9.3. Heavy Vehicle Design Aspects ..................................................................................................... 332

9.4. Cross Section Design ................................................................................................................... 333
9.4.1. General Remarks .................................................................................................................................. 333
9.5. Typical Cross-Sections ................................................................................................................. 335

9.6. Alignment .................................................................................................................................... 338
9.6.4. Stopping Sight Distance ........................................................................................................................ 342
9.6.5. Superelevation ...................................................................................................................................... 344
9.7. Intersection Design ..................................................................................................................... 346

9.7.1. At-Grade Intersections with Priority Control Signs............................................................................... 346
9.7.2. At-Grade Intersections with Traffic Lights ............................................................................................ 346
9.8. Special Design Considerations..................................................................................................... 347

9.8.1. Pedestrian Services ............................................................................................................................... 347
9.8.2. Bicycle Services ..................................................................................................................................... 347
9.8.3. Transit Services ..................................................................................................................................... 347
9.8.4. Special Purpose Truck Highway Facilities ............................................................................................. 348
9.9. Industrial Highways Appurtenances ........................................................................................... 348

10.At-Grade Intersections................................................................................................................... 349
10.1. General .............................................................................................................................. 349
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10.1.1. Characteristics of Intersections ............................................................................................................ 349
10.1.2. Intersection Functional Area ................................................................................................................ 350
10.1.3. Design Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 350
10.1.4. Intersection Types ................................................................................................................................ 351
10.2. Three and Four-Leg Type Intersections ............................................................................. 353

10.2.1. Establishing Intersection Control.......................................................................................................... 353
10.2.2. Data for Intersection Design ................................................................................................................. 353
10.2.3. Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts .................................................................................................. 354
10.2.4. Design Vehicle and Turning Radii ......................................................................................................... 354
10.2.5. Intersection Design Elements ............................................................................................................... 355
10.2.6. Intersection Sight Distance ................................................................................................................... 356
10.2.7. Intersection Radii .................................................................................................................................. 368
10.2.8. Auxiliary Turn Lanes.............................................................................................................................. 370
10.2.9. Channelization ...................................................................................................................................... 374
10.2.10. Median Acceleration Lanes ........................................................................................................... 380
10.2.11. Superelevation .............................................................................................................................. 384
10.2.12. Bus Bays ........................................................................................................................................ 387
10.2.13. Spacing of Intersections ................................................................................................................ 388
10.2.14. Intersection Connections to Roadside Development ................................................................... 390
10.3. Roundabout Intersections ................................................................................................. 394

10.3.1. General Design Principles ..................................................................................................................... 394
10.3.2. Geometric Elements ............................................................................................................................. 394
10.3.3. Design Vehicles in Roundabouts .......................................................................................................... 396
10.3.4. Single-Lane and Multi-Lane Roundabouts ............................................................................................ 396
10.3.5. Turbo Roundabouts .............................................................................................................................. 401
10.3.6. Mini Roundabouts ................................................................................................................................ 405
10.3.7. Fastest Path .......................................................................................................................................... 411
10.3.8. Sight Distance on Roundabouts ............................................................................................................ 415
10.3.9. Treatments for High-Speed Approaches .............................................................................................. 419
10.3.10. Roundabout Landscaping ............................................................................................................. 421
10.4. Bicycle and Pedestrian Design Considerations .................................................................. 422

10.4.1. Bicyclists ............................................................................................................................................... 422
10.4.2. Pedestrians ........................................................................................................................................... 422
10.5. Public Transport Considerations........................................................................................ 423
X SHC 301
10.6. Alternative Intersection Design ......................................................................................... 423
10.6.1. Displaced Left Turn ............................................................................................................................... 423
10.6.2. Staggered Intersections ........................................................................................................................ 424
10.6.3. Median U-Turn ..................................................................................................................................... 425
10.6.4. Parallel Flow Intersection (Parflow) ..................................................................................................... 429
10.7. Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings .................................................................................... 430

11.Interchange Design ........................................................................................................................ 431
11.1. Concepts and Warrants ..................................................................................................... 431
11.2. Basic Design Features ........................................................................................................ 432
11.2.1. General ................................................................................................................................................. 432
11.3. Interchange Types ............................................................................................................. 432

11.3.1. Basic Interchange Configurations ......................................................................................................... 432
11.3.2. Three-Leg Designs................................................................................................................................. 434
11.3.3. Four-Leg Designs................................................................................................................................... 435
11.3.4. Turnarounds at Diamond Interchanges ................................................................................................ 445
11.3.5. Directional Interchanges ...................................................................................................................... 445
11.4. Determination of Interchange Configuration .................................................................... 449

11.5. Design Standards ............................................................................................................... 450
11.5.1. Auxiliary Single-Lanes ........................................................................................................................... 450
11.5.2. Auxiliary Multi-Lanes ............................................................................................................................ 456
11.5.3. Interchanges Spacing ............................................................................................................................ 457
11.6. Ramp Design ...................................................................................................................... 457

11.6.1. General ................................................................................................................................................. 458
11.6.2. Typical Ramp Configurations ................................................................................................................ 458
11.6.3. Distance Between Successive Ramp Terminals .................................................................................... 458
11.6.4. Design Speed ........................................................................................................................................ 460
11.6.5. Ramp Typical Cross Section .................................................................................................................. 461

11.6.7. Grades................................................................................................................................................... 463
11.6.8. Vertical Curves ...................................................................................................................................... 464
11.6.9. Superelevation ...................................................................................................................................... 464
11.7. Other Interchange Design Features................................................................................... 467

11.7.1. Pedestrian and Bicyclist Accommodation ............................................................................................ 467
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11.7.2. Managed Lanes and Transit Facilities ................................................................................................... 467
11.7.3. Grading Development .......................................................................................................................... 467
12.Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, and Mobility Corridor ................................................................. 468

12.1. Non-Freeway Rehabilitation (3R) Design Criteria.............................................................. 468
12.1.1. Purpose ................................................................................................................................................. 468
12.1.2. Design Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 468
12.1.3. Safety Enhancements ........................................................................................................................... 469
12.1.4. Bridges and Culverts ............................................................................................................................. 470
12.1.5. Three-Lane Rural Highways .................................................................................................................. 470
12.2. Relocation and Reconstruction (4R) Design Criteria ......................................................... 471

12.2.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 471
12.2.2. Urban Streets ........................................................................................................................................ 471
12.2.3. Suburban Highways .............................................................................................................................. 472
12.2.4. Two-Lane Rural Highways..................................................................................................................... 473
12.2.5. Multi-Lane Rural Highways ................................................................................................................... 473
12.2.6. Freeways and Expressways................................................................................................................... 476
12.3. Mobility Corridor (5R) Design Criteria ............................................................................... 477

12.3.1. Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 477
12.3.2. Highway Design Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 477
12.3.3. Roadside Design Criteria ....................................................................................................................... 483
12.3.4. Ramps and Direct Connections............................................................................................................. 483
13.Design Exception Procedure .......................................................................................................... 486

13.1. General .............................................................................................................................. 486
13.2. Criteria for Design Exception ............................................................................................. 486
13.3. Request for Design Exception ............................................................................................ 487
References .......................................................................................................................................... 491
Appendix A - Geometric Configurations ............................................................................................. 494
A.1. Configuration of Passing Lanes on Rural Highways .................................................................... 494
A.1.1. Passing Lanes on Continues Three-Lane Rural Highways ..................................................................... 494
A.1.2. Passing Lanes on Occasional Three-Lane Rural Highways .................................................................... 494
A.2. Spiral Geometry .......................................................................................................................... 497

A.3. Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves ............................................................................. 499
A.4. Minimum Turning Paths .............................................................................................................. 500
Appendix B - Glossary of Terms .......................................................................................................... 510
XII SHC 301

Appendix C - Abbreviations, Acronyms............................................................................................... 515
Appendix D - Units .............................................................................................................................. 518
SHC 301 XIII

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List of Figures
Figure 2-1 Context Classification in from Rural to Suburban Areas (FDOT, 2020).......................... 9
Figure 2-2 Context Classification in from Suburban to Urban Core Areas (FDOT, 2020) ............. 9
Figure 2-3 Observed Relationship of Functionally Classified Systems Serving Traffic Mobility
and Land Access for Motor-Vehicle Traffic (Williams et al., 2014) ..................................................... 13
Figure 2-4 A Well Performing and Safe Highway Network Pattern (Arterial Street Access
Control Study, Tri County Regional Commission, 1981, p.3.) ............................................................... 13
Figure 2-5 The “Arab Mashreq International Road Network” .............................................................. 24
Figure 3-1 Maximum Size for a Single Truck, for a Truck and Trailer and for a Semi-Trailer Truck
...................................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-2 Maximum Size for a Bus ............................................................................................................... 45
Figure 3-3 Micromobility Vehicle Types (Source: Vaughan, Canada 2022) .................................... 48
Figure 4-1 Spacing Dimensions for Freeway Interchange Access with Multilane Highway
(Williams et al., 2014) ........................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 4-2 Spacing Dimensions for Freeway Interchange Access with Two-lane Highway
(Williams et al., 2014) ........................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 4-3 Typical Spacing Recommendations for Roundabout Terminals with Two and Four
Lane Highways (Williams et al., 2014) ........................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4-4 Measuring Connection Spacing (ALDOT, 2021) .................................................................. 82
Figure 4-5 Corner Clearance (ALDOT, 2021)............................................................................................... 83
Figure 4-6 Effects of Curb Radii and Parking Turnout Paths (INDOT, 2013) .................................. 86
Figure 4-7 Driveway Offsets (ALDOT, 2021) ............................................................................................... 87
Figure 4-8 Throat Length (Source: Stover &, V. G., and F. J. Koepke. Transportation and Land
Development, 2nd ed. Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C., 2002)............ 88
Figure 4-9 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the
Grade for all Highway Categories ................................................................................................................... 91
Figure 4-10 Possible Line of Sight from the Driver’s Eye Point to the Object Point for the
Stopping Sight Distance in Left-Hand Curve (CALTRANS, 2019) ....................................................... 92
Figure 4-11 Diagram for Calculating the Available Sight Distance on Carriageways in Curves
with Respect to the Clear Distance to Obstruction .................................................................................. 92
Figure 4-12 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the
Curve for all Highway Categories (max e = 12.0 %) .............................................................................. 103
Figure 4-13 Application of Adverse Superelevation on Curves ......................................................... 104
Figure 4-14 Superelevation Runoff Development .................................................................................. 106
Figure 4-15 Normal and Rotated Sections (AASHTO, 2018) .............................................................. 109
Figure 4-16 Widening Components on Open Roadway Curves (AASHTO, 2018)...................... 114
XIV SHC 301

Figure 4-17 General Information and Dimensions of Concrete Curbs and Gutter, Dimensions
in Millimeters ........................................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure 4-18 Precast Slot Type Gutter and Slot Type Gutter with Curbs (FGSV, 2021) .............. 123
Figure 4-19 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Civil Airports
(CALTRANS, 2019) ............................................................................................................................................... 129
Figure 4-20 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Heliport
(CALTRANS, 2019) ............................................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 4-21 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Military
Airports (CALTRANS, 2019) ............................................................................................................................. 131
Figure 4-22 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Navy Carrier
Landing Practice Field (CALTRANS, 2019) ................................................................................................. 132
Figure 4-23 Traffic Envelope and clearances of a tunnel cross-Section (FGSV, 2019) .............. 138
Figure 4-24 Typical Cross-Sections for all Design Classes on Freeways/Expressways on Tunnels
(FGSV, 2008) .......................................................................................................................................................... 139
Figure 4-25 Configuration of Breakdown Emergency Alcoves for Vehicles in Tunnels (FGSV,
2019) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 140
Figure 4-26 Cross Passage to Adjacent Tunnel Tube (FGSV, 2019) ................................................. 142
Figure 4-27 Rescue Gallery to Open Space (FGSV, 2019) .................................................................... 143
Figure 4-28 Rescue Gallery with Rescue Shaft (FGSV, 2019) .............................................................. 144
Figure 4-29 Rescue System with Parallel Rescue Galleries (FGSV, 2019) ....................................... 145
Figure 4-30 Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps (AASHTO, 2018)........................................ 148
Figure 4-31 Forces Acting on a Vehicle in Motion (AASHTO, 2018) ............................................... 150
Figure 4-32 Typical Cross-Section of Wildlife Underpass (Government of Abu Dhabi, 2016)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Figure 4-33 Typical Cross-Section of Camel Underpass (Government of Abu Dhabi, 2016) . 153
Figure 4-34 Typical Camel Overpass ........................................................................................................... 154
Figure 4-35 Sand Terrains in the Arabian Peninsula .............................................................................. 155
Figure 5-1 Typical Cross-Sections for Two-Lane Rural Highways (CALTRANS, 2019) .............. 161
Figure 5-2 Typical Cross-Sections for Three-Lane Rural Highways (CALTRANS, 2019) ........... 162
Figure 5-3 Typical Cross-Sections for All Paved Multilane Highways (CALTRANS, 2019) ....... 163
Grade for Rural Highways ................................................................................................................................ 167
Figure 5-5 Consecutive Radii Limits (FGSV, 2012) .................................................................................. 170
Figure 5-6 Consistent Radii Values with Respect to the Tangent Length Lg Before Entering the
Curve (FGSV, 2012) ............................................................................................................................................. 171
Figure 5-7 Critical Area of Consecutive Crest and Sag Vertical Curves (FGSV, 2012) ............... 177
SHC 301 XV
XV
Figure 5-8 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of The
Curve (Max e = 12.0 %) for Rural Highways ............................................................................................. 178
Figure 5-9 Pavement Rotation Axis for Superelevation Adaptation (FGSV, 2012) ..................... 180
Figure 5-10 Highway Cross-Section with Pavement and Crown Width (FGSV, 1996) .............. 184
Figure 6-1 Typical Cross-Section of Residential Street with One-Sided Superelevation in Urban
Area, 17.5 m Wide (MoMRAH, 2019)........................................................................................................... 188
Figure 6-2 Typical Cross-Section of Residential Street with reverse crown in Urban Area, 15.0
m wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-section Elements for Streets and
Roads, 2006).......................................................................................................................................................... 189
Grade for Residential Streets .......................................................................................................................... 189
Curve (Max e = 12.0 %) for Residential Streets ....................................................................................... 193
Figure 6-5 Geometric Requirements of Turning in Cul-De-Sac Areas (AASHTO, 2018) .......... 195
Figure 6-6 Squared End Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................. 196
Figure 6-7 Circular End Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................... 196
Figure 6-8 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, with Median including
Parking Space, 30.0 m Wide (MoMRAH, 2019)........................................................................................ 198
Figure 6-9 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, without Median and
including Parking Space, 25.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-
section Elements for Streets and Roads, 2006)-Exceptional Case .................................................... 198
Figure 6-10 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, without Median and
without Parking Space, 30.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-
section Elements for Streets and Roads, 2006). Exceptional Case ................................................... 198
Grade for Collectors in Urban Areas ............................................................................................................ 199
Curve (Max e = 12.0 %) for Collectors in Urban Areas ......................................................................... 203
Figure 6-13 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, including Service Road,
60.0 m Wide (MoMRAH, 2019) ...................................................................................................................... 206
Figure 6-14 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, without Service Road and
including Parking Space, 40.0 m wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-
section Elements for Streets and Roads, 2006) ....................................................................................... 206
Figure 6-15 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, without Service Road and
without Parking Space, 40.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-
Section Elements for Streets and Roads, 2006) ....................................................................................... 206
Grade for Arterials in Urban Areas ............................................................................................................... 207
XVI SHC 301

Curve (Max E = 12.0 %) for Arterials in Urban Areas ............................................................................. 211
Grade for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ................................................................................... 214
Curve (max e = 12.0 %) for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ................................................ 218
Figure 6-20 Typical Cross-Sections for Depresses Freeways/Expressways (AASHTO, 2018).. 221
Figure 6-21 Restrictive Typical Cross-Sections for Depresses Freeways/Expressways (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 222
Figure 6-22 Typical Cross Sections for Elevated Freeway / Expressway on Structures without
Ramps (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................................................................................................... 224
Figure 6-23 Typical Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways / Expressways on
Structures with Frontage Roads (AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................... 225
Figure 6-24 Typical Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways / Expressways on
Embankment (AASHTO, 2018) ....................................................................................................................... 226
Figure 6-25 Typical Cross Sections for Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 227
Figure 6-26 Restrictive Cross Sections for Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 227
Figure 6-27 Profile Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway in Hilly/Mountainous
Terrain (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 6-28 Profile Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway in Plain Terrain
(AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................................... 229
Figure 6-29 Cross-Section Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 230
Figure 6-30 Typical Cross Section for Reverse-Flow Operation in Underpass (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 231
Figure 6-31 Typical dimensions for Reverse-Flow Operation (AASHTO, 2018) .......................... 231
Figure 6-32 Typical Dual-Divided Freeway / Expressway (AASHTO, 2018) ................................... 232
Figure 6-33 Bus Roadway Located between a Freeway / Expressway and a Parallel Frontage
Road (AASHTO, 2018) ....................................................................................................................................... 234
Figure 6-34 Bus Stops at Freeway / Expressway Level (AASHTO, 2018) ........................................ 236
Figure 6-35 Bus Stops at Freeway / Expressway-Level in Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 237
Figure 6-36 Bus Stops at frontage road Level on Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018) .... 238
Figure 6-37 Mid-Block Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006) ................................ 239
Figure 6-38 Far side Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006) ..................................... 240
Figure 6-39 Nearside Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006) ................................... 240
SHC 301 XVII

XVII
Figure 6-40 Joint Freeway / Expressway-Transit Right-of-Way (AASHTO, 2018) ....................... 242
Figure 6-41 Overview of Complete Street Components (City of Philadelphia, 2017) ............... 245
Figure 6-42 Arrow Showing Complete Street Types (NCDOT, 2012) .............................................. 252
Figure 6-43 Typical Cross-section of Urban/Suburban Main Street (NCDOT, 2012) ................ 254
Figure 6-44 Typical Cross-section of Rural Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)........................................ 255
Figure 6-45 Typical Cross-section of Local Street with Residential Use (NCDOT, 2012) ......... 256
Figure 6-46 Typical Cross-section of Local Street with Office, Commercial and Industrial Use
(NCDOT, 2012) ..................................................................................................................................................... 257
Figure 6-47 Speed Humps (ITE, 2022) ......................................................................................................... 264
Figure 6-48 Typical Parabolic Speed Hump (ITE, 2022) ........................................................................ 265
Figure 6-49 Typical Sinusoidal Speed Hump (ITE, 2022)...................................................................... 265
Figure 6-50 Typical Speed Hump Edge Treatments (ITE, 2022) ........................................................ 266
Figure 6-51 Speed Table (ITE, 2022) ............................................................................................................ 268
Figure 6-52 Typical Speed Table Approach Slope Types (ITE, 2022)............................................... 268
Figure 6-53 Raised Pedestrian Crossing (ITE, 2022) ............................................................................... 269
Figure 6-54 Example of Raised Intersection (ITE, 2022) ....................................................................... 270
Figure 6-55 Sketch Layout of Lateral Shifts/Deflections without and with a Median Island
(FGSV, 2006) .......................................................................................................................................................... 271
Figure 6-56 Dimensions of Speed-Impacting Horizontal Shifts/Deflections (FGSV, 2006) .... 272
Figure 6-57 Layout of Horizontal Deflections at Crossings and Intersections (FGSV, 2006) .. 273
Figure 6-58 Sketch of Modified Intersection (FHWA, 2022) ............................................................... 274
Figure 6-59 Basic Forms of Central Islands with Lane Chicanes for Traffic Calming (FGSV, 2006)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 276
Figure 6-60 Bicycle Operating Space Needed (AASHTO, 2012)........................................................ 280
Figure 6-61 Desired Dimensions for Pedestrian Movement .............................................................. 281
Figure 6-62 Curb Ramp Types (CDOT, 2019) ........................................................................................... 284
Figure 6-63 Typical of Curb Ramps (CDOT, 2019) .................................................................................. 285
Figure 7-1 Typical Formations of Freeway / Expressway Medians (AASHTO, 2018) ................. 290
Figure 7-2 Typical Cross-Sections for Freeways / Expressways with Separate Carriageways and
All Paved or Narrow Median (CALTRANS, 2019)..................................................................................... 291
Figure 7-3 Typical Cross-Sections for Freeways / Expressways with Separate Carriageways and
Wide Median (CALTRANS, 2019) .................................................................................................................. 292
Figure 7-4 Required Stopping Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 294
Curve (max e = 10.0 %) ..................................................................................................................................... 301
XVIII SHC 301

Figure 7-6 Axes of Rotation of the Carriageway on Superelevation Development Sections
(FGSV, 2008) .......................................................................................................................................................... 303
Figure 7-7 Basic forms for the Pavement Rotation in Transition Areas (AASHTO, 2018) ........ 305
Figure 7-8 Typical Climbing Lane Design for Freeways (FGSV, 2008) ............................................. 309
Figure 8-1 Typical Cross-Section for Low-Volume Rural Highways (Source: State of Tennessee
Standard Drawings – Department of Transportation) .......................................................................... 316
Grade for Paved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways................................................................. 318
Grade for Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways ........................................................... 319
Curve (max e = 12.0 %) for Paved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways .............................. 325
Curve (max e = 8.0 %) for Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways ........................... 325
Figure 8-6 Typical Hairpin Curve Layout in Mountainous Terrain with Steep Slope................. 327
Figure 8-7 Bend Insertion Two Opposite Traveled Two-Axle Vehicles (SN 640 198a-Courbes,
Lacets; VSS, 2019)................................................................................................................................................ 329
Figure 9-1 Basic Dimensions for Traffic Clearance (For Industrial Highways FGSV, 2012) ...... 335
Figure 9-2 Typical Cross-Section for Industrial Highways in Urban Environment. .................... 336
Figure 9-3 Typical Cross-Section for Industrial Highways in Rural Environment (Source: State
of Tennessee Standard drawings – Department of Transportation). .............................................. 336
Figure 9-4 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes within the Median without Median
Separation (FDOT, 2014) .................................................................................................................................. 337
Figure 9-5 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes Outside with Structural Separation
(FDOT, 2014) ......................................................................................................................................................... 337
Figure 9-6 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes Outside with Outer Physical Separation
(FDOT, 2014) ......................................................................................................................................................... 338
Figure 9-7 Typical Cross-Section for Grade Separated Truck Only Lanes on Single Column
(FDOT, 2014) ......................................................................................................................................................... 338
Grade for Industrial Highways........................................................................................................................ 343
Curve (Max e = 8.0 %) for Industrial Highways ....................................................................................... 345
Figure 10-1 Physical and Functional Area of an Intersection (AASHTO, 2018) ........................... 350
Figure 10-2 General Types of At-Grade Intersections (AASHTO, 2018) ......................................... 352
Figure 10-3 Conflict Points at Various Intersection Types (AASHTO, 2018) ................................. 354
Figure 10-4 Approach Sight Triangles – Uncontrolled or Yield-Controlled (Source: AASHTO, A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018) 357
SHC 301 XIX

XIX
Figure 10-5 Departure Sight Triangles – Stop-Controlled (Source: AASHTO, A Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018) ................... 357
Figure 10-6 Cross Street Grade Adjustment ............................................................................................. 366
Figure 10-7 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignments at Intersections .............................. 366
Figure 10-8 Realignment of Intersections ................................................................................................. 367
Figure 10-9 Median Opening Length for Left Turns .............................................................................. 368
Figure 10-10 Minimum Right-turn Radii at Edge of Traveled Way ................................................. 369
Figure 10-11 Turning Lanes on Multilane Divided Highway .............................................................. 372
Figure 10-12 Introduced Median and Turning Lanes on Multilane Undivided Highway ........ 372
Figure 10-13 Introduced Median and Left-Turn Lane on Multilane Undivided Highway ....... 373
Figure 10-14 Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway......................................... 373
Figure 10-15 Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane “T” Intersection ................................... 374
Figure 10-16 Types of Island Channelization ........................................................................................... 375
Figure 10-17 Curbed Directional Islands with no Shoulder ................................................................ 378
Figure 10-18 Curbed Directional Islands with Outside Shoulder ..................................................... 379
Figure 10-19 Channelization to Improve Left-Turn Sight Distance ................................................. 380
Figure 10-20 Typical Layout for Median Acceleration Lane on Four-Lane Divided Highway (AT,
2019) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 383
Figure 10-21 Superelevation Transition in Auxiliary Lanes ................................................................. 385
Figure 10-22 Channelization to Improve Intersection Operations................................................... 386
Figure 10-23 Bus Bays ....................................................................................................................................... 387
Figure 10-24 Spacing of Frontage Road Terminus from Interchange ............................................ 389
Figure 10-25 Intersection Channelization at Interchanges and Spacing of Frontage Roads from
Interchange ........................................................................................................................................................... 390
Figure 10-26 Public and Commercial Connections ................................................................................ 392
Figure 10-27 Private Connections................................................................................................................. 393
Figure 10-28 Basic Geometric Elements of a Roundabout (AASHTO, 2018) ................................ 395
Figure 10-29 Minimum Splitter Island Dimensions (NCHRP, 2010)................................................. 397
Figure 10-30 Typical Minimum Splitter Island Nose Radii and Offsets (NCHRP, 2010) ........... 398
Figure 10-31 Single-Lane Roundabout Entry Design (NCHRP, 2010) ............................................. 399
Figure 10-32 Single-Lane Roundabout Curvilinear Exit Design (NCHRP, 2010) ......................... 400
Figure 10-33 Single-Lane Roundabout Large Radius Exit Design (NCHRP, 2010) ..................... 401
Figure 10-34 Turbo Roundabout (Petru & Krivda, 2021) ..................................................................... 401
Figure 10-35 Conflict Point Frequency for Multilane and Turbo Roundabouts (FHWA, 2019)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 402
XX SHC 301
Figure 10-36 Graphic. Sample Turbo Block (FHWA, 2019) .................................................................. 403
Figure 10-37 Features of Typical Mini-Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010) ............................................... 406
Figure 10-38 Design That Allows Left Turns in Front of Central Island (NCHRP, 2010) ........... 407
Figure 10-39 Possible Design Improvements to Resolve Turning in Front of Mini-Roundabout
Central Island (NCHRP, 2010) ......................................................................................................................... 408
Figure 10-40 Mini-Roundabout within Existing Intersection Footprint (NCHRP, 2010)........... 409
Figure 10-41 Mini-Roundabout with Central Island Centered Along Major Roadway (NCHRP,
2010) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 410
Figure 10-42 Mini-Roundabout with Inscribed Circle Shifted along Minor Street Axis (NCHRP,
2010) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 410
Figure 10-43 Vehicle Path Radii (NCHRP, 2010)...................................................................................... 411
Figure 10-44 Fastest Vehicle Path through Single-lane Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010) .............. 413
Figure 10-45 Fastest Vehicle Path through Multilane Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010) ................. 413
Figure 10-46 Example of Critical Right-Turn Movement (NCHRP, 2010) ...................................... 414
Figure 10-47 Guidance on Drawing and Measuring the Entry Path Radius (NCHRP, 2010) .. 414
Figure 10-48 Stopping Sight Distance on the Approach (NCHRP, 2010) ...................................... 416
Figure 10-49 Stopping Sight Distance on Circulatory Roadway (NCHRP, 2010) ........................ 416
Figure 10-50 Sight Distance to Crosswalk on Exit (NCHRP, 2010) ................................................... 417
Figure 10-51 Intersection Sight Distance (NCHRP, 2010) .................................................................... 418
Figure 10-52 Extended Splitter Island Treatment (NCHRP, 2010) .................................................... 420
Figure 10-53 Use of Successive Curves on High-Speed Approaches (NCHRP, 2010) .............. 420
Figure 10-54 Central Island Landscaping Profile (NCHRP, 2010) ..................................................... 422
Figure 10-55 Displaced Left-Turn Intersection Design (NCHRP, 2020) .......................................... 424
Figure 10-56 Staggered Intersection (NCDOT, 2020) ........................................................................... 425
Figure 10-57 Median U-Turn Intersection Design (NCHRP, 2020) ................................................... 425
Figure 10-58 Restricted Crossing U-Turn Intersection Design (AASHTO, 2018)......................... 427
Figure 10-59 Parallel Flow Intersection Design (Dhatrak et al., 2010) ............................................ 429
Figure 11-1 Interchange Configurations (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................................. 433
Figure 11-2 Three-Leg Interchanges with Single Structures (AASHTO, 2018) ............................. 434
Figure 11-3 Three-Leg Interchanges with Multiply Structures (AASHTO, 2018)......................... 435
Figure 11-4 Four-Leg Interchanges, Ramps in One Quadrant (AASHTO, 2018) ......................... 436
Figure 11-5 Diamond Interchanges, Conventional Arrangements (AASHTO, 2018) ................. 437
Figure 11-6 Underpass Single-Point Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018) ............................. 439
Figure 11-7 Typical SPDI Underpass Configuration in Restricted Right-Of-Way (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 440
SHC 301 XXI

XXI
Figure 11-8 Diverging Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018) ......................................................... 441
Figure 11-9 Full Cloverleaf Interchange with and without Distributor Roads (TxDOT, 2022) 442
Figure 11-10 Different Cases of Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements – Two Quadrants and
Diagonally Opposite (AASHTO, 2018) ......................................................................................................... 443
Figure 11-11 Different Cases of Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements – Three and Four
Quadrants (AASHTO, 2018) ............................................................................................................................. 444
Figure 11-12 Turnaround Configuration and Influential Site Characteristics (TxDOT, 2022) . 445
Figure 11-13 Directional Interchanges with Weaving Areas (AASHTO, 2018) ............................. 446
Figure 11-14 Directional Interchanges with No Weaving (AASHTO, 2018) .................................. 447
Figure 11-15 Full Directional Interchanges with Multilevel Structures (AASHTO, 2018) ......... 448
Figure 11-16 Adaptability of Interchanges on Freeways as Related to Types of Intersecting
Facilities (AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................. 450
Figure 11-17 Alternative Methods of Reducing Auxiliary Lanes (AASHTO, 2018) ..................... 451
Figure 11-18 Auxiliary Single-Lanes Beyond Entrance (AASHTO, 2018) ........................................ 452
Figure 11-19 Auxiliary Single-Lanes Beyond Exit (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................. 453
Figure 11-20 Auxiliary Multi-Lanes Beyond Entrance (AASHTO, 2018) .......................................... 456
Figure 11-21 Auxiliary Multi-Lanes Beyond Exit (AASHTO, 2018) .................................................... 457
Figure 11-22 Interchange Spacing (AASHTO, 2018) .............................................................................. 457
Figure 11-23 Typical Ramp Configurations (FHWA, 1997) .................................................................. 458
Figure 11-24 Ramp Spacing Dimension (AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................... 459
Figure 11-25 Typical Cross-Sections for Ramps (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2017) ............. 461
Figure 11-26 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of
the Curve on Interchange Ramps (max e = 12.0 %) .............................................................................. 465
Figure 12-1 Typical Transitions from Two-Lane to Four-Lane Divided Highways (TxDOT, 2022)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 476
Grade for Mobility Highways .......................................................................................................................... 478
Curve in Mobility Highways (max e = 10.0 %) ......................................................................................... 482
Figure 13-1 Design Exception Process Checklist (Texas DOT, 2022) ............................................... 488
Figure 13-2 Design Exception Request Form – 1st Page (Texas DOT, 2022) ............................... 489
Figure 13-3 Design Exception Request Form – 2nd Page (Texas DOT, 2022).............................. 490
Figure A-1 General Arrangement of Passing Lanes in Continues Three-Lane Rural Highways
(FGSV, 2012) .......................................................................................................................................................... 495
Figure A-2 General Arrangement of Passing Lanes in Occasional Three-Lane Rural Highways
(FGSV, 2012) .......................................................................................................................................................... 496
XXII SHC 301

Figure A-3 Characteristic Points of the Spiral (FGSV, 2012) ................................................................ 497
Figure A-4 Geometry of Horizontal Curve with Symmetric Spirals Applied (FGSV, 2012) ...... 498
Figure A-5 Rounding of Crest of Sag Vertical Curve (FGSV, 2012) .................................................. 499
Figure A-6 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car (P) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018) ... 500
Figure A-7 Minimum Turning Path for Single-Unit Truck (SU-9) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 501
Figure A-8 Minimum Turning Path for Single-Unit Truck (SU-12) Design Vehicle (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 502
Figure A-9 Minimum Turning Path for Intercity Bus (BUS-12) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 503
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 504
Figure A-11 Minimum Turning Path for Articulated Bus (A-BUS) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 505
Figure A-12 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12) Design Vehicle
(AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................................... 506
Figure A-13 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-15) Design Vehicle
(AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................................... 507
Figure A-14 Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer (WB-20) Design Vehicle (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 508
Figure A-15 Minimum Turning Path for Double-Trailer Combination (WB-20D) Design Vehicle
(AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................................... 509
SHC 301 XXIII

XXIII
List of Tables
Table 1-1 Designations and Titles for SASO Standards Applying to Volume SHC 301 ................ 3
Table 2-1 Summary of Rural Highway Categories.................................................................................... 21
Table 2-2 Summary of Urban Highway Categories .................................................................................. 22
Table 3-1 Common Cases of Passenger Vehicles ..................................................................................... 43
Table 3-2 Common Cases of Heavy Vehicles ............................................................................................. 44
Table 3-3 Notification of Intent to Begin Project Planning and Development Activities (MoC,
1992) .......................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 3-4 Interministry Coordination List .................................................................................................... 51
Table 4-1 Design Speed and Design Level of Service for Rural Highways ...................................... 69
Table 4-2 Design Speed and Design Level of Service for Urban Highways .................................... 70
Table 4-3 Minimum Spacing for Freeway Interchange Access with Multilane Highway (Williams
et al., 2014) .............................................................................................................................................................. 77
Table 4-4 Minimum Spacing for Freeway Interchange Access with Two-Lane Highway (Williams
et al., 2014) .............................................................................................................................................................. 78
Table 4-5 Minimum Spacing Recommendations for Roundabout Terminals with Two and Four
Lane Highways (Williams et al., 2014) ........................................................................................................... 80
Table 4-6 Minimum Spacing Criteria for Commercial/Industrial Driveways (ALDOT, 2021) .... 82
Table 4-7 Minimum Corner Clearance (ALDOT, 2021) ............................................................................ 83
Table 4-8 Minimum Driveway Radius and Width (ALDOT, 2021) ....................................................... 84
Table 4-9 Guidelines for Encroachment for Right Turn (INDOT, 2013) ............................................ 85
Table 4-10 Minimum Driveway Throat Length (ALDOT, 2021) ............................................................ 87
Table 4-11 Access Spacing near Interchanges (ALDOT, 2021) ............................................................ 89
Table 4-12 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for all Single
Carriageway Highway Categories (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022).......... 94
Table 4-13 Required Decision Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for all Single
Carriageway Highway Categories (AASHTO, 2018).................................................................................. 95
Table 4-14 Side Friction Factor and Minimum Circular Arc Length and Horizontal Curve Radius
with Respect to the Design Speed for all Highway Categories ........................................................... 97
Table 4-15 Minimum Parameters for Spirals and Upper Radius Limit for Spiral Application with
Respect to the Design Speed for all Highway Categories ..................................................................... 98
Table 4-16 Recommended Parameters for Spirals and Upper Radius Limit for Spiral Application
with Respect to the Design Speed for all Highway Categories ........................................................... 98
Table 4-17 Recommended Grade with Respect to the Design Speed for all Highway Categories
...................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
XXIV SHC 301

Table 4-18 Recommended Values of Parameter K for Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to the
Design Speed for all Highway Categories ................................................................................................. 102
Table 4-19 Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the Application of Adverse Superelevation
in Respect to the Design Speed .................................................................................................................... 104
Table 4-20 Superelevation Runoff Slope ................................................................................................... 107
Table 4-21 Minimum Superelevation Runoff Length (m) for Traveled Way Width Equal to 7.30
m................................................................................................................................................................................ 108
Table 4-22 Tangent Runout Length (m) for Different Rotated Section Widths .......................... 109
Table 4-23 Shoulder Width (m) in Rural Highways ................................................................................ 119
Table 4-24 Shoulder Width (m) in Urban Highways .............................................................................. 119
Table 4-25 Curb Offsets - Dimensions in Meters.................................................................................... 123
Table 4-26 Additional Width in Tunnels with Rectangular Cross-Section due to Superelevation
(EABT 80/100). (FGSV, 2019) ........................................................................................................................... 138
Table 4-27 Rolling Resistance of Highway Surfacing Materials (AASHTO, 2018) ....................... 151
Table 5-1 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural
Highways (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022) ...................................................... 168
with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways ........................................................................ 169
Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways .................................................................................. 172
with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways ........................................................................ 172
Table 5-5 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways ..... 173
Design Speed f or Rural Highways ............................................................................................................... 174
Table 5-7 Required Displacement of the Start of Crest Vertical Curve after the Start of the
Horizontal Curve (Tangent – Spiral – Circular Arc) for Rural Highways (FGSV, 2012) ............... 175
Table 5-8 Effects of Three-Dimensional Alignment Deficiencies (FGSV, 2012) ........................... 176
Table 5-9 Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the Application of Adverse Superelevation in
Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways .................................................................................. 179
Table 5-10 Superelevation Runoff Slope (%) (MoC, 1992) .................................................................. 181
Table 5-11 Vehicle Width Classes, Lateral Clearances, Lane Widths and Edge Strip Widths . 185
Table 5-12 Necessary Pavement Widths for Military Vehicles Encountering Civil Vehicles ... 186
Table 6-1 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential
Streets (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022) ............................................................ 190
with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets .................................................................. 191
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XXV
Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets ............................................................................ 191
with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets .................................................................. 191
Table 6-5 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Design Speed for Residential Streets .......................................................................................................... 192
Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets ............................................................................ 194
Table 6-8 Minimum Dimensions for Squared and Circular Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 196
Table 6-9 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in
Urban Areas (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022) ................................................. 200
with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas .................................................... 200
Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas .............................................................. 201
with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas .................................................... 201
Table 6-13 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban
Areas ........................................................................................................................................................................ 201
Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas ............................................................................................ 202
in Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas ......................................................... 203
Table 6-16 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in
Urban Areas (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022) ................................................. 208
with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas........................................................ 208
Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas ................................................................. 209
with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas........................................................ 209
Table 6-20 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban
Areas ........................................................................................................................................................................ 209
Table 6-21 Recommended Values of Parameter K f or Crest and Sag Curves with Respect
to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas 210
XXVI SHC 301

in Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas ............................................................ 211
with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ........................... 215
Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ..................................... 215
with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ........................... 216
Table 6-26 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways
in Urban Areas ...................................................................................................................................................... 216
Table 6-27 Recommended Values of Parameter K For Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to
the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas............................................................ 217
in Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas ................................ 218
Table 6-29 Target Speeds for Complete Streets ..................................................................................... 253
Table 6-30 Typical Dimensions of Urban/Suburban Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)...................... 254
Table 6-31 Typical Dimensions of Rural Main Street (NCDOT, 2012) ............................................. 255
Table 6-32 Typical Dimensions of Local Street with Residential Use (NCDOT, 2012)............... 256
Table 6-33 Typical Dimensions of Local Street with Office, Commercial and Industrial Use
(NCDOT, 2012) ..................................................................................................................................................... 257
Table 6-34 Distance Between Vertical Deflections (Riyadh Amanah, 2007) ................................. 267
Table 6-35 Bus Speeds Possible in Horizontal Deflections with a Pavement Width b = 3.25 m
(FGSV, 2006) .......................................................................................................................................................... 273
Table 6-36 Overview of Width and Length Requirement for Persons with Restricted Mobility
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 283
with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways / Expressways ........................................................ 296
Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways / Expressways.................................................................. 297
with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways / Expressways ........................................................ 297
Table 7-4 Recommended (Desirable and Allowed) Grades with Respect to the Design Speed
for Freeways / Expressways ............................................................................................................................. 298
Design Speed........................................................................................................................................................ 299
Table 7-6 Required Displacement of the Start of Crest Vertical Curve Before the Start of the
Horizontal Curve (Tangent – Spiral – Circular Arc) - (FGSV, 2008) ................................................... 300
Respect to the Design Speed ......................................................................................................................... 302
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Table 7-8 Superelevation Runoff Slope in Freeways / Expressways [%] (MoC, 1992)............... 304
Table 8-1 Guidelines for Total Roadway Width for New Construction of Two-Lane Urban
Residential Streets .............................................................................................................................................. 316
Table 8-2 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved and
Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2:
TxDOT, 2022) ........................................................................................................................................................ 320
with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways ......... 321
with Respect to the Design Speed for Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways ... 321
Respect to the Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 322
with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural
Highways ................................................................................................................................................................ 322
Table 8-7 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved Surface in Low-
Volume Rural Highways.................................................................................................................................... 323
Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways ..................... 323
Respect to the Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 326
Table 8-10 Recommended Design Parameters of Main Curve of a Hair Pin Bend .................... 327
Table 8-11 Equations for Preliminary Hairpin Bends Dimensioning in Case of the Simultaneous
Passing Between Two Opposite Traveled Two-Axle Vehicles (SN 640 198a-Courbes, Lacets;
VSS, 2019) .............................................................................................................................................................. 328
with Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial Highways ................................................................ 339
Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial Highways.......................................................................... 339
Table 9-4 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial Highways
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 340
Design Speed for Industrial Highways ........................................................................................................ 341
Table 9-6 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial
Highways (Source: Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022) ...................................... 344
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Table 10-1 Selection of The Largest Design Vehicle at Intersections ............................................. 355
Table 10-2 Design Intersection Sight Distance in Cases A, B and F (m) - (Source: AASHTO, A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018) 360
Table 10-3 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance for Cases A and C - (AASHTO,
2018) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 361
Table 10-4 Time Gap for Cases B1, B2, B3, C2 and F - (AASHTO, 2018) ........................................ 361
Table 10-5 Crossing Maneuvers for Yield-Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor Highway
Leg (m) and Travel Time (s) - (AASHTO, 2018) ........................................................................................ 363
Table 10-6 Design Intersection Sight Distance in Cases C1 and C2 (m) - (AASHTO, 2018) ... 364
Table 10-7 Minimum Median Opening Length L (m) - (MoC, 1992)............................................... 368
Table 10-8 Minimum Geometric Elements for Right-Turns At Intersections ............................... 370
Table 10-9 Minimum Taper Length ............................................................................................................. 371
Table 10-10 Widths of Channelized Right-Turn Roadways (m) ........................................................ 377
Table 10-11 Recommended Effective Median Acceleration Lane Length excluding Taper (AT,
2019) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 380
Table 10-12 Adjustment Multiplier for Grades higher than 3% (AT, 2019) .................................. 381
Table 10-13 Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Superelevation at Turning Roadway
Terminals ................................................................................................................................................................ 384
Table 10-14 Typical Inscribed Circle Diameter Ranges for Various Roundabout Configurations
and Daily Traffic Volume that can be served (NCHRP, 2010) ............................................................. 395
Table 10-15 Standard Design Values for Basic Turbo Roundabouts (FHWA, 2019).................. 404
Table 10-16 Recommended Maximum Entry Design Speeds in Roundabouts (NCHRP, 2010)
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 412
Table 10-17 Typical Broad and Moderate Radii Applied in Successive Curves on High-Speed
Approaches (FDOT, 2022) ................................................................................................................................ 421
Table 10-18 Minimum Width of Median to Accommodate U-Turns (m) - (AASHTO, 2018) . 426
Table 10-19 Required Sight Distance for Rural Unsignalized Railway-Highway Crossings (MoC,
1992) ........................................................................................................................................................................ 430
Table 11-1 Minimum Deceleration Lane Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Slopes less than
3.0 % (AASHTO, 2018) ....................................................................................................................................... 454
Table 11-2 Minimum Acceleration Lane Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Slopes less
than 3.0 % (AASHTO, 2018)............................................................................................................................. 454
Table 11-3 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Slopes – Deceleration
Lanes (AASHTO, 2018) ...................................................................................................................................... 455
Table 11-4 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Slopes – Acceleration
Lanes (AASHTO, 2018) ...................................................................................................................................... 455
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Table 11-5 Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing (AASHTO, 2018) ....................... 459
Table 11-6 Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed
(AASHTO, 2018) ................................................................................................................................................... 460
Table 11-7 Side Friction Factor and Minimum Circular Arc Length and Horizontal Radii with
Respect to the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps .......................................................................... 462
Respect to the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps .......................................................................... 462
with Respect to the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps ................................................................ 463
Table 11-10 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps
.................................................................................................................................................................................... 464
Table 11-11 Recommended Values of Parameter K for Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to
the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps................................................................................................. 464
in Respect to the Design Speed .................................................................................................................... 465
with Respect to the Design Speed for Mobility Highways .................................................................. 479
Respect to the Design Speed for Mobility Highways ............................................................................ 479
with Respect to the Design Speed for Mobility Highways .................................................................. 480
Table 12-4 Recommended (Desirable and Allowed) Grades with Respect to the Design Speed
for Mobility Highways ....................................................................................................................................... 480
Design Speed for Mobility Highways .......................................................................................................... 481
in Respect to the Design Speed for Mobility Highways ....................................................................... 482
Table 12-7 Limited Values for the Deceleration Lanes Length in Ramps and Direct Connection
in Mobility Highways (Excluding the Taper) ............................................................................................. 484
Table 12-8 Limited Values for the Acceleration Lanes Length in Ramps and Direct Connection
in Mobility Highways (Excluding the Taper) ............................................................................................. 484
Table A-1 Values for Specific Critical Point of a Spiral .......................................................................... 497
Table A-2 Equations for Horizontal Curve with Symmetric Spirals Applied ................................. 498
XXX SHC 301

1. Introduction
1.1. Summary of Chapters
Volume SHC 301 - Highway Geometric Design is divided into 13 chapters. A brief outline of
these chapters is given below:
Chapter 1. Introduction - This chapter provides an overview of the chapters, the scope of the
volume, and a full list of the standards referenced within the volume.
Chapter 2. Functional Classification of Highways - This chapter defines the functional and
contextual classification of highways and describes the Rural and Urban areas, and context,
including also access management highway classification. Also, contemporary highway design
concepts, project design types, route designations, and design approval process have been
described in the present chapter.
Chapter 3. Predesign Elements - This chapter describes the critical predesign elements in
Rural and Urban areas and the general characteristics of major parameters such as human
factors, speed, design vehicles, and vulnerable road users that should be addressed,
incorporated, furnished, and completed before the start of the highway design process.
Chapter 4. Geometric Design of Highways - This chapter provides general parameters for
geometric design regarding horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, design speed,
cross-section elements, and typical cross-sections. In addition, specific information regarding
highway capacity, level of service, and access control, and connection types has been included.
Also provides information for the design and operation of special infrastructure elements
including bridges and tunnels, emergency escape ramps, climbing lanes, and wildlife
underpasses as well as camel overpasses.
Chapter 5. Rural Highway Design - This chapter provides all technical information needed
for the geometric design of a rural highway, excluding freeways and expressways, such as
design speed, cross-section specific elements, horizontal and vertical design parameters, sight
distances, superelevation and lane widening parameters. Also, relevant information for
highways used by military vehicles is provided in the present chapter.
Chapter 6. Streets in Urban Areas - This chapter provides all technical information needed
for the geometric design of an urban highway including a residential street, a collector, an
arterial, or a freeway/expressway such as design speed, cross-section specific elements,
horizontal and vertical design parameters, sight distances, superelevation and lane widening
parameters. Also provides technical information regarding complete streets, traffic calming
measures and concepts and other special-purpose highway-related facilities including transit,
pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
Chapter 7. Controlled Access Highways - This chapter provides all technical information
needed for the geometric design of a controlled access rural highway (freeways or
expressways) such as design speed, cross-section specific elements, horizontal and vertical
design parameters, sight distances, superelevation and lane widening parameters. Also, special
design features in areas of bridges and tunnels have been provided in the present chapter.
Chapter 8. Low Volume and Access Highway Design - This chapter provides all technical
information needed for the geometric design of minor rural highways including a low volume
SHC 301 1
and access highways with AADT of less than 2,000 veh/d), a very low-volume highways with
AADT of less than 400 veh/d and mountainous highways with hairpin bends where very steep
slopes are encountered such as design speed, cross-section specific elements, horizontal and
vertical design parameters, sight distances, superelevation and lane widening parameters.
Chapter 9. Heavy Vehicles and Industrial Highway Design - This chapter provides all the
technical information needed for the geometric design of rural and urban highways with a
high volume of heavy vehicles, especially inside industrial zones. Design factors of design
speed, cross-section specific elements, horizontal and vertical design parameters, sight
distances, superelevation and lane widening parameters are discussed and provided.
Chapter 10. At-Grade Intersections - This chapter provides all technical information needed
for the geometric design of a grade Intersection, either “T” or Cross type, either roundabout.
The Intersection design parameters of design vehicles, design elements, sight distances and
alternative intersection design, with unconventional traffic and site conditions are defined,
while consideration for bicycles, pedestrians and public transport mainly in urban areas are
described.
Chapter 11. Interchange Design - In this chapter all technical information needed for the
geometric design of interchanges is discussed. Design parameters with respect to interchange
types, design elements for ramps, cross-section specific elements, auxiliary lanes and specific
interchange configurations for special cases are defined including unconventional
interchanges.
Chapter 12. Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, and Mobility Corridor - This chapter provides
information regarding the non-freeway rehabilitation design criteria (3R), technical issues
regarding the reconstruction of all highway categories (4R), and finally mobility corridor design
criteria (5R).
Chapter 13. Design Exception Procedure - This chapter provides information regarding the
exception procedure that is required when it is determined that one or more of the controlling
parameters and criteria for the proposed design cannot meet the minimum or maximum
values specified in the present volume for the design speed.
1.2. Scope
This volume is to be consulted as the key volume for aspects related to highway geometric
design in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
The scope of the present volume is to provide all necessary technical information regarding
highway geometric design for all highway categories in rural and urban areas, including
Intersections and interchanges. Its content applies to the design of new highways and the
reconstruction, and rehabilitation of existing ones. It is essential to consider safety for the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) transportation network which serves public mobility, economic
development, and productivity. KSA has international borders, a long coastline attracting
visitors and accommodating a megaregion bound by several highways, and ports.
KSA is also a significant national and international supplier of energy products with refineries
and distribution infrastructure near the KSA transportation network. Kingdom’s corridor
planning should consider emergency evacuation planning.
SHC 301
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This Volume represents a synthesis of current information and operating practices related to
the geometric design of highway facilities. The volume is not a textbook or a substitute for
engineering knowledge, experience, or judgment. It is including techniques, graphs and tables
not ordinarily found in textbooks. Many of the instructions given herein are subject to
amendment as conditions and experience warrant. The fact that updated design values are
presented in this document does not imply that existing facilities are unsafe. Nor should the
publication of updated design guidelines mandate improvement projects. Infrastructure
projects are by their nature long-lived facilities. While design methodologies are constantly
being improved, the implementation of these improvements typically occurs as projects are
built as new projects, or rebuilt, in future undertakings.
While much of the content of the present volume can be considered universal in most
geometric design applications, there are many areas that are subjective and may need varying
degrees of modification to fit local project conditions. The decision to use specific design
guidance at a particular location should be made based on an engineering study of the
location, operational experience, and objective analysis. Thus, while this document provides
guidance for the geometric design of highways and streets, it should not be regarded as a
substitute for engineering judgment. For some special design controls, a deviation from the
values presented in this Volume and approval from the RGA will be required. The exception
procedure is described in Chapter 13.
1.3. Reference Standards and Codes

Standards and codes for all materials and procedures shall be as specified in these
specifications, in the Contract documents, if any, and the following, in their latest edition:
• SASO Standards and Technical Regulations.
Table 1-1 presents SASO standards related to highway geometric design, including
designations and titles.
Table 1-1 Designations and Titles for SASO Standards Applying to Volume SHC 301
SASO Title
Graphical Symbols - Safety Colors and Safety Signs - Registered

ISO 7010
Safety Signs
SHC 301 3
2. Functional Classification of Highways
2.1. Introduction
The public highways network in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is under the jurisdiction of a
specific national Saudi Authority or Agency (MoTLS, MOMRAH, Amanah, or Royal Commission,
etc.), with technical or administrative responsibility related in one way or another, to highway
design. These highways are functionally classified into one of five broad highway categories.
Excluded from this classification system are those segments of streets and highways that are
within private properties. The current classification system was based on the same previous
approach in classifying highways and streets in rural and urban areas, relying on specific
technical parameters (measurable) and subjective considerations (non-measurable), which
makes it an arbitrary system to some extent, yet it’s flexible in reacting with current data,
estimates and the future vision simultaneously, in line with the goals and requirements of the
authority responsible for the designated highways. Users of the current system must adhere
to the general principles of classifying existing and new highways into categories of rural,
urban, or industrial highways according to the guidelines of the Saudi Highway Code (SHC).
Also, this requires assigning the classification of highways according to functional categories
and maintaining the classification by overcoming all minor changes, with the exception of
those are more extensive and holistic affecting land use or a significant segment of the
highway, or the need for new transportation facilities, all that to enhance the continuity and
agility of the system.
2.2. Purpose of Classification

Each type of highway within the total system performs a particular service in facilitating
vehicular travel between points of origin and destination and providing land access. The
principal purposes of highway classification are:
• Establish groupings of highways that identify the functional characteristics of each
grouping (class).
• Establish groupings of highways that require a comparable level of maintenance and
operation within each class.
• Establish groupings of highways such that comparable geometric design standards are
applicable to each class.
• Establish a basis for developing long-range programs, improvement priorities, and
fiscal plans.
2.3. Highway Functional System

Highways have a multi-functional character that affects directly or indirectly a variety of human
activities and technical disciplines. Depending on the function of planners, designers and
decision maker’s focus, a highway may be classified quantitatively based on pure traffic criteria,
land development measures, or based on environmental impact, and regional and/or urban
design constraints among others. The following highway classification discussion addresses
this variety of highway functional characteristics.
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2.3.1. Functional System Characteristics
This section explains the classification of highways and streets in rural and urban areas using
the functional classification system based on traffic characteristics and needs.
There are fundamental differences in urban and rural areas with respect to density of highways
and streets networks, density and types of land use, nature of travel patterns, and the
relationship of these elements. For the above reasons, urban and rural functional systems are
classified separately.
Generally, any place within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia that has a population of 5,000 or
more is defined as an urban area. These areas could be further subdivided into urbanized areas
with more than 50,000 population and small urban areas with populations between 5,000 and
50,000. Rural areas are defined as all areas of the Kingdom not included in urban areas. It is
noted that the recognition of a highway’s classification as urban or rural may differ due to
actual site circumstances or prevailing conditions. For this reason, the area type classification
should be based on actual highway conditions (such as the density and frequency of
pedestrian traffic, the existence of several vertical access roads/Intersections, the increased
need for access services, and more) and not on boundaries shown on maps.
2.3.1.1. Functional categories

Functional categories differ for urban and rural areas. The hierarchy of the functional systems
consists of freeways, principal (or major) arterials (expressways), minor arterials (distributors),
collectors (major and minor), and local highways and streets.
2.3.1.2. Functional systems for rural areas

Rural highways consist of facilities outside of urban areas, although they may pass through
built-up areas and small towns or villages. The functional systems utilized in traditional
functional classification for rural highways include:
• Rural freeways.
• Rural principal arterials (expressways).
• Rural minor arterials.
• Rural (major and minor) collectors.
• Rural local highways.
Definition and functional system of all rural highway networks are described in Section 2.4.
2.3.1.3. Functional systems for urban areas

The functional highway systems for urban areas used in traditional functional classification are:
• Urban freeways.
• Urban principal arterials (expressways).
• Urban minor arterial streets.
• Urban collector streets.
• Urban local and residential streets.
SHC 301 5
Definition and functional system of all urban street networks are described in Section 2.4.
2.3.1.4. Continuity of the functional classification system

All functional classes are part of an integrated network that is intended to provide continuous
routes of travel from any given location to any other location within the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia for all travelers. Functional classification along continuous routes shall be maintained
irrespective of local conditions.
2.3.1.5. Classification assignment of highways

All highway Sections, including those scheduled for future development, must be categorized
in functional classes, according to the above criteria. When new routes are added to the
highway network, each route will be classified in accordance with the foregoing criteria.
2.3.1.6. Permanency of classification

Unless there is a major change in land use affecting a large region, adjustment of the
classification of a given segment of a highway section shall not be made. The degree of
highway development, including stage construction, or even the absence of any development,
will not affect the established classification designation. Should changes become necessary, a
review of the class assignment for all highway sections in the region and, when appropriate,
the entire national network shall be undertaken.
2.3.2. Multimodal Considerations

Multimodal considerations are an essential element in the design of every highway or street
project appropriate to highway context and community needs. Highway and street facilities
should be designed to accommodate current and anticipated users.
2.3.2.1. Highway and street user groups / transportation modes

Highway and street user groups can be generally categorized into the following transportation
modes:
• Automobiles (passenger cars, powered two-wheelers, etc.).
• Bicyclists and micro-mobility devices.
• Pedestrians.
• Waste collector and road maintenance vehicles.
• Transit vehicles and trucks (heavy vehicles).
• Recreational vehicles.
• Military vehicles on specific highway segments that need special design and
operational treatments.
Information regarding each user group or transportation mode is provided in Sections 3.5 and
3.6 to explain its role in the transportation system and present some of the geometric features.
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2.3.2.2. Consideration of all transportation modes in design
The needs for specific transportation modes that should be addressed in projects could be
identified and organized by using functional and context classes. This framework provides a
tool that can be used by the designer to organize information about user needs for various
transportation modes and seek an appropriate balance among those needs.
2.3.3. Project Design Types

2.3.3.1. New construction projects
New highway design projects refer to highways on new alignment where no existing highway
is present. Projects with minor changes to an existing alignment, as opposed to construction
on a new alignment, may be treated as reconstruction projects or construction on existing
highways (see also Chapter 12). When the major percentage of project length is on new
alignment, this project should generally be treated as a new construction project. New
construction projects typically utilize the design criteria presented in this guide. Like all
projects, new construction projects are designed within a framework defined by the functional
and context class for the facility and should consider the needs of all transportation modes.
2.3.3.2. Reconstruction projects

Reconstruction projects are projects that include a change in the basic highway type by
utilizing an existing highway alignment (or making only minor changes to an existing
alignment). Changes in the highway type include basically a highway widening needed for the
implementation of an extra lane, or for the construction of a median separator island.
Reconstruction projects often create the most difficult design decisions because design criteria
may be impractical in many cases due to existing constraints in the existing corridor.
2.3.3.3. Construction projects on existing highways

Projects that keep the existing highway alignment (except for minor changes) and do not
change the basic highway type refer to the construction projects on existing highways. Typical
highway and street improvement projects on existing highways include:
• Repair infrastructure condition.
• Reduce current or anticipated traffic operational congestion.
• Reduce current or anticipated crash frequency and severity.
These projects need to address all transportation modes. The approaches used to address
design for projects on existing highways, in accordance with SHC:
1. Projects for resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation (3R), plus other improvements
for which there is a specific identified need, should be designed based on the
guidelines and details provided in Chapter 12 of the present Volume.
2. Projects undertaken to address a current or anticipated crash pattern should be
designed based on SHC 603 (Road Safety) or other proven and accepted tools to
develop solutions that are expected to address the crash pattern in compliance with
the SHC.
SHC 301 7
2.3.4. Contextual Highway Classification
The functional classification system of highways is based on traffic characteristics and criteria,
hence, it does not address adequately the needs and requirements that arise from human
living demands and activities. Highway functional classification criteria have considered only
two generic contexts, rural and urban. There is need to introduce a refinement of the highway
context and ask for additional guidance provided for specific types of rural and urban
locations. In the contextual highway classification system, eight contexts are defined and used,
three for rural areas and another five for suburban and urban areas:
Rural areas
• Natural context.
• Rural context.
• Rural town context.
Urban areas
• Suburban residential context.
• Suburban commercial context.
• Urban general context.
• Urban center context.
• Urban core context.
These contexts are presented in Figure 2-1 and Figure 2-2 and are defined based on land uses
(primarily residential, commercial, industrial, and/or agricultural), building setbacks (distance
of structures to adjacent highways) and development density (existence of structures and
structure types). The functional classification represents the appropriate role of a specific
highway in serving motor vehicles, including passenger cars, trucks, and transit. However, a
highway in the contextual classification system may also fall within almost any of the functional
classes.
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Figure 2-1 Context Classification in from Rural to Suburban Areas (FDOT, 2020)
Figure 2-2 Context Classification in from Suburban to Urban Core Areas (FDOT, 2020)
Specific context classes found in both rural and urban areas are described below. These context
classes, together with functional classes, provide a framework for design. Just as a wide range
of highway conditions can be found within any given functional class, highway conditions can
SHC 301 9
vary widely within each context class. Thus, there is no single design type or solution that is
applicable to all highways and streets within any given functional class.
2.3.4.1. Context classes for highways and streets in rural areas

Highways in rural areas should be designed for either the rural or rural town context. Each of
these contexts are described below.
Natural Context
The natural context applies to highways in rural areas within lands preserved in a natural or
wilderness condition, including lands unsuitable for settlement due to natural conditions. No
development, residential, commercial or industrial uses are found in these areas.
Rural Context
The rural context applies to highways in rural areas with the lowest development density,
widely dispersed or no residential, commercial or industrial land uses, few houses or structures
and usually large building setbacks.
Rural Town Context

The rural town context applies to highways in rural areas located within developed
communities. Rural towns generally have low development densities with diverse land uses,
small building setbacks, on-street parking, and sidewalks in some locations. Rural town context
may include schools, industrial facilities, residential neighborhoods and commercial main
street business districts. Rural town context recognizes that rural highways change character
when entering a small town, or other rural community. Speed expectations change when
vehicles enter a rural town.
Rural Suburban Residential Context

The suburban residential context applies to highways, typically within the outlying parts of
urban areas, characterized by low-density residential land uses and typically do not have any
land uses directly fronting or accessed from the public highway. Buildings are often set back
from the public highway with fences, walls and/or heavy landscaping between the roadway
and the residences. Development tends to be static and less likely to change over time.
2.3.4.2. Context classes for highways and streets in urban areas

Highways and streets in urban areas should be designed for the suburban, urban, and urban
core contexts. Each of these contexts is discussed below.
Urban Suburban Residential Context
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The suburban residential context applies to highways in rural areas, typically within the
outlying parts of urban areas with mostly residential uses within large blocks and a
disconnected or sparse highway network.
Suburban Commercial Context

The suburban commercial context applies to highways and streets, typically within the outlying
parts of urban areas, with mixed land uses (with multi-family residential structures, low to
medium development density, and nonresidential development. The suburban commercial
context generally has lower development densities and drivers have higher speed expectations
than the urban general, urban center and urban core contexts. Flows of pedestrians and
bicyclists or micromobility devices are higher than in the rural context but lower with respect
to urban general, urban center and urban core areas.
Urban General Context

The urban general context has mixed land uses, high-density development, and prominent
destinations. On-street parking and sidewalks are generally more common than in the
suburban context, and building setbacks are mixed. Urban locations often include structures
for Single-Family or Multi-Family Residential, Institutional, Neighborhood Scale Retail, and/or
Office. Driver speed expectations are generally lower and pedestrian and
bicyclist/micromobility flows are higher than in suburban areas. In an urban general context,
the density of transit routes is generally greater than in the suburban context.
Urban Center Context

The urban center context has mixed land uses, high-density development, and prominent
destinations. Typically concentrated around a few blocks and identified as part of a civic or
economic center of a community, town, or city. On-street parking and sidewalks are generally
more common than in the suburban context, and building setbacks are mixed. Urban center
locations often include structures for Retail, Office, Single-Family or Multi-Family Residential,
Institutional, and/or Light Industrial. Driver speed expectations are generally lower and
pedestrian and bicyclist/micromobility flows are higher than in urban general areas. In an
urban center context, the density of transit routes is generally greater than in the urban general
context, including in-street rail transit in larger communities and transit terminals in
small/medium communities.
Urban Core Context

The urban core context includes areas of the highest density, with mixed land uses within and
among predominantly high-rise structures. Urban core context is found in the central business
districts and adjoining parts of major metropolitan areas. On-street parking is often more
limited and time-restricted than in the urban context. Parking is provided in multi-level
structures while the urban core area is accessible to automobiles, commercial delivery vehicles,
and public transit. Sidewalks are present almost continuously, with pedestrian plazas being
provided in some locations. Transit corridors, including rail and bus transit, are typically
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common and major transit terminals may be present. Commercial uses (including financial and
legal services) and some government services are available. Driver speed expectations are low
and pedestrian and bicycle/micromobility flows are high.
2.3.5. Highway Access Management Classification

Access and mobility are also two other major considerations in classifying highways and street
networks that are directly associated with land development. Freeways and expressways are
provided almost exclusively to enhance mobility for through traffic. Access to freeways and
expressways is provided mainly at specific grade-separated interchanges, with no direct access
to the freeway from adjacent land except by way of those interchanges. On expressways (major
or principal arterials) at-grade Intersections may be allowed depending on the local conditions
based on an engineering study. Major highways and streets are designated as minor arterials
in order to recognize that mobility of through traffic is one of their primary functions. Minor
Arterials are connected to collectors and local highways and streets and to other minor
arterials providing access to adjacent development.
Collector highways and streets connect arterials to local highways and streets as well as
providing access to adjacent development. Mobility for through traffic is less important on
collectors than on arterials while collectors offer balanced service to both mobility and access
functions. Local highways and streets exist primarily to serve adjacent development while
having a variety of surrounding contexts and serve varying demands for non-motorized travel.
Figure 2-3 illustrates the general balance between mobility and access for each functional
class. Higher mobility needs result inevitably in setting higher values of travel speed along the
highway. A well-performing and safe highway network that provides an appropriate
distribution between access and mobility needs imposes a sequential and stepwise change of
highway classes from the highest to the lower class and vice versa (see Figure 2-4).
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Through Movement
Land Access
Figure 2-3 Observed Relationship of Functionally Classified Systems Serving Traffic Mobility
and Land Access for Motor-Vehicle Traffic (Williams et al., 2014)
Figure 2-4 A Well Performing and Safe Highway Network Pattern (Arterial Street Access Control Study, Tri County
Regional Commission, 1981, p.3.)
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2.4. Categories of Highways
Based on the operational features each highway is providing to the highway network, highways
are assigned to eleven highway categories (five for rural areas, five for urban areas and the
industrial highways as a separate category) as described in the following Section. The highway
categories discussed in this section apply to all highway networks in both rural and urban areas
under the jurisdiction of the MoTLS and MoMRAH.
2.4.1. Purpose of Highway Categories

For geometric design purposes both rural and urban highway networks may be divided into
five typical categories (industrial highways represent a special category). Each highway
category is based on providing different traffic and land services. All geometric standards and
design features in the following guidelines are directly related to these categories. In this
Volume the conventional reference solely to the functional category of highways is retained
as associated with the design speed concept according to the definition of AASHTO edition
2018.
2.4.2. Principles Considered in Establishing Approach

Highway design standards depend upon whether the highway’s purpose is for the movement
of traffic (mobility), access to adjacent land, or a combination of the two. In addition, the
predominant characteristic of the adjacent land use (context) determines whether it is a rural
or urban facility.
Function
Local highways provide access to adjacent land. Freeways, expressways and arterials provide
for the movement of through traffic. Collectors provide a combination of land access and
movement of through traffic. Arterials may have at-grade Intersections or grade-separated
interchanges. Freeways shall have only grade-separated crossings and interchanges. At grade
Intersections are allowed in specific cases for expressways.
Traffic Volume
Freeways, expressways and arterials generally carry high volumes of traffic. Local highways and
collectors may carry light to medium volumes of traffic. The AADT range for each highway
category is wide and may overlap the AADT in other categories.
Traffic Flow Characteristics

Freeways and expressways shall have uninterrupted traffic flow. Arterials may have grade
Intersections and traffic flow may be interrupted. Collectors and locals will have interrupted
traffic flow caused by traffic either entering, leaving, or crossing the highway and by vehicles
parked along the highway.
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Running Speed
The average running speed of traffic operating under off-peak volume conditions will vary on
highways of the same category depending on the condition of the pavement, intensity of land
development, type of terrain, vehicle types, and traffic flow controls. Running speeds generally
increase from locals to collectors, arterials, and expressways, freeways. Running speeds should
be appropriate for each highway category and consequently in direct association with the
Design Speed.
Design Speed
Highways should be traveled at a speed consistently preserved along the highway that is
appropriate and conformal with the functional category of the highway as it is placed within
the overall highway network of a rural or urban region. This is a fundamental prerequisite for
the safe and well-performing traffic operation of the highway. The length and function of the
highway provide the numerical value of the design speed, being in many cases equal to the
statutory speed limit or the general speed limit for the highway. In this Volume the design
speed follows the corresponding concept of AASHTO design policy that requires the designer
to decide about the proper value of the design speed. Therefore, highway designers need to
pay special attention when selecting the design speed of a highway to avoid deviation between
anticipated design speed value and operating speeds of drivers. In this volume the term design
speed is used as defined by the AASHTO geometric design policy.
Vehicle Types
Local highways are generally used by passenger cars and small trucks with a small percentage
of large trucks. Freeways, expressways, and arterials generally carry a higher proportion of
heavy trucks.
Connections
In the highway network, local highways should connect with collectors, collectors with arterials,
and arterials with expressways and highways. Connection of locals with arterials and collectors
with expressways or freeways should be minimized. Local highways should not connect to
expressways or freeways except in very special situations and special design considerations.
Design features of connections along a specific category of a highway should remain constant
as far as possible.
2.4.3. Design Characteristics and Description of Each Highway Category

The approaches presented in this section shall be applied only to highway design projects that
are not included in the “Arab Mashreq International Road Network”. Details for the
classification of highways included in “Arab Mashreq International Road Network” are
described in Section 2.4.4.
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2.4.3.1. Rural freeways
Rural freeways are mainly connecting heavily populated regions and large cities. A Freeway is
a fully controlled-access highway that provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic
signals, Intersections, or property access. They are free of any at-grade crossings with other
highways, railways, or pedestrian paths, which are instead carried by overpasses and
underpasses. Entrances and exits to the freeway are provided at interchanges by ramps and
auxiliary terminal, which allow for speed changes. On freeways, opposing directions of travel
are generally separated by a median strip or central reservation containing a traffic barrier or
ditch. Elimination of conflicts with other directions of traffic dramatically improves safety,
capacity, speed and traffic flow for everyone and time taken to reach the destination.
• Rural freeways are multilane, divided highways and are designed to move large
volumes of traffic at high speeds under free-flow conditions. Freeways have full control
of access with grade-separated interchanges.
• AADT generally exceeds 15,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow on freeways shall be uninterrupted. Grade separations shall be used at rail-
highway crossings and other highways. Access is at interchanges or slip-ramps. Only
emergency parking is permitted along freeways.
• Design speed ranges from 90 to 130 (140) km/h.
• Freeways carry all types of traffic with a maximum speed of more than 60 km/h and
with heavy truck volume ranging from 20 to 40 percent.
• Freeways connect to other rural freeways, rural expressways, rural arterials, rural
collectors, urban expressways, or urban arterials.
2.4.3.2. Rural expressways

The main difference between an expressway and a freeway is that an expressway is a limited-
access highway, whereas a freeway is a fully controlled-access highway. An expressway is a
divided or in some cases undivided highway with partial control of access. It has Intersections
but do not allow entrances to properties. It does not also allow direct access to adjacent
properties. Expressways can, however, have interchanges. There are no pedestrians or slow-
moving vehicles in expressways. Usually, they are made over completely new routes. They
should not pass through largely populated areas but only near them. High speed, safety,
comfort, and convenience for both the drivers and passengers, and low vehicle operating costs
are the main advantages of expressways. Expressways can also handle large traffic volumes,
and their collision rates are low when compared to other highways.
• Rural expressways are multilane, divided highways and are designed to move large
volumes of traffic at high speeds under free-flow conditions. Expressways have limited
access to grade-separated interchanges.
• AADT generally exceeds 15,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow on expressways shall be uninterrupted. Grade separations shall be used at
rail-highway crossings and other highways. Access is at interchanges or slip-ramps.
Only emergency parking is permitted along expressways.
• Design speed ranges from 80 to 120 km/h.
• Expressways carry all types of traffic with heavy truck volumes ranging from 20 to 40
percent.
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• Expressways connect to other rural expressways, rural arterials, rural collectors, urban
expressways, or urban arterials.
2.4.3.3. Rural arterial highways

A rural arterial highway refers to roadways consisting of two lanes in the cross-section, one for
each direction of travel. Occasionally, passing lanes may be added to one or two sides of the
highway extending the cross-section to three or four lanes at those locations. In this entry,
two-lane highways strictly refer to roadways in rural areas meeting the previous definition and
do not include urban and suburban streets. For higher traffic volumes multilane rural highways
could be designed with two or more traffic lanes per direction, to upgrade the provided level
of service. A central median could be placed in between two directions, while at-grade
Intersections are usually applied in connections with other roads.
• Rural arterial highways are intended to move large volumes of traffic at high speeds.
• The AADT varies from 2,000 to 15,000 for two-lane rural highways and more than
15,000 for multilane rural highways.
• Arterial highways generally have uninterrupted flow of traffic except for grade
Intersections. Intersections are controlled by traffic signals or stop signs on side
highways. At connections with other arterials or expressways, grade-separated
interchanges shall be used.
• Design speed of rural arterials ranges from 60 and 110 km/h.
• Arterials carry all types of vehicles, and up to 40 percent of traffic consists of heavy
trucks.
• Rural arterials generally connect to collectors, other arterials, or expressways.
2.4.3.4. Rural collector highways

A rural collector highway is similar to rural arterial highway, usually with lower traffic volumes.
Consisting of two lanes in the cross-section, one for each direction of travel, while the average
running speed is limited to 90 km/h.
• Rural collector highways collect traffic from locals and distribute it to arterials or collect
traffic from arterials and distribute it to locals. Rural collectors provide for both
movements of traffic and access to adjacent land.
• The AADT varies from 200 to 4,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow is interrupted at Intersections with arterials or other collector highways by
stop signs or traffic signals. Flow may be interrupted by vehicles leaving and entering
from adjacent land.
• Design speed varies from 50 to 90 km/h.
• Vehicle types consist mainly of light to medium size trucks. Truck traffic will range up
to 30 percent of total traffic. Few heavy trucks use collector highways unless they are
located near mining or other truck-oriented industry.
• Collectors generally connect to locals, other collectors, or arterial highways.
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2.4.3.5. Rural locals (very low-volume highways)
Rural locals are mainly very low-volume highways that lying outside of built-up areas of cities,
towns, and communities and shall have a traffic volume of less than 400 veh/d AADT.
• The main function of rural locals is to provide land access. Of minor importance is the
movement of traffic to allow vehicles to reach other collector or arterial highways.
• Traffic volumes are generally low, depending upon the density of the development
along the sides of the highway.
• Traffic flow on rural local highways is interrupted by stop conditions at all intersecting
highways and is affected by traffic moving to and from adjacent properties.
• Depending upon the condition of the highway surface, the design speed varies from
40 (30) to 50 km/h.
• In agricultural areas, trucking is done by light and medium vehicles with an occasional
heavy truck. In mining and oil development areas, heavy vehicles may predominate.
The number of trucks depends upon adjacent land use and ranges up to 50 percent of
the total vehicular volume.
• Local highways connect with collectors and sometimes with arterials.
2.4.3.6. Urban freeways

Urban freeways are limited-access, multi-lane divided highways in populated areas. They are
designed to move motorized traffic over long distances at high speeds. Some urban freeways
run through city centers while others encircle the urban core.
• Freeways carry large volumes of traffic at high speeds under free-flow operation.
Freeways connect to other freeways, expressways and arterials. All freeways have full
control of access. Only emergency parking is permitted. All freeways are multilane,
divided highways with grade-separated rail-highway and highway crossings.
• AADT exceeds 20,000 veh/d.
• All types of vehicles with a maximum speed of more than 60 km/h may use the urban
freeways and heavy truck volume could amount to 20 percent of the total traffic.
2.4.3.7. Urban expressways

Urban expressways (major or principal arterials) are intra-city expressways and controlled-
access, multi-lane divided highways in populated areas. Due to lack of space many of these
expressways are constructed as viaducts running above local highways.
• Expressways carry large volumes of traffic at high speeds under free-flow operation.
Expressways connect to other expressways and arterials. All expressways have limited
access. Only emergency parking is permitted. All expressways are multilane, divided
highways with grade-separated rail-highway and highway crossings and interchanges.
• AADT exceeds 20,000 veh/d.
• All types of vehicles may use the expressways and heavy truck volume could amount
to 20 percent of the total traffic.
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2.4.3.8. Arterials in urban areas
An arterial highway is a high-capacity urban highway that corresponds below
freeways/expressways on the highway hierarchy in terms of traffic flow and speed. The primary
function of an arterial highway is to deliver traffic from collector highways to freeways or
expressways, and between urban centers at the highest level of service possible. As such, many
arteries are limited-access highways, or feature restrictions on private access. Because of their
relatively high accessibility, many major highways face large amounts of land use and urban
development, making them significant urban places.
• Arterial streets carry large volumes of traffic at medium speed. Access to abutting land
shall be minimized. Arterials may have more than two lanes and may be divided,
depending upon traffic volumes. Access to abutting property and connection to
intersecting streets is usually provided using parallel frontage highways. Traffic
movements between frontage highways and arterials are by slip-ramps or at
Intersections. Arterials may have grade-separated interchanges at connections with
other streets having high traffic volumes.
• AADT will vary from 5,000 to 30,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow is uninterrupted except at signalized Intersections. Only emergency parking
is permitted along arterials.
• Design speed ranges from 50 and 80 km/h.
• All types of vehicles will use arterials.
• Heavy truck volume could range up to 20 percent of the total traffic.
2.4.3.9. Collectors in urban areas

A collector highway or distributor highway is a low-to-moderate-capacity highway which
serves to move traffic from local streets to arterial highways. Unlike arterials, collector highways
are designed to provide access to residential properties.
• Collector streets carry traffic from locals to arterials and provide access to abutting
land. Collectors may have more than two lanes and may be divided.
• AADT ranges from 1,000 to 12,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow may be interrupted by stop, yield, and signalized controls, and by traffic
entering and exiting from abutting land.
• Design speed ranges from 30 to 50 km/h with the higher value predominating in
outlying areas.
• In residential areas, collectors carry passenger cars, light pick-ups, and an Occasional
heavy truck. Commercial and industrial areas will have a higher percentage of heavy
trucks.
• Collector streets connect locals to arterials and other collectors. Collectors should not
connect to expressways.
2.4.3.10. Urban locals and residential streets

Urban locals provide access to a specific destination, as to a main highway or to a property
that lies within another property. Is often used to provide access to private driveways, shops,
houses, industries, or farms. Residential streets mean a subdivision street adjacent to property
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that is anticipated to develop as single-family residences or multi-family blocks, apartment
buildings, or other similar dwelling structures.
• Urban locals provide land access, carry typically medium or low volume traffic, and are
not intended to carry through traffic. May be located in residential, commercial, or
industrial areas. Also, may be multilane facilities but are seldom divided.
• AADT ranges typically from 100 to 1,000 veh/d. Although in some cases local urban
roads and residential streets could reach up to 5,000 veh/d.
• Traffic flow is interrupted by stop, yield, and signalized control. Also, flow is restricted
by vehicles entering and exiting abutting land, and vehicles parked along the street.
• Residential streets carry passenger cars, light pick-up trucks, and an occasional heavy
truck. Commercial and industrial areas will have a high percentage of heavy trucks.
• Local streets connect to other locals and to collectors. In industrial and commercial
areas local streets may connect directly to urban arterials.
2.4.3.11. Industrial highways (collectors)

An industrial highway, usually a collector, is a special purpose highway that provides access to
a specific industrial area within the arterial or distributor highway system. Industrial collectors
will provide direct frontage to industrial lots and connections to industrial access highways.
Industrial highways represent a separate category of highways that serve solely industrial
facilities, with a high truck composition (it may be > 80 %). The design vehicle is in most cases
an articulated truck that requires the special design of wide Intersection elements. Industrial
highways meet the general characteristics of collectors in most cases or in specific cases of
locals either in rural or urban areas. AADT is usually similar to collector highways. For more
details on industrial highway see Chapter 9.
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Table 2-1 Summary of Rural Highway Categories
Freeways Expressways Arterials Collectors Locals
Traffic
Traffic movement Traffic
Optimum Optimum movement and land movement
Traffic Service
mobility mobility primary access of secondary
consideration equal consideration
importance
Limited
Full control
control of Land access Land access
of access-no
Land Service access-no secondary primary
direct land
direct land consideration consideration
access
access
2,000 -
AADT Over 15,000 Over 15,000 200 - 4,000 400 max.
15,000
Uninterrupted
Traffic Flow Interrupted Interrupted
Free flow Free flow except at
Characteristics flow flow
Intersections
90 - 130 60 - 110 50 - 90 40 (30) - 50
Design Speed * 80 - 110 km/h
(140) km/h km/h km/h km/h
Predominantly
All types
passenger
with > 60 All types; All types;
All types; up cars & light to
km/h; heavy heavy trucks up to 30 %
Vehicle Type to 40 % medium
trucks average 20 - heavy
trucks trucks with
average 20 - 40 % trucks
occasional
40 %
heavy trucks
Collectors
Expressways Arterials
Expressways Arterials Locals
Connects to Freeways Collectors
Freeways Locals Arterials
Arterials Locals
Expressways
Rail-
highway & At grade &
At grade
Connection Type highway Rail-highway
Intersection At grade At grade
for Public grade grade
or Intersection Intersection
Highways separations separations &
interchanges
& interchanges
interchanges
Private and
Not None or
Commercial Not permitted Permitted Permitted
permitted limited
Approaches
NOTE:
In existing highways, the average running speed or operating speed or speed limit could be used as design
speed, upon decision of the competent highway authority.
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Table 2-2 Summary of Urban Highway Categories
Freeways Expressways Arterials Collectors Locals
Traffic
Traffic movement Traffic
Optimum Optimum movement and land movement
Traffic Service
mobility mobility primary access of secondary
consideration equal consideration
importance
Limited
Full control
control of Land access Land access
of access-no
Land Service access-no secondary primary
direct land
direct land consideration consideration
access
access
100 - 1,000
5,000 - 1,000 - (up to 5,000
AADT Over 20,000 Over 20,000
30,000 12,000 in certain
cases
Uninterrupted
Traffic Flow Interrupted Interrupted
Free flow Free flow flow except at
Characteristics flow flow
Intersections
80 - 100 30 - 50
Design Speed* 70 - 90 km/h 50 - 80 km/h 30 - 40 km/h
km/h km/h
All types
with > 60 All types; up All types; up Passenger &
Vehicle Type km/h; up to to 20 percent to 20 percent All types service
20 percent heavy trucks heavy trucks vehicles
heavy trucks
Expressways Expressways Arterials
Expressways Collectors
Connects to Freeways Arterials Collectors
Freeways Locals
Arterials Collectors Locals
Rail-
At grade, Rail-
highway &
highway & At grade
Connection Type highway
highway Intersections, At grade At grade
for Public grade
grade interchanges, Intersection Intersection
Highways separations
separations & or slip-ramps
&
interchanges
interchanges
Private and
Not None or
Commercial Not permitted Permitted Permitted
permitted limited
Approaches
NOTE:
In existing highways, the average running speed or operating speed or speed limit could be used as design
speed, upon decision of the competent highway authority.
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2.4.4. Arab MASHREQ International Road Network
The “Arab Mashreq international Road Network” is an international road network between the
primarily Arab countries of the Mashreq (Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Kuwait, Egypt,
Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, UAE, Oman and Yemen).
The network is a result of the 2001 Agreement on International Roads in the Arab Mashreq, a
United Nations multilateral treaty that entered into force in 2003 and has been ratified by 13
countries that the network serves.
The “Arab Mashreq International Road Network” includes roads that are of international
importance in the Arab Mashreq and should therefore be accorded priority in the
establishment of national plans for the construction, maintenance and development of the
national road networks. This network is shown in Figure 2-5 below.
Roads in the Arab Mashreq International Road Network are classified as follows:
1. First-class freeways: roads basically for use by motor vehicles of various types and on
which use by bicycles and pedestrians is prohibited. These are dual-carriageway
highways divided by a median, on which access is fully controlled by having all their
Intersections on different levels (interchanges) and having vehicles enter and exit via
ramps at a limited number of points, in a manner that does not affect the flow of traffic.
2. First-class expressways: dual-carriageway highways which are divided by a median
and on which access is partially controlled by means of high-efficiency at-grade
Intersections, while interchanges may be used at certain points, taking into account
considerations of safety and crash prevention. Access should be confined to a limited
number of exit and entry points, and special lanes should be provided for changing
speed and turning at Intersections. On such roads, the direct entry and exit of vehicles
to and from adjacent roads and establishments is prohibited.
3. Second-class roads: roads designed to be medium sized in keeping with the intended
volume of traffic on them, affording an appropriate traveling speed. They consist of
two lanes, one for each direction, not separated by a median strip. Intersections on
such roads are at-grade. Interchanges, however, may be used when necessary. Roads
of this type may be used only where there exist land availability constraints or financing
is inadequate. Priority should be accorded to upgrading this type.
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Figure 2-5 The “Arab Mashreq International Road Network”
(Source: http://blogimages.bloggen.be/wereldcodelijsten/attach/172517.jpg)
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2.5. Highway Design Concepts
Aiming to increase performance, operability and safety of highways various highway design
concepts have emerged globally in the last decades that engineers must incorporate in their
design efforts to enhance the qualitative outcome of their design efforts.
2.5.1. Design Flexibility

Design flexibility concept has a critical importance because each project has a specific purpose
and need, specific context and constraints and serves a unique set of users. Many design
dimensions are specified as ranges of values rather than single values, minimum values, or
maximum values. Words “should” and “may” are often encountered in the text, indicating that
specific design criteria or features may be desirable or permissible, but are not required. The
word “must” is used only when specific design criteria or practices are a legal requirement.
Thus, except in limited cases where legal requirements apply, the design criteria presented are
not fixed requirements, but rather are guidelines that provide a starting point for the exercise
of design flexibility.
2.5.2. Performance-Based Practical Design

Performance-based design is a design approach where key design decisions are made with
consideration of their anticipated effects on aspects of future project performance that are
relevant to the project purpose and need. Performance-based analysis becomes a tool to
inform design decisions.
According to (USA) Federal Highway Administration the Performance-Based Practical Design
(PBPD) has the following Notable Attributes:
• PBPD focuses on performance improvements that benefit both project and system
needs.
• PBPD can be articulated as modifying a traditional design approach to a "design up"
approach where transportation decision makers exercise engineering judgment to
build up the improvements from existing conditions to meet both project and system
objectives.
• PBPD uses appropriate performance-analysis tools, considers both short- and long-
term project and system goals while addressing project purpose and need.
• PBPD does not eliminate, modify, or compromise existing design standards or
regulatory requirements.
Aspects of performance that may be considered in geometric design include:
• Traffic operational efficiency.
• Existing and expected future crash frequency and severity.
• Construction cost.
• Future maintenance cost.
• Context classification.
• Service and ease of use for each transportation mode:
o Passenger car.
o Bicycle.
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o Pedestrian.
o Transit.
o Truck.
• Accessibility for persons with disabilities.
• Available right-of-way.
• Existing and potential future development.
• Operational flexibility during future incidents and maintenance activities.
• Stakeholder input.
• Community impacts and quality of life.
• Historical structures.
• Impacts on the natural environment:
o Air quality.
o Noise.
o Wildlife/endangered species.
• Preservation of archeological artifacts.
2.5.3. Safe System Approach

The Safe System approach aims to eliminate fatalities and serious injuries of all users of the
transportation system through a holistic model of multiple elements working together to
safeguard against tragic crash outcomes.
There are five elements of the Safe System: Safe Highway Users, Safe Vehicles, Safe Speeds,
Safe Highways, and Post-Crash Care. All elements are interrelated and weaknesses in one
element may be compensated with strengths in another.
The Safe System approach begins with a foundational acknowledgement that transportation
system users, as humans, will inevitably make mistakes. These mistakes may lead to crashes in
our transportation facilities. The ultimate Target Zero goal is to eliminate fatal and serious
injuries.
To achieve zero fatalities and serious injuries, crash forces induced on the human body must
be kept below tolerable limits. When designing and operating the transportation system, it is
critical to manage crash kinetic energy. Human errors are to be expected; therefore, the
transportation infrastructure should be designed and operated to eliminate fatalities and
serious injuries. This may be achieved by first reducing the risk of error and secondly, when
crashes do occur, to maintain collision forces on the human body within tolerable levels by
managing speed and crash angles to reduce injury severity.
There are six key principles that form the basis of the Safe System approach (International
Transport Forum, 2016; US Department of Transportation, 2022):
• Death and serious injuries are unacceptable. While no crashes are desirable, the Safe
System Approach prioritizes the elimination of crashes that result in death and serious
injuries since no one should experience either when using the transportation system.
• Humans make mistakes. People will inevitably make mistakes and decisions that can
lead or contribute to crashes, but the transportation system can be designed and
operated to accommodate certain types and levels of human mistakes and avoid death
and serious injuries when a crash occurs.
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• Humans are vulnerable. People have physical limits for tolerating crash forces before
death or serious injury occurs; therefore, it is critical to design and operate a
transportation system that is human-centric and accommodates physical human
vulnerabilities.
• Responsibility is shared. All stakeholders – including government at all levels,
industry, non-profit/advocacy, researchers, and the public – are vital to preventing
fatalities and serious injuries on our roadways.
• Safety is proactive. Proactive tools should be used to identify and address safety
issues in the transportation system, rather than waiting for crashes to occur and
reacting afterwards.
• Redundancy is crucial. Reducing risks requires that all parts of the transportation
system be strengthened, so that if one part fails, the other parts still protect people.
More details are provided in Appendix H of SHC 603 (Road Safety).
2.5.4. Concept of Complete Streets

Increasingly, planners, engineers, decision makers, and citizens are recognizing the importance
of designing and building Complete Streets. The concept of “Complete Streets” is defined as
follows:
“Complete streets are designed and operated to enable safe access for all users. Pedestrians,
bicyclists, motorists and transit riders of all ages and abilities must be able to safely move
along and across a complete street.”
It should be a policy to make well-planned, well-designed, context-based streets an integral
part of the transportation network. While there is no template for a Complete Street, typical
elements may include accessible sidewalks and crosswalks, bicycle facilities, appropriate street
widths and speeds, and transit facilities.
A critical component in the design of a Complete Street is that its accommodations be
provided with the same level of detail and attention that has been afforded to the movement
of automobiles and heavy vehicles. This means that sidewalks, bicycle lanes, and other
elements be both comprehensive and interconnected. Complete Streets design elements
emphasize safety, mobility, and accessibility for all modes and users. Under the Complete
Streets policy, any new or retrofit projects must consider all modes and users in the design.
Although Complete Streets may initially be designed and built as disconnected segments, the
intent of the policy is to incrementally grow and develop community-wide networks of
Complete Streets over time.
Complete Streets mean designing a street based on its unique context, including surrounding
land use patterns, who uses the street, and user needs. Highways serve an important function
in the transportation network, providing the highest level of efficiency for moving high traffic
volumes over long distances. However, the purpose and function of a street is different from
that of a highway. Street design practices and principles should therefore also differ from those
that guide highway development.
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2.5.5. Concept of Self-Explaining Roads
The concept of Self-Explaining Roads (SER) aims at delivering a highway environment that
matches users’ expectations and in turn triggers safer behavior, speed, maneuvers, and
interaction with other users. Limiting highway types and consistent design elements of layout,
highway furniture and signing are important concepts of SER.
The design of the highway environment based on SER should be aligned with expectations.
The layout of highway elements crossings, highway sections, and curves should be unique
behavior for a particular highway category. On the other hand, drivers may be surprised by
unexpected conditions and fail to react correctly and in time. This could be the case for an
isolated sharp curve on a highway with continuous gentle alignment. It is recognized that users
should always exercise prudence in using the highway. Yet they should not be led into a trap
due to design elements that are contradictory, misleading, or confusing.
Highway design should be clear and obvious to users. To achieve this, adequate but not
excessive visibility should be available so that drivers can see the highway conditions by
themselves. This would also reduce the need for warning signs, markings and engineering
measures.
The SER concept in its broader sense is extensively deployed in highway design for safety
reasons. Examples include:
Safe speeds for local communities

Highway design treatments such as those described in Section 6.8, can all be used to create a
visually distinct highway environment that encourages drivers and riders to naturally adopt
behaviors and safe speeds that are appropriate for local communities.
Highway Alignment
In the design of rural freeways and expressways, a smooth and flowing alignment consistent
with high-speed travel is preferred. However, such alignments should be avoided for undivided
highways as they tend to induce excessive traffic speeds and can result in dubious conditions
for overtaking. Similarly, where a highway passes through built-up areas, it is not desirable to
have a straight or smooth alignment. Drivers are more likely to reduce speed and adapt their
behavior if the alignment contains interruptions in conjunction with a strong change of the
roadside character.
Curves of Diminishing Radius

Drivers approaching a curve will generally reduce speed to a level consistent with the curve
radius. If the first curve is contiguous with a much tighter curve in the same direction, the driver
could be surprised and fail to react in time. Such alignment may exist on older routes and will
require special treatment.
Grade-separated Intersection (Interchange)
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At the point, drivers enter or exit a high speed mainline, the change in highway environment
and design speed should be obvious. Problems can arise for lane drops where a mainline traffic
lane becomes an exit lane. Drivers may change lane too late or else approach sharp curves at
excessive speeds. On high-speed highways, unusual merges and diverges can surprise drivers.
Tangential exits are those which follow a straight line whereas the main highway enters a curve.
This may contradict drivers’ expectations and inadvertently enter the exit lane.
Long Steep Grade

A long steep grade is a potential serious highway safety problem on freeways and expressways
and other highways of high design speeds. Heavy vehicles are susceptible to brake failure
leading to catastrophic consequences. To increase drivers’ awareness of long steep grade,
French design guidelines advise the introduction of curves with decreasing radii at the start of
descents. Moderate curves are encouraged along the descent instead of straight or gentle
curves. Furthermore, steep grade should be introduced at the start and not progressively. The
vertical profile of descents should not be in steps to avoid drivers re-accelerating on short
Sections of gentler grade.
Transition from Freeway to arterial highways

A strong change in the character of the highway and roadside is needed for drivers to adapt
to different driving conditions at lower speed. This is attained by a transition highway section
together with signing.
Roadside Linear Features

Common linear features along a highway include ditches, lighting columns, utility poles etc. If
a highway turns through a curve or passes a roundabout while these features continue in a
straight line, drivers could be misled and fail to turn or slow down.
The SER concept has found its main practical evolution currently in the case of rural highways,
where crashes are mostly severe, and urban freeways.
2.5.6. Concept of Sustainable Highway Design

2.5.6.1. Introduction
Generally, sustainability can be defined as having four objectives:
• system effectiveness.
• environmental integrity.
• conservation of economic resources.
• consideration of the social quality of life.
2.5.6.2. System effectiveness

Common goals and objectives of transportation system effectiveness are often related to
improving system performance of regional highways and public transit systems. Measures of
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transportation system performance may include vehicle kilometers travelled (VKT), travel
speed, congestion, or delay, travel times, or other parameters. Average freeway speed is often
used as a proxy for freeway congestion, it may not fully represent the level of mobility because
different regions have different freeway configurations and origin-destination (O-D) pairs
served by freeways. Transportation network of some regions may be heavily focused on arterial
systems, and most of O-D trips are served by arterial highways so that freeways may rarely
face conditions with traffic congestion.
2.5.6.3. Environmental integrity

Common goals and objectives of economic dimension include maximizing economic
efficiency, maximizing financial affordability, and promoting regional economic development.
Economic efficiency can be defined as the largest excess of social benefits over social costs
among the possible alternative programs or policies. Regional economic development can be
defined as the expansion of a community’s property and sales tax base or the expansion of
the number of jobs through office, retail, and industrial development. In general, a
transportation and land use decision will improve regional accessibility to some extent, which
results in changes in the mode share of private automobiles and public transportation systems.
A new modal spilt will affect total VKT, and travel cost will depend on the mode that travelers
use and how much they travel. Total VKT influences traffic congestion, and the level of
congestion in turn affects total time spent in traffic as well as user welfare benefits resulting
from less time travelers spent in traffic. Affordability and user welfare influence economic
efficiency while improved accessibility and user welfare affect regional economic development.
2.5.6.4. Conservation of economic resources

Common goals and objectives of environmental dimension include minimizing greenhouse
gas emissions, minimizing air pollution, minimizing noise levels, and minimizing resource use.
Transportation and land use decisions influence mode share of private automobiles and public
transportation systems as well as land consumption by transportation infrastructure. Resulting
VKT and traffic congestion influence various environmental factors such as fuel consumption,
CO2 emissions, CO, VOC, and NOx emissions, and traffic noise levels. Land and fuel
consumption affect resource use, CO2 and Ozone emissions influence global climate change,
and other emissions affect air pollution and noise levels.
2.5.6.5. Consideration of social quality of life

Common goals and objectives of social dimension include maximizing social equity, improving
public health, increasing safety and security, increasing accessibility to various services, and
improving overall quality of life.
Transportation and land use decisions improve regional accessibility to various services to
some extent, resulting in changes in the mode share of private automobiles and public
transportation systems. A new mode split influences total VKT, and the number of crashes is
correlated with total VKT. Total VKT and resulting traffic congestion have an environmental (air
and noise emissions) and economic (user welfare) impact on sustainability. Air and noise
emissions influence the extent of human exposure to such pollution, and human exposure
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affects the equity of emission exposure as well as public health. The equity of welfare changes
depends on the improved user welfare derived from travel time and cost savings. Social equity,
public health, safety and security, and accessibility all contribute to the quality of life.
2.5.6.6. Synthesis
This section includes a controversial and evolving issue on what constitutes transportation
system sustainability. The four essential dimensions of sustainability could be considered as:
• transportation systems effectiveness.
• economic sustainability.
• environmental sustainability.
• social sustainability.
Necessary factors of transportation system effectiveness include system performance for
multimodal transportation systems such as regional highways and transit systems. Necessary
environmental factors for sustainability include resource preservation (such as fossil fuels and
land), air pollution prevention, noise prevention, and greenhouse gas emissions minimization
for global sustainability issues associated with the livability of current and future generations.
Necessary economic factors for sustainability include economic efficiency, financial
affordability, and regional economic development by improving accessibility. Essential social
factors for sustainability include social equity issues related to income and minority groups,
public health, safety and security, accessibility to various services, and all four factors inevitably
affect overall quality of life.
2.6. Route Designations

2.6.1. Introduction
Functional classification of the highway sections in the Kingdom is established in accordance
with the policy and criteria set forth in Sections 2.1 to 2.4 by the RGA operating the highway
either it is a rural or urban highway. Additional designations may be required for some
roadways. Under the classification system each route existing or proposed must be classified
and documented and displayed in relevant highway or street maps.
2.6.2. Purpose
A system of route designations is the basis for the routing of traffic between origins and
destinations using roadside markers and maps made available to the highway user. Route
designation and numbering also facilitate the administration of such functions as the filing of
correspondence and documents, rapid and accurate identification of specific locations when
emergencies develop, crash reporting and analysis, maintenance management of pavement
and highway-related facilities and the inventory of roadside appurtenances such as signs,
drainage structures, guardrails, etc. Route designation shall be in compliance with the methods
and requirements of the "Network Referencing System of PMMS" provided in Section 3.5 of
SHC 501 (Highway Maintenance and Management Systems).
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2.6.3. Route Numbers
Highways that carry north-south traffic are assigned odd numbers and routes that carry east-
west traffic are assigned even numbers. Highways that are part of the Primary system are
assigned one- or two-digit numbers (1 through 99). Currently there is no special route
designation for freeways. Secondary highways are designated by three-digit numbers (100
through 999) and highways on the Feeder system have four-digit numbers (1,000 through
9,999).
Route numbers assigned to all highways increase from south to north and from west to east
and utilize the full range of numbers within each classification. Resulting gaps in the assigned
numbers provide for a logical distribution of vacant numbers whenever it becomes necessary
to expand or revise the basic classification system.
2.6.4. Freeways-Expressways
The term freeway or expressway designates a highway designed and constructed to provide
for the safe and fast movement of people and goods between major traffic generators. Both
freeways and expressways are usually constructed on the Primary system. They are normally
multilane facilities that are designed and operated as full controlled access highways
(freeways) or limited access highways (expressways). Freeways and expressways are assigned
route numbers in accordance with the scheme described above, i.e., a one or two digit even
number if it is a west to east highway on the Primary system. A special designation for freeways
may become necessary in the future as a combination of a letter and a number. Route markers,
including the numerals displayed thereon, which are placed along expressways for user
convenience shall be different in size, shape, and color from those on other highways (see
Section 3.4 of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
2.6.5. Additions, Deletions and Revisions

Assignment of a route number to a newly created highway, cancellation of a number previously
used to designate a deleted or abandoned highway, and route number revisions that may
become necessary by reason of a change in functional classification are the responsibility of
the RGA . Changes made by anyone else are invalid. Users of this Volume shall advise the RGA
if they perceive the need for additions, deletions, or revisions to the numbering scheme.
2.7. Approval Process

2.7.1. Policy
The policy of any KSA RGA for highways should be that only competent administrators,
engineers, and technicians shall be engaged as employees or agents of the RGA in the
fulfillment of the highway development functions and objectives addressed in this Volume
Code. It is assumed that those administrators, engineers and technicians have undergone
sufficient training and are properly motivated to represent the best interest of the RGA in
exercising professional judgment and in making technical decisions. Accordingly, the RGA
relies on the recommendations and decisions of its staff and agents. Except for specific items
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or milestones, the RGA shall not provide direction nor exercise stage approval authority over
most other preconstruction engineering activities. Specific items, milestones, or documents for
which RGA’s approval is required during the highway development process are discussed in
the following subdivisions of this section. Others may be specified in written instructions or by
other documentation prior to or during the initial phases of project development. The general
requirements for developing and designing highway projects are provided in Section 2.2. of
SHC 101.
2.7.2. Specific Requirements

Highway planning and design typically follows four phases as described in Volumes SHC 201
(Planning Process) and SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies). As each of these four phases of
preconstruction engineering listed below is completed, the resulting documents and plans
shall be submitted for approval:
• Feasibility Study Report.
• Reconnaissance Study Report.
• Preliminary Design Report.
• Final Design with associated Reports, Engineering Drawings, Plans, Specifications and
Estimates (PS&E).
The scope of the Feasibility report (when required) will be determined by the RGA on a project-
by-project basis. These documents shall be reviewed for compliance with this Volume or other
written instructions. Acceptability of each report and of the PS&E package is documented by
the appropriate Agency’s approval directorate. In addition to RGA acceptance of the above
four phases, separate or independent approval must be obtained for any of the following items
for which the design decisions have not been specified in writing before or during the initial
phases of project development.
1. Corridor location.
2. Functional Classification.
3. Design speed.
4. Centerline location.
5. Degree of access control.
6. Access plan, if any.
7. Interchange types and locations.
8. Pavement design (see SHC 308 (Pavement Design)).
9. Bridge layout-type, size, and location of bridges (see SHC 310 (Bridges and Tunnels
Design)).
10. Tunnel Design, if any (see also SHC 310 (Bridges and Tunnels Design)).
11. Rest areas-type and location (see also SHC 303 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design
- Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage Facilities)).
12. Right-of-way plan (see also SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design-Public
Utilities, Highway and Street Lighting, Control and Monitoring Devices)).
13. Methodology to be used in conducting traffic surveys and analysis including Equivalent
Standard Axle Load (ESAL) determination (see also SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies), SHC
308 (Pavement Design) and SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering)).
14. Deviations from the SHC provisions or specific requirements set forth in this Volume
or any supplemental instrument.
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Additional detailed information regarding the preconstruction engineering phases listed
above, are provided in SHC 201 (Planning Process) and SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies) along
with the content of the present volume SHC 301 and volumes SHC 303 (Highway Facilities and
Utilities Design - Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage Facilities), SHC 306
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design - Public Utilities, Highway and Street Lighting, Control
and Monitoring Devices), SHC 308 (Pavement Design), SHC 310 (Bridges and Tunnels Design)
and SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
2.7.3. Form of Approval

Acceptance and approval of the items identified in this section must be documented. Such
documentation shall be provided by an approval block or notation on the document itself by
written minutes of meetings or by separate correspondence. Regardless of form, the scope of
the approval must be clearly defined, and the signature of the appropriate approving authority
must appear clearly. More details regarding the approval requirements are provided in Section
2.2.4. of SHC 101.
2.7.4. Approval Schedule

The above four phases shall be submitted for review, acceptance and final approval in
accordance with a time schedule established prior to the beginning of work on the project in
accordance with the approval and closeout requirements provided in Section 2.2.4. of SHC
101, or as otherwise directed. In general, completion of the work involved in the last two
phases is dependent upon prior approval of items 1 through 13. It is, therefore, usually
desirable that project personnel submit items 1 through 13 for individual approval as they are
developed. All requests for approval under item 14 described in Section 2.7.2. above, must be
clearly identified as a deviation from the provisions of the SHC (see also Chapter 13).
2.7.5. Approving Authority

The approving authority for all actions covered in this section is the RGA for the construction
and/or operation of the highway. All projects are managed, from their inception to completion,
by a Project Manager appointed by the RGA, who in most cases will be one of its staff.
However, when an external project manager is appointed, the requirements of the RGA will
also apply. More details regarding the approval and closeout requirements are provided in
Section 2.2.4. of SHC 101.
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3. Predesign Elements
3.1. General
The present chapter describes the various predesign task items that need to be completed
before Design of Highways and Design of Structures can begin. The task items described in
this part are as follows:
• Driver Performance and Human Factors.
• Traffic Characteristics.
• Design Vehicles.
• Vulnerable Users.
• Economic Analysis of a Highway Project.
• Corridor Studies and Environmental Assessment.
• Surveys and Mapping.
• Centerline Location and Preliminary Design.
• Geotechnical Engineering.
• Hydrology.
• Traffic Surveys and Projections.
• Structural Design of Flexible or Rigid Pavements.
• Hydraulic Design.
• Highway Lighting.
• Traffic Control Plans.
• Control of Traffic Through Construction.
• Roadside Development.
• Passive Safety.
These sections describe the policies and procedures in performing the tasks. All above
mentioned design aspects are addressed in various Volumes of the SHC package.
3.2. Driver Performance and Human Factors

3.2.1. Introduction
Consideration of driver performance is essential to proper highway design and operation.
When highway design meets drivers’ expectations, capabilities and limitations, their
performance is aided while when the design is incompatible with the capabilities of drivers,
the possibility for driver errors increases and crashes or inefficient operation may result. This
section provides information about driver performance that is useful to engineers in designing
and operating highways.
3.2.2. Driver Perception Reaction

The driver characteristic perception-reaction time is considered a factor in a variety of highway
design and operations standards. The American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standard for stopping-sight distance is in part based on a
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driver characteristic of brake reaction. More precisely, it should be identified as the perception-
brake-reaction time.
The perception time is the time required to recognize a situation and understand that you
need to use the brakes and stop. It is the time lapse from the instant an object is visible to the
driver to the instant he realizes that the object is in his path and that a stop must be made. On
the other hand, the brake-reaction time is the time required to apply brakes. Driver perception
and reaction time is the total time required to perceive and complete a reaction to a stimulus
and is equal to the sum of the necessary times for perception, identification, emotion and
volition and is formerly labeled as the (PIEV) time.
3.2.3. Older Drivers and Older Pedestrians

Older drivers and pedestrians are a significant part of the highway user population, with a
variety of age-related diminished capabilities such as slower reaction times and needing more
brightness at night to receive visual information. Older highway users deserve mobility and
they should be accommodated in the design of highway. Thus, designers and engineers should
be aware of the needs and capabilities of older highway users and consider appropriate
measures to aid their performance.
3.2.4. The Driving and Guidance Task

3.2.4.1. The driving task
The driving task depends on drivers’ receiving and using information correctly. Drivers
compare the information received as they travel with the information they already possess and
make decisions based on the available information while are taking the appropriate control
actions. Driving encompasses several activities that could be grouped into three levels:
• Control.
• Guidance.
• Navigation.
These activities are listed in order to increase task complexity and in order of decreasing
importance for safe driving. Simple steering and speed control are at the basic level of the
scale (control). Highway following and path following in response to highway and traffic
conditions are at midlevel of the scale (guidance). At the more complex level of the scale are
trip planning and route following (navigation).
3.2.4.2. The guidance task

Highway designers need an appreciation of the guidance component of the driving task so
that their designs can aid driver performance.
Lane Placement and Highway Following

Lane-placement and highway-following decisions, including steering and speed control
judgments, are basic to vehicle guidance. Drivers use a feedback process to follow alignment
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and grade within the constraints of highway and environmental conditions. Obstacle-
avoidance decisions are integrated into lane placement and highway-following activities. This
portion of the guidance task level is continually performed both when no other traffic is
present (singularly) and when it is shared with other activities (integrated).
Car Following
Car following is a process where drivers guide their vehicles to follow another vehicle. Car-
following decisions are more complex than highway-following decisions because they involve
speed-control modifications. In car following, drivers need to constantly modify their speed to
maintain safe gaps between vehicles.
Passing Maneuvers
The driver decision to initiate, continue, or complete a passing maneuver is even more complex
than the decisions involved in lane placement or car following. Passing decisions involve
modifications in highway and car-following behavior and in speed control.
Other Guidance Activities

Other guidance activities include merging, lane changing, avoidance of pedestrians, and
response to traffic control devices. These activities also involve complex decisions, judgments,
and predictions.
3.2.4.3. The information system

Each element that provides information to drivers is part of the information system of the
highway. Formal sources of information are the traffic control devices specifically designed to
display information to drivers. Informal sources include such elements as highway and
roadside design features, pavement joints, tree lines, and traffic. Together, the formal and
informal sources provide the information drivers need to drive effectively. Formal and informal
sources of information are interrelated and should reinforce and augment each other to be
most useful.
Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices provide guidance and navigation information that often is not otherwise
available or apparent. As traffic control devices could be regulatory, warning, and guide signs,
markings and delineation, display additional information that augments highway or
environmental features. Drivers perceive information from these devices that might otherwise
be overlooked or difficult to recognize.
The Highway and Its Environment

Selection of path and speed is dependent on drivers being able to have adequate visibility and
see the highway ahead. Drivers need to have adequate visibility directly in front of their
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vehicles and far enough in advance to perceive the alignment, profile slopes, and other related
aspects of the highway. On the other hand, other parts of the highway infrastructure as
shoulders and roadside obstacles (including sign supports, bridge piers, abutments, guardrail,
and median barriers) affect driving behavior and, therefore, should be clearly visible to the
driver.
3.2.4.4. Information handling

Drivers gather information by using many of their senses, while this information is mostly
received visually by drivers from their view of the highway alignment, markings, and signs.
Drivers’ visual information obtained in short-duration glances, shifting their attention from one
source to another. They make immediately some decisions while they delay others to fill in
gaps in available information.
Reaction Time
Information takes time to process and drivers’ reaction times increase as a function of decision
complexity and the amount of information to be processed. Highway designs should take
reaction times into account.
Primacy
Primacy indicates the relative importance to safety of competing information. Accordingly, the
design should focus the drivers’ attention on the design elements and high-priority
information sources that provide control and guidance information. This goal may be achieved
by providing clear sight lines and good visual quality.
Expectancy
Driver expectancies are formed by the experience and training of drivers. Expectancy affects
how drivers perceive and handle information and modify the speed and nature of their
responses. Most highway design features are sufficiently similar to create driver expectancies
related to common geometric, operational, and route characteristics. Care should be taken to
maintain consistency in geometric design from one segment to another.
3.2.4.5. Driver error

A common characteristic of many high-crash locations is that they place large or unusual
demands on the information-processing capabilities of drivers (high driver workload).
Inefficient operation and crashes usually occur where the driver’s chances for information-
handling errors are high. At locations with high information-processing demands on the driver,
the possibility of driver error increases.
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Errors Due to Driver Deficiencies
Many driving errors are caused by deficiencies in a driver’s capabilities or temporary states.
For this reason, highway designs should be as forgiving as practical to reduce the
consequences of driver errors and failures. In freeway and expressway design, fatigued drivers
should be considered to represent a large part of the long trip driving population.
Older Drivers
There is general agreement that advancing age has a deleterious effect on an individual’s
perceptual, mental, and motor skills. These skills are critical factors in vehicular operation. In
highway design, the most practical measure related to better accommodating older drivers is
an increase in sight distance, by considering an increased reaction time and therefore an
increased decision sight distance. Where the adequate decision sight distance is impractical,
increased use of advance warning or guide signs may be appropriate.
Errors Due to Situation Demands

Drivers often commit errors when they have to perform several highly complex tasks
simultaneously under extreme time pressure. Errors of this type usually occur at urban area
locations with closely spaced decision points, intensive land use, complex design features, and
heavy traffic.
3.2.5. Stopping Procedure and Passing Maneuvers

Stopping Procedure - Stopping Sight Distance
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is one of several types of sight distance used in highway design.
It is a near worst-case distance a vehicle driver needs to be able to see in order to have
adequate distance to stop before colliding with something in the highway, such as a pedestrian
in a crosswalk, a stopped vehicle, or highway debris. Insufficient sight distance can adversely
affect the safety or operations of a highway or Intersection.
Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled during the two phases of stopping a vehicle:
• perception-reaction time (PRT).
• maneuver time (MT).
Perception-reaction time is the time it takes for a highway user to realize that a reaction is
needed due to a highway condition, decide what maneuver is appropriate (in this case,
stopping the vehicle), and start the maneuver (taking the foot off the accelerator and
depressing the brake pedal). Maneuver time is the time it takes to complete the maneuver
(decelerating and coming to a stop). The distance driven during perception-reaction time and
maneuver time is the needed SSD.
Actual braking distances are affected by the vehicle type and condition, the incline of the
highway, the available traction, and numerous other factors. A deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2
can be used to determine SSD. Approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates
greater than that. Therefore, this value can be used as design value for determining SSDs.
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Passing Maneuvers - Passing Sight Distance
Overtaking on two-lane highways is a complex and multi-phase maneuver associated
with high collision risk, especially for young novice drivers. The task of overtaking in two-lane
highways is divided in five phases:
• Deciding whether to overtake or not.
• Preparing to overtake.
• Changing lane.
• Passing.
• Returning to own lane.
According to AASHTO, passing sight distance (PSD) is composed of four elements:
• the distance the passing driver travels during the perception and reaction time and the
initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
• the distance traveled on the opposing lane.
• the distance at the end of the passing maneuver between the passing and opposing
vehicle.
• the distance traveled by the opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane.
3.2.6. Other Driving Performance Characteristics

Other driving performance characteristics that could be considered in highway design are the
following:
Speed adaptation
A sensation familiar to nearly all drivers is that after prolonged driving at high speeds, slower
speeds seem even slower than they really are. This phenomenon, referred to as speed
adaptation.
Judgment of relative speed and vehicle spacing

Much driving time is spent by following other vehicles. Each vehicle in a platoon is assumed
to react, after a time delay, to a stimulus arising from its relationship with the vehicle it is
following. A typical time delay for an acceleration or deceleration was measured around 1.6 s.
3.3. Traffic Characteristics

3.3.1. General Considerations
Highway design and its features should consider traffic volumes, operational performance, and
user characteristics for all transportation modes. Traffic data for a highway section can be
obtained from studies and methods described in volumes SHC 203 (Planning and Preliminary
Studies for Highways) and SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
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3.3.2. Traffic Flow Parameters for Design
3.3.2.1. Volume
The two traffic volume parameters that greatly influence design decisions are the Annual
Average Daily Traffic (AADT) and the Design Hourly Volume (DHV). Both current and future
AADT and DHV for highway projects are described in SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies) and SHC
601 (Traffic Engineering).
3.3.2.2. Directional distribution

DHV is counted as the total traffic in both directions of travel for two-lane highways in rural
areas, while in the design of highways with more than two lanes and on two-lane highways
knowledge of the hourly traffic volume for each direction of travel is essential. Details for traffic
and the directional distribution for highway sections are given in Section A.2 of SHC 601 (Traffic
Engineering).
3.3.2.3. Composition of traffic

Vehicles of different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics that should be
considered in highway design. For design purposes, the percentage of truck traffic during the
peak hours should be determined. In addition, data on traffic composition should be
determined by traffic studies for the design of a particular highway, while truck traffic should
be expressed as a percentage of total traffic during the design hour. In urban areas, traffic
composition is generally more complex, with the presence of bicyclists, micromobility devices,
pedestrians and transit vehicles, in addition to passenger cars and trucks. Details for
composition of traffic are given in Section 2.3 of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
3.3.2.4. Projection of future traffic demands

Geometric design of new highways or improvements to existing ones should be usually based
on future traffic volumes expected and not on current traffic volumes. Methodologies for the
estimation of the future traffic volumes are described in Section 2.2 of SHC 203 (Preliminary
Studies).
3.3.3. Speed Concepts

Speed is one of the most important factors considered by travelers in selecting alternative
routes or transportation modes. For highway designs there are important differences between
design criteria applicable to low- or high-speed designs. The upper limit for low-speed design
is defined to 70 km/h and the lower limit for high-speed design is defined to 80 km/h.
3.3.3.1. Operating speed

Operating speed is the speed at which drivers are observed operating their vehicles during
free-flow conditions with the 85th percentile of the distribution of observed speeds being the
SHC 301 41
most frequently used measure of the operating speed of a particular location or geometric
feature.
3.3.3.2. Running speed

The speed at which an individual vehicle travels over a highway section is known as its running
speed. The running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular section while the
vehicle is moving and can be calculated by dividing the length of the highway section by the
time duration the vehicle was in motion. The average running speed on a given highway varies
during the day, depending primarily on the traffic volume. Therefore, when reference is made
to a running speed, it should be clearly stated whether this speed represents peak hours, off-
peak hours, or an average for the day.
3.3.3.3. Design speed

Design speed is the speed selected as a basis to establish appropriate geometric design
elements for a particular section of a highway so that drivers can travel safely at that speed
under ideal conditions. Design speed is used to determine various geometric design features
of the highway. The selected design speed should reflect the needs of all transportation modes
expected to use the highway.
In the design of a substantial highway length, it is desirable to select a uniform design speed.
However, changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate a change in design speed
on certain Sections. If so, the selection of a lower design speed should be made over sufficient
distance stepwise at 10 km/h steps to permit drivers to gradually change speed before
reaching the highway section with the lower design speed.
3.3.3.4. Allowed speed

Allowed speed is the maximum speed at which a vehicle is legally permitted to travel, as within
a specific area, on a certain highway, or under given conditions. It can be the general regulatory
or statutory speed of the highway category or the posted speed. The posted speed is less than
the statutory speed limit that generally applies for a highway functional category, i.e., a
freeway, local etc. The statutory and posted speed is always equal or lower to design speed.
The posted speed is informed to drivers through the speed limit sign at specific locations and
is valid for a limited length of the highway. The Statutory speed is mentioned in the highway
driving code and usually informed to the drivers at the entrance points of the highway.
3.3.3.5. Target speed

Experience has shown that there is a gap between the values of operating and design speed
with deteriorating effects on road safety. Target speed aims to close this gap by reinforcing a
desired operating speed. Target speed is defined as the highest speed at which vehicles should
operate on a thoroughfare in a specific context, consistent with the level of multimodal activity
generated by adjacent land uses, to provide both mobility for motor vehicles and a safe
environment for pedestrians, bicyclists, and public transit. The concept implies using the
desired operating speed (target speed) as the posted speed limit. The contextual highway
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classification system presented in Section 2.3.4 proves to be a proper highway design
approach in urban settings to realize the target speed concept.
3.4. Design Vehicles

Key controls in geometric highway design are the physical characteristics and the proportions
of vehicles of various sizes using the highway. Therefore, it is appropriate to examine all vehicle
types, establish general class groupings, and select vehicles of representative sizes within each
class for design use. Four general classes of design vehicles have been established:
• passenger cars.
• buses.
• trucks.
• recreational vehicles.
In the design of any highway facility, the designer should consider the largest design vehicle
that is likely to use that facility with considerable frequency or a design vehicle with special
characteristics appropriate to a particular location in determining the design of such critical
features as radii at Intersections and radii of turning highways.
3.4.1. Passenger Cars

A passenger car is a motor vehicle that is designed or adapted primarily to carry people on
highways and streets. It seats a driver and no more than eight passengers. Most cars, station
wagons, vans, and some pick-up trucks are passenger vehicles. Table 3-1 lists the most
common cases of passenger cars including seating numbers.
Table 3-1 Common Cases of Passenger Vehicles
Seating
Type of Vehicle
(includes driver)
Coupe, sedan, station wagon, sports car, or luxury
1 to 9
car
Pick-up truck 1 to 3
Pick-up truck with extended cab 4 to 9
Sport utility vehicle 4 to 9
Van or minivan 1 to 9
3.4.2. Powered Two-Wheelers

The term ‘Powered Two-Wheelers’ (PTW) covers a wide range of vehicles from mopeds,
scooters and other small capacity motorcycles, ideal for urban journeys, to large capacity
custom, sports and touring models.
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These vehicles, since the early eighties, have experienced tremendous technical and design
improvements. PTW manufacturers have developed and marketed safer, cheaper, more
economical to run and more comfortable products. Riding a PTW has also become easier and
today the range of available models can satisfy the most varied user needs. PTW are an answer
to the traffic congestion and air quality challenges created by personal and goods
transportation.
Tricycles, minicars, light commercial quadricycles are also part of the PTW family.
3.4.3. Heavy Vehicles

Heavy vehicles refers to motor vehicles having a maximum permissible load exceeding 3.5
tons. They are designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other
utilitarian work. Heavy vehicles vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, but the vast
majority feature body-on-frame construction, with a cabin that is independent of the payload
portion of the vehicle. Smaller varieties may be mechanically similar to some automobiles.
Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful and may be configured to be mounted with
specialized equipment, such as in the case of refuse trucks, fire trucks, concrete mixers, and
suction excavators. For heavy vehicles the requirements shown in Table 3-2 shall be met.
Table 3-2 Common Cases of Heavy Vehicles
Heavy Vehicle Type Length Width Height
Single Truck
12.50 m
Bus
Tractor Truck 2.60 m 4.50 m

20.00 m
Semi-Trailer Truck
Tractor and Trailer 23.00 m
The requirements described above are presented in the following vehicle figures.
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Figure 3-1 Maximum Size for a Single Truck, for a Truck and Trailer and for a Semi-Trailer Truck
Figure 3-2 Maximum Size for a Bus
Dimensions and the minimum turning paths of various vehicles are presented in Appendix
Appendix A. Commercially available computer programs can be applied to derive turning path
plots, so the designer can determine the path characteristics of any selected vehicle if it differs
from those shown in Appendix Minimum Turning Paths
Military vehicles are categorized into the following five typical width classes:
• Width Class 2.75 (typical vehicle width equal to 2.75 m).
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Those typical widths are used for the design of cross-sections, which are both used by civil
vehicles and military vehicles. If a military vehicle has a width between two classes, then this
vehicle is designated to the higher of the two width classes.
3.4.4. Recreational Vehicles

Recreational Vehicle (RV) means a vehicular or portable unit designed to be mounted on a
chassis and wheels, which either has its own motive power or is mounted on or drawn by
another vehicle, such as travel trailers, fifth wheel trailers, camping trailers, motor homes, or
truck campers which may be used as a temporary dwelling or sleeping place to housework
force staff.
3.5. Vulnerable Highway Users

3.5.1. Pedestrians
Appropriate accommodation of pedestrian travel is a major consideration in highway planning
and design. Pedestrians are a part of every highway environment, and attention should be
paid to their presence, especially in urban areas. Pedestrian facilities include:
• Sidewalks.
• Crosswalks.
• Traffic control features.
• Curb cuts (depressed curbs and ramped sidewalks).
• Ramps for older walkers and persons with mobility disabilities.
• Bus stops or other loading areas.
• Sidewalks on grade separations.
• Stairs, escalators, or elevators related to these facilities.
• Shading could be applied (where appropriate).
Where pedestrian facilities are provided, they must be accessible to and usable by individuals
with disabilities. More information for planning for pedestrians is included in Section 6.2 of
SHC 201 (Planning Process).
3.5.2. Bicyclists
Bicycles are an important mode of transportation that should be considered in highway design
process, especially in urban areas. Providing dedicated operating space for bicyclists reduces
conflicts between bicyclists and pedestrians, bicyclists and motor vehicles and may improve
traffic operations. More information for planning for bicyclists is included in Section 6.3 of SHC
201 (Planning Process).
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3.5.3. Micromobility
Micromobility is a general term used to describe lightweight human- or electric-powered
modes of travel such as e-rollerblades, e-skateboards, e-bicycles, e-scooters and limited-
speed motorcycles. These modes of transportation are typically used for shorter trips than by
car. Micromobility is a perfect option to do just that with benefits such as:
1. reduction in highway congestion because shared mobility users generally own less cars.
Plus, a micromobility vehicle uses significantly less space.
2. cutback of air pollution since most micromobility devices are zero emission vehicles.
3. being a bridge for the first and last mile gap of public transit.
4. offering a more affordable transportation option compared to owning a personal
vehicle.
To keep all pedestrians and cyclists safe, micromobility devices – including e-rollerblades, e-
skateboards, e-bicycles, e-scooters, Segways, hoverboards and limited-speed motorcycles or
mopeds – should not be used on sidewalks, shared pedestrian and bike paths or recreational
trails in the city.
Micromobility types
Micromobility vehicle types could be the following:
• E-bike.
• Power-Assisted bicycle.
• Motor-Assisted bicycle.
• Limited-speed motorcycle/moped.
• Cargo e-bike.
• E-scooter.
• Electric skateboard/hoverboard.
• Unicycle.
• Segway.
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Figure 3-3 Micromobility Vehicle Types (Source: Vaughan, Canada 2022)
3.6. Economic Analysis of a Highway Project

The economic appraisal of transport projects is a vital component of decision making in
highway infrastructure investments. The economic assessment of highway projects is
considered a valuable tool that allows decision makers to increase the efficiency of their
policies, maximize the contribution of transport to the economy in general and achieve a safer
and more balanced relationship between transport stakeholders, highway users, society and
the environment. Considering that funds for highway infrastructure are limited, decision
makers and highway infrastructure stakeholders need to prioritize activities and base their
decisions on evidence and data, using appropriate criteria.
More information for economic analysis is included in Chapter 4 of SHC 203 (Preliminary
Studies).
3.7. Corridor Studies and Environmental Assessment

3.7.1. Background Data
3.7.1.1. General
A Corridor Study and Environmental Assessment serve as the basis for "selecting" new route
corridors or for deciding between highway relocation and continued use of an existing
highway. Studies and decisions on highway alternatives reflect the goals and objectives of the
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RGA to fulfill the need for fast, safe, and efficient transportation facilities while considering the
costs of eliminating or minimizing adverse SEE (social, economic, and environmental) effects.
Included in corridor studies are activities leading to highway route location. All reasonable
alternatives are identified, and a comparison made of their relative costs, benefits, and the
environmental impacts. Alternatives include different locations or upgrading the existing
highway.
Decisions on the type of highway improvement are not made based on transportation
considerations alone. A higher or lower standard, for instance, may provide needed traffic
service and significantly change the SEE effect. As an example, a controlled access highway
may not be necessary to serve transportation needs but may achieve beneficial results.
Controlling access may channel potential development into less sensitive areas or into areas
more compatible with planning objectives of local jurisdictions or other Ministries.
A thorough initial investigation is essential to intelligently make corridor determinations. If the
most feasible, serviceable, and economical corridor is not determined at this stage no amount
of engineering effort can overcome the inherent deficiencies that will exist. When presenting
corridor comparisons, it is imperative that the same basic data and methods of investigation
and evaluation be used for each corridor studied.
3.7.1.2. Interministrerial and public involvement

In addition to the consideration of alternatives and the identification and consideration of SEE
(social, economic, and environmental) effects, a third basic element in the RGA’s project
planning and development process is the involvement of other agencies, public officials, and
citizens.
RGA requires timely involvement of parties with special expertise or concern in project
planning and development. Notification of project activities is sent to officials in provinces,
districts, cities, towns, villages, and to other Ministries and agencies having jurisdiction or
special expertise concerning lands and features impacted. RGA also requires coordination with
urban transportation plans and comprehensive area plans. The following "Notification of
Intent" form, or a similar one, is utilized.
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Table 3-3 Notification of Intent to Begin Project Planning and Development Activities (MoC, 1992)
To: Appropriate agency_________________________

______________________________________________
______________________________________________
Project
Description: ___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Location (with attached map): ________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Any information that your agency can provide concerning this project and its social,
economic, and environmental effects will be appreciated.
Send information to:

Competent Authority (i.e., RGA, Ministry of Transportation and Logistics, Riyadh etc.)
Attention: ___________________________________
Following the above notification and involvement, a public hearing is held in each community
impacted by the transportation facility. This hearing or meeting may be chaired by a local
official or a representative of the RGA.
A public hearing or meeting is a public forum held before the RGA is committed to a specific
alternative. Such a forum is held to ensure the examination of its potential social and economic
impacts are fully evaluated and that an opportunity for effective participation by interested
officials and citizens is provided. A representative of the Agency explains the results of
engineering and SEE studies and makes note of other viewpoints and specific project-related
information. Table 3-4 depicts most activities requiring coordination and the Ministries having
jurisdiction or special expertise for such activities.
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Table 3-4 Interministry Coordination List
Industry and Mineral Resources (MIM)
Communications, Space & Technology

Municipal, Rural Affairs & Housing
Communications & Information

Water and Agriculture (MEWA)
Ministry or
Provincial Governor/Emir
Foreign Affairs (MOFA)
Concerned Agency /
Technology (MCIT)
Commission (CST)
Authority
Education (MOE)
Commerce (MC)
Defense (MOD)
Energy (MOE)
Interior (MOI)
Environment,
(MoMRAH)
Requirements
Soils/Geology x x
Farm & Grazing Land x x
Antiquity x x
Oases/Water Sources x x
Water Quality x x x
Natural Area x x x
Endanger Species
x x
Habitat
Parks/Recreation x x
Military Land x
Coordination
City/Town/Village x x x
Rural Area x x x x
Airport x x
Railroad x x x x
Industry x x
Utility x x
Aerial Survey x x x x
Air/Noise Control x x
Mineral Resources x
Religious
x x x
Sites/Cemeteries
Consultation
Public
Notification x x x x x x x x x x x x
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3.7.1.3. Preliminary data
Traffic
The AADT needed for evaluation of the potential traffic-carrying capacity of existing highways,
or for evaluation of route proposals and design features during later stages of the study will
be provided by the RGA or obtained by applying a 20-year traffic projection factor to the
current AADT.
More information about traffic has been included in SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
Termini
Route termini have usually been selected prior to the authorization of the reconnaissance
study. If definite termini have not been selected, traffic survey data should be used to establish
the termini.
Maps and Photographs

The type and scale of mapping required for the study are dictated by the terrain and land use
intensity of the route corridor area. The maps must be complete, current and give full details
of topography and physical features.
Digital orthophotographs may be used to show corridors or portions of corridors.
Existing aerial photographs, planimetric maps, topographic maps, geological maps and
geophysical maps may be available and, in some instances, will provide adequate information
for the initial investigation. Possible sources for these and other maps and photographs are as
follows:
• Ministry of Transportation and Logistics.
• Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources.
• Consulting Engineers (e.g., engineering services entities).
• ARAMCO.
• KSA Geodetic Authority GASGI.
• Ministry of Municipalities, Rural Affair and Housing.
More information about terrestrial and aerial mapping is included in SHC 202 (Surveying and
Mapping).
3.7.2. Information to be Obtained During Study

For each corridor studied, the following information shall be developed:
Proposed Geometrics
The proposed geometric features like highway category, alignment (vertical and horizontal,
typical cross-Section etc.), shall be taken according to the present document.
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Land Use Activities
Locate and describe the general ownership and the principal activities occurring on the land
in the study area. Describe all Government owned land and facilities.
Geology
Give the geology of the study area. Use a geologic map if available. Interpret and show the
relationship of the geology to the proposed route. Include sand dune and landslide areas;
properties of solid rock; properties of unconsolidated material; availability of highway
construction materials (type of deposits, quantity, and quality).
More information about geology has been included in Chapter 5 of SHC 203 (Preliminary
Studies).
Topography
Describe the topography for the study area.
Hydrology-Climate
Collect hydrologic data in accordance with Chapter 2 of SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and
Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
Economic Activity
Describe the economy of the study area including the major industries.
Biological Data
Give the general vegetative distribution. Describe any wildlife that may inhabit the area.
Sociological Data
Describe the population distribution, recreational opportunities, public services, and other
social related activities.
3.7.3. Field Investigation

Traffic Surveys
If the information is not available, traffic surveys may be necessary to assess existing traffic
and for projecting future traffic, according to SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
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Field Surveys
Ground and/or photogrammetric surveys may be necessary to determine the physical
characteristics of the existing highways and to obtain information for use in the evaluation of
alternate corridors.
Cemeteries and Mosques

A field survey will be made in each corridor under consideration to determine the presence of
graves, cemeteries, or mosques. This survey and its findings shall be documented in the
Reconnaissance Report.
Antiquities and Historic Sites

Project personnel will contact the Minister of Education and President of the Higher Council
of Antiquities and/or any other RGA during the corridor evaluation phase to determine if there
are any known archaeological areas or historical buildings within each corridor being
considered.
A field survey will be made in each corridor under consideration by persons with knowledge
of archaeological or historic features and sites.
Other
Field investigations may be necessary to accurately assess the following features of the study
area.
• Topography.
• Geology.
• Hydrology.
• Land Use Activities.
• Biological Data.
• Sociological Data.
3.7.4. Corridor Evaluation

Social and Environmental Impacts
Each comparison of representative alternate corridors should include consideration of social
and environmental determinants listed below.
• Water.
• Earth.
• Vegetation.
• Wildlife.
• Agriculture Lands.
• Natural Resources.
• Economics.
• Public Services.
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• Antiquities/Historical.
• Air.
• Noise.
• Light and Glare.
• Land Use.
• Risk of Upset.
• Population.
• Housing.
• Transportation/Circulation.
• Energy.
• Utilities
• Human Health.
• Aesthetics.
• Recreation.
The consideration given to each determinant will vary with the nature and size of the proposed
project and with the characteristics of the study area. For more details refer to SHC 201
(Planning Process) and SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies).
3.7.5. Reconnaissance Report

The purpose of the Reconnaissance Report is to provide to the competent highway authority
the information assembled during the Corridor Studies and Environmental Assessment phase
of project development. A report containing the following information shall be prepared.
3.7.5.1. Analysis
The following Sections will be included under Analysis:
1. Introduction
State the authority to do the work. Briefly describe the scope of the project and the purpose
and need for the proposed action.
2. Comparison of Alternatives
Scope and Nature of the Work

Describe general location, length, class of highway, proposed geometrics, general design
elements, and estimated cost for each corridor. Provide any other facts that will give an
understanding of the scope and nature of the work.
Project Environment
Describe the physical setting of each corridor land use activities, geology, topography, etc.
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Social and Environmental Impacts
This part of the Reconnaissance Report will include the information developed in SHC 701
(Environmental Aspects of Highways).
3.7.5.2. Recommendations
The following should be included under Recommendations:
Recommended Corridor
Describe the corridor recommended for selection and provide reasons supporting the
proposed action.
Recommendations for Further Study

List any items observed during the reconnaissance studies that require further study.
3.8. Surveys and Mapping

3.8.1. Surveys
Relevant information for surveys has been included in SHC 202 (Surveying and Mapping).
3.8.2. Mapping
Relevant information for mapping has been included in SHC 202 (Surveying and Mapping).
3.9. Centerline Location and Preliminary Design

3.9.1. Introduction
Location is the art of selecting the best highway centerline within a previously established
corridor. The location process can be divided into four steps as follows:
• Route selection to narrow the choice of possible routes to the one or two best routes.
• Preparation of large-scale maps to include the selected routes.
• The projection of centerlines on large-scale maps.
• The location survey transferring the location from the map to the ground.
3.9.2. Route Selection

3.9.2.1. Office and field review
The correspondence, reports, engineering data, environmental data, maps, and aerial photos
developed during the corridor studies shall be reviewed in detail by the location engineer. The
purpose of this review is to identify the major human objectives of the highway and the
engineering requirements, such as:
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• Terminal control points of proposed highway.
• Category of the highway.
• Estimated traffic in design year.
• Geometric standards of the proposed highway.
A field review of the corridor shall then be made by the highway engineer. Others who have
major concerns or responsibilities for the final highway location, such as local officials and
representatives of the RGA or other Ministries affected by the location, shall be given an
opportunity to participate in this review. A major purpose of the field review is to identify major
and minor control points that may affect the location. These can be of two general types:
natural controls and manmade controls.
Natural controls include favorable passes in mountains, good bridge sites, and favorable
geologic soil conditions. Conversely, marshes, landslide areas, areas of bad soil, sabkhas, and
sand dunes are negative controls and should be avoided.
Works of man controls include cities and towns, dams, canals, highways, railways, airports,
utilities, farms and habitations, industries, parks and recreational facilities, public buildings and
monuments, mosques and cemeteries, and historic or archaeological sites. These controls may
be positive or negative. For example, a new highway may pass through or near a village to
provide transportation service.
On the other hand, cemeteries and archaeological sites shall be avoided.
3.9.2.2. Map studies

The maps used during the corridor studies may be adequate for the route selection studies. If
they are not adequate, the highway engineer will determine during the field review the
additional mapping needed for an adequate study.
3.9.2.3. Alignment considerations

Alignment between control points should be of as high a standard as is commensurate with
the topography, existing traffic, and projected future traffic. Horizontal alignment should flow
with the natural contours of the land. Sudden changes between curves of widely different radii
or between long tangents and sharp curves should be avoided by use of curves of gradually
increasing or decreasing radii (horizontal alignment consistency). On multilane highways in
level topography, long curves of large radii are preferred to long tangents connected by sharp
curves. On two-lane highways passing sight distance may be provided either by very flat curves
or tangents. Where crest vertical and horizontal curves coincide, the stopping sight distance
should be above the minimum, and the relation between horizontal and vertical sight distance
should be checked to assure that the horizontal curve is visible to approaching drivers.
Occasionally, the appearance of the highway may require better geometric design than would
be required by traffic. For example, a very small angle between tangents, say 9 degrees or less
should be turned by a curve at least 300 m in length.
On multilane highways independent alignment and grade should be considered as an
alternate to uniform median design. In many cases independent alignments will be more
economical and have less impact on the environment.
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3.9.2.4. Alternate routes through the corridor
Concurrent study of topographic digital maps and aerial photographs will reveal likely routes
to be followed and barriers to be avoided. In mountainous terrain, ridges and valleys are
excellent routes if they lead in the right direction. The most difficult locations are those that
cross the natural drainage, or that lie in irregular terrain where the valleys have no well-defined
direction. All possible locations should be examined. Some may be discarded immediately as
impractical. Those selected for consideration should be sketched on the corridor maps using
different colors or line symbols.
The alternatives identified during the office study as being feasible will be evaluated in the
field. Most alternatives can be readily identified on the ground from the maps and examination
of the aerial photos. If not, it may be necessary to do enough surveying to establish the
proposed centerline with reasonable accuracy. Many technological tools for this purpose are
available today (see Section 2.9 of SHC 202 (Surveying and Mapping)).
The method of performing the detailed field evaluation of alternate routes will vary with the
terrain and means of access to it. Where existing highways or trails provide vehicular access, it
may be possible to review most alternatives with little walking. Where long distances are
involved with limited or no vehicular access, it may be desirable to view the routes from map
providers as Google Earth, Bing Maps, Apple Maps etc. A detailed review of several alternatives
can be made in this manner in a reasonably short time. All critical areas should be reviewed at
close range on foot to ensure that each proposed location is acceptable.
The field evaluation will enable the highway engineer to select the one or two or possibly three
best routes through the corridor and narrow the study area for the highway location to a strip
that is only 1 or 2 km wide. The next step in the location is to map this strip to a large scale.
3.9.3. Large Scale Mapping

There are two methods of obtaining the large-scale strip map, conventional ground surveys
and photogrammetric. These large-scale maps are developed in accordance with Section 17.1
SHC 202 (Surveying and Mapping).
Photogrammetric mapping has many advantages. The maps are usually more accurate than
those produced by ground survey methods and show more details. The accompanying aerial
photos are a good source of information for assessing environmental impact and right-of-way
requirements.
3.9.4. Centerline Projection

Projection is the process of drawing the proposed highway centerline (or centerlines where
more than one alternate is considered) on a large-scale topographic map and plotting a profile
and grade line therefrom. The objective of projection is to obtain the most satisfactory
combination of alignment and grade for the terrain conditions and the established design
standards.
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The geometric standards for the proposed highway are determined by the category, the traffic
for the design year, the topography, and construction costs. The geometric standards
described in the present volume will be used for projecting centerline.
It makes no difference whether the map on which the projection is made was produced by
ground surveying, by photogrammetric methods or other methods (Laser Scanning, etc.); the
projection process is identical for all. Highway projection is to a great extent a process of
successive approximations, with each trial giving a more refined and economical plan, so that,
within limits, the more time spent projecting, the better the final result.
Two of the most important considerations in selecting the route centerline projection for a
proposed highway are:
• the physical features of the area.
• how these features relate to the geometric design controls.
Physical features that affect route centerline projection include topography, ground (soil)
conditions, and surrounding land use. Any possible environmental impacts posed by
construction of a new highway must also be considered. First, the highway designer reviews
topographic, geologic and soil maps as well as available aerial photographs of the area.
First approach of a highway alignment is influenced mainly by terrain. In general, the terrain
or topography of an area is classified as level, rolling or mountainous. In level terrain, selection
of an alignment is influenced mainly by factors such as the cost of right-of-way, land use,
waterways that may require expensive bridging, existing roads, railroads, and subgrade
conditions. In rolling and mountainous terrain, different factors need to be considered,
including:
• Horizontal curvature.
• Vertical grade.
• Height of cuts and heights of fills.
• Structures needed for drainage.
After the first approach, the designer looks for conditions that will require sudden changes in
alignment. For example, areas that would necessitate connecting long straight Sections with
sharp curves should be avoided. Areas that are subject to floods or avalanches make highway
construction difficult, expensive and/or unsafe.
Typically, several preliminary alignments will be investigated. Selection of an alignment is a
trial-and-error process, as the proposed alignments are checked for compliance with the
horizontal and vertical control criteria, the produced earthworks (cuts and fills), the needed
structures (bridges, tunnels, etc.) and geotechnical/environmental issues. The selection of the
final alignment is based on a comparison of costs and environmental and social impacts.
Currently, there are many software packages in the market that facilitate the centerline
projection significantly by providing to the designers the necessary tools for horizontal
alignment and vertical profile interaction and therefore incorporate the three-dimensional
design by taking also into account the available topographic survey.
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3.9.4.1. Locations in level terrain
The designer first marks the critical control points prominently on the large-scale digital map
projected on a monitor. Afterwards one or more trial alignments including lines and curves
within horizontal geometric design limits are drawn on the map. These trial alignments are
critically examined, and the best of them is redrawn by adjusting geometric design curves
thereon. A ground profile is then automatically calculated and plotted, from the digital terrain
model (DTM).
• Then the designer proceeds with the profile design and the determination of the final
road level by considering the following: Provide required vertical clearance for highway
overpasses and rail-highway structures.
• Provide edge of shoulder elevation at least 0.05 m above expected high water level.
• Provide sufficient vertical clearance above streams or wadis to pass the design
discharge.
• Use a minimum of 0.5 percent grade in cuts and 0.25 percent absolute minimum (0.50
percent desirable) grade on curbed Sections.
This examination may suggest changes that become the basis for another trial projection. As
many trial projections are made as the projector deems necessary to fit the terrain and the
requirements.
At this stage of the location, the designer should pay attention to the geometric interrelation
of the horizontal and vertical alignment, avoiding horizontal and vertical "broken back" curves,
or two curves in the same direction joined by a short tangent, and sharp reverses. An alignment
of alternating right-hand and left-hand curves is the most pleasing to the eye and the most
natural to drive. Again, the above-mentioned procedure is carried out currently by utilizing
corresponding highway design software and CAD packages.
3.9.4.2. Locations in rolling or mountainous terrain

Even in a rough country, long, sustained maximum grades are rare. The usual location is a
series of maximum grades, each usually not more than 2 to 4 km long, with flatter or "slack"
grades between. Flatter Sections that have slack grade are projected as described previously.
For sections in rolling or mountainous areas where maximum grades should be used, the grade
should be tried to remain about 1 or 2 percent less than the maximum to allow for grade
compensation on sharp curves and the shortening that occurs when curves are applied to an
angle line.
In a mountainous country, where short horizontal curve radii are applied, the maximum grade
should be tried to remain about 1 or 3 percent less than the maximum to compensate for
increased highway resistance and loss of momentum.
A common difficulty in steep areas is failure to catch fill slopes. Only rarely is it possible to
build stable fills with slopes steeper than 1 ½ to 1. If the natural mountain slope is 1 ½ to 1 or
steeper a 1 ½ to 1 fill slope will not catch until it reaches flatter ground, which in places may
be far below the highway grade. Such long "sliver fills" are unreliable and expensive to build.
The alternatives are:
• Intercept the slope with a retaining wall.
• Make the slope steeper by using reinforced embankment.
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• Shift the centerline into the hillside so that the highway is entirely in cut.
Every mountain location should be checked to determine whether the fills will block the natural
drainage, which is a common occurrence when the location follows a mountain stream or wadi.
A slope that extends into a wadi will have to be heavily riprapped or protected by a retaining
wall to prevent undermining.
3.9.5. Centerline Evaluation and Preliminary Design Report Format
The Preliminary Design Report is a summation of the predesign studies and requires the
approval of the RGA before final design of a project can be started. This report shall include a
detailed evaluation of all the potential locations within the approved corridor and the
Engineer's recommendation of the best one.
3.9.5.1. Alternate centerline

The number of feasible alternates within a corridor will depend on many factors; however, as
a general rule the final number should not exceed five and preferably only three. Whether or
not these alternates are staked will depend on the Engineer's method of obtaining terrain data.
Sufficient terrain data shall be obtained so that preliminary earthwork quantities can be
estimated for each alternate. Interchange types and locations, if applicable, shall be identified.
The location and size of major drainage structures shall also be identified.
3.9.5.2. Comparison of alternate routes

It is mandatory that the same methods and factors be used in evaluating alternates. For
instance, if cross Sections are used to estimate earthwork on one alternate, they must be used
on the others.
In order that a true comparison of alternate construction costs can be made, certain major
items need to be included. These are as follows:
• Earthwork quantities: excavation, borrow and embankment (accuracy: ± 15 percent of
final quantity).
• Bridges (accuracy: ± 5 m of final length).
• Pavement structure; subbase, base, and surfacing (accuracy: ± 10 percent of final
quantities.
• Drainage Culverts (accuracy: ± 10 percent of final quantities).
• Interchanges and grade separation structures; structures (accuracy: ± 5 m of final
length) and ramps (accuracy: earthwork 15 percent of final quantity; pavement 10
percent of final quantity).
• Tunnels (accuracy: ± 5 m of final length).
• Right-of-way (total cost).
The relative accuracy of the estimates is important since they are major factors in selection of
the final centerline.
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3.9.5.3. Preliminary design report
This report summarizes the engineering activities occurring after RGA’s approval of the
Reconnaissance Report and presents the Engineer's recommendation on the best alignment.
To expedite review by the RGA the following format may be followed (non-exclusive):
Cover
The cover shall include the following information:
• Name of the RGA.
• Project name.
• Highway number.
• Project termini.
• Engineer's name.
• Name of report: i.e., Preliminary Design Report (scope of work-not exceeding seven
words).
Table of Contents
Introduction
A brief description of the project including termini, highway category development schedule,
and type of facility. Copies of important correspondence, such as that authorizing the study.
Any of those 13 items listed for approval in Section 2.7 that are applicable shall be included in
the Appendix of Preliminary design report.
Summary of Recommendations
A concise review of the alternates and a recommendation of the best centerline location.
Description of Alternates
A detailed description of each alternate. Topographic maps, photomosaics, satellite pictures,
architectural sketches, and photographs may be used to show the following data especially in
a digital form:
• Length.
• Vertical and horizontal alignment.
• Interchange locations.
• Bridge types and locations.
• Tunnel types (80 km/h or 100 km/h) and locations.
• Proposed rest areas, scenic overlooks.
• Emergency parking areas.
• Potential environmental conflicts.
• Right-of-way conflicts.
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Design Data and Geometrics
A listing of the design data and geometrics used in developing the alternates. Approved
deviations from the volume shall be identified. The following information shall be included:
• Highway category.
• AADT (present).
• AADT, including percent of trucks.
• DHV, including percent of trucks.
• Design speed.
• Minimum radius of horizontal curvature.
• Maximum grade.
• Drawing showing typical section, including dimensions of all elements in the highway
Section.
• Degree of access control. Special justification must be presented when partial or full
access control is proposed on a two lane, two-way highway.
Surveys and Mapping

A description of the method of surveying used and accuracies obtained. The datum base and
Saudi Arabian coordinate system shall be of SANSRS to which the survey should be tied.
Type, method of compilation, scale, and contour intervals of the topographic maps and Digital
Terrain Model (DTM) shall be stated. More information for surveys and mapping has been
included in Section 17.1 of SHC 202 (Surveys and Mapping).
Geotechnical and Pavement Design

The amount of geotechnical work performed at the predesign stage will vary with the highway
category, the geology of the area and the need for thorough studies of critical areas. Chapter
5 of SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies) provides guidance for geotechnical investigations. The
Engineer shall include in this report those geotechnical activities directly related to studies of
the alternate centerline. These studies must include a discussion and maps, charts and test
data if available for the following:
• Soils in general.
• Specific foundation and backslope problems.
• Sand accumulation and erosion problems.
• Borrow and aggregate sources.
• Pavement design, method used, and proposed structural section.
• Sources and quality of water.
More information for pavement design has been included in SHC 308 (Pavement Design).
Hydrologic and Hydraulic Studies

This part of the report shall include an explanation of the method used for determining the
drainage area and watershed, geometry, and the methods used to determine the flood-
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frequency curve, and drainage structure size. SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design)
provide the necessary guidelines.
Environmental Factors
The critical environmental factors within the selected corridor were identified during the
reconnaissance. During predesign studies, the locator will try to reduce adverse highway
impacts in his selection of alternate routes. The list of environmental factors may serve as a
checklist in the final analysis of alternates. The assistance of qualified specialists, such as
landscape architects, may be required for this analysis. SHC 701 (Environmental Aspects of
Highways), provides guidance for environmental issues.
Cost Comparisons
• The total estimated construction costs for each alternate shall be shown in tabular
form. The corresponding preliminary construction estimate form(s) shall be included in
the Appendix. Construction engineering, right-of-way and utility relocation costs need
not be shown unless they are significantly different for the alternates. Estimated prices
for project items shall be based on historical tendered data. If such data are not
available, the report shall document the source of the estimated prices.
• The average annual maintenance cost for each alternate shall be estimated and shown
in tabular form. Maintenance costs for similar highways within the Kingdom are
available from the RGA.
Engineers' Recommendation
Unless otherwise directed by the RGA the report shall include a recommendation for one of
the alternates. This shall be based on the following items plus any others that are unique to
the project.
• Construction costs.
• Annual maintenance costs.
• Environmental impact.
• Horizontal and vertical alignment.
• Safety.
• Right-of-way requirements.
The above factors may not be of equal importance for all alternates. For example, in a particular
area, environmental considerations may be more important than maintenance costs. In such
cases, a matrix using weighted factors may be used to compare alternates. An explanation of
the weighting system shall accompany the matrix. Only items of significance need be included.
3.9.5.4. Transmittal of design report

The Engineer shall transmit five hardcopies of the bound report for approval as well as digital
copies in an accepted by the RGA format. The Director of the Follow-Up Studies for
corresponding Technical Project Department may request a field review of one or all of the
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alternates. In such case, the Engineer shall mark the centerline on the ground by flags or
otherwise so that it can be readily followed. He shall also have available for this inspection
those Engineers and technicians familiar with the predesign activities.
3.9.5.5. Centerline staking

After approval of the Preliminary Design Report the plotted line shall be resolved into its
geometric elements and centerline analytically calculated on the KSA’s geodetic reference
system within a CAD platform.
Staking of centerline or edge lines in the case of Intersections shall be done during
construction surveying in accordance with Section 19.2 of SHC 202 (Surveying and Mapping),
or whenever needed upon request of the RGA.
3.10.Geotechnical Engineering
Relevant information for geotechnical engineering has been included in Chapter 5 of SHC 203
(Preliminary Studies).
3.11.Hydrology
Relevant information for hydrology has been included in Chapter 2 of SHC 302 (Highway
Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
3.12.Traffic Surveys and Projections

Relevant information for traffic surveys and projections has been included in SHC 203
(Preliminary Studies) and SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
3.13.Structural Design of Flexible or Rigid Pavements

Relevant information for structural design of flexible and rigid pavements has been included
in Chapters 5 and 6 of SHC 308 (Pavement Design).
3.14.Hydraulic Design
Relevant information for hydraulic design has been included in SHC 302 (Highway Facilities
and Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
3.15.Highway Lighting
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Relevant information for highway lighting has been included in Part II of SHC 306 (Highway
Facilities and Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway and Street Lighting, Control and
Monitoring Devices).
3.16.Traffic Control Plans

Relevant information for traffic control plans has been included in SHC 601 (Traffic
Engineering) and in SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
3.17.Control of Traffic Through Construction Areas

Relevant information for control of traffic through construction areas has been included in
SHC 305 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Work Zone Design).
3.18.Roadside Development
Relevant information for roadside facilities development has been included in SHC 303
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and
Garage Facilities) and in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety
System Design).
3.19. Safety Barriers

Relevant and specific detailed information for safety barriers has been included in SHC 304
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design).
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4. Geometric Design of Highways
4.1. General
The alignment of a highway or street produces a great impact on the environment and consists
of a variety of design elements that combine to create a facility that serves traffic safely and
efficiently. Each alignment element should complement others to achieve a consistent, safe,
and efficient design. The design of all highways categories is based on principal elements
including value limits for several parameters such as Horizontal Curve Radius, grades,
superelevation rates, stopping and passing sight distance, widening, shoulders, lane width and
more.
4.2. Terrain Classification

The topography of the land, through which the road passes, also known as the terrain, controls
the geometric design. The terrain classification is divided into four separate cases:
• Plain or Flat Terrain: The area of country having cross slope varying from 0 % to 10
%.
• Rolling Terrain: The area of country having cross slope varying from 10 % to 25 %.
• Mountainous Terrain: The area of country having slope varying from 25 % to 60 %.
• Steep Terrain: The area of country having a cross slope greater than 60 %.
4.3. Design Speed Standards

The designer must select the appropriate design speed based on his knowledge of the
highway category planned, the character of terrain, traffic volumes, economic and longitudinal
grades, environmental considerations. Geometric design features should be consistent with a
design speed selected as appropriate for environmental and terrain conditions. Low design
speeds are generally applicable to highways with winding alignment in rolling or mountainous
terrain, in local streets that serve adjacent areas in urban context or where environmental
conditions dictate. High design speeds are generally applicable to highways in level terrain, or
where other environmental conditions are favorable. In urban areas high design speed is only
allowed in major arterials and in freeways/expressways.
In the typical street grid for urban locals and collectors, closely spaced Intersections usually
limit vehicular speeds and thus design speeds have little significance. Nevertheless, the longer
sight distances and curve radii commensurate with the desirable design speed result in safer
highways and shall be used to the extent practical. Table 4-1 provide design speed limits for
the various highway categories in rural areas while Table 4-2 depict relevant design speed
limits for urban. Both desirable and minimum speeds are shown.
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4.4. Highway Capacity and Level of Service
4.4.1. General
The relationship between the type of the highway, the location, the traffic characteristics, as
well as the level of service are provided in volume SHC 201 (Planning Process). The highest
feasible level of service should be selected and used for design. Once a level of service has
been selected, it is essential that all elements of the highway are consistently designed to this
level. General operating conditions for levels of service are:
• A – Free flow: low volumes and high speeds.
• B – Reasonably Free Flow: speeds are beginning to be restricted by traffic conditions.
• C – Stable Flow: most drivers restricted in freedom to select their own speed.
• D – Approaching Unstable Flow: drivers have little freedom to maneuver.
• E – Unstable Flow: may be short stoppages.
• F – Breakdown Flow: Stop-and-go waves, poor travel times, low comfort and
convenience, and increased accident exposure.
4.4.2. Two-Lane Highways

Traffic Volumes and capacities for two-lane highways are always calculated by taking both
directions without considering the distribution of traffic volume per direction. Selected level
of service for two-lane rural and urban highways should be:
• Level of service B for rural arterials and collectors with AADT more than 2,000 veh/d, in
level or rolling terrain.
• Level of service C for rural arterials and collectors with AADT more than 2,000 veh/d, in
mountainous terrain and urban arterials in all cases (including urban and suburban
areas).
• Level of service C for rural collectors with AADT less than 2,000 veh/d and local roads
in level or rolling terrain.
• Level of service D for rural collectors with AADT less than 2,000 veh/d and local roads
in mountainous terrain.
• Level of service D for all cases of urban collectors and locals (including urban and
suburban areas).
More information is provided in volume SHC 201 (Planning Process).
4.4.3. Multilane Rural and Urban Highways

Multilane rural and urban highways may or may not have full control of access and may be
divided or undivided. Selected level of service for multilane rural and urban highways should
be:
• Level of service B for multilane rural highways in level or rolling terrain.
• Level of service C for multilane rural highways in mountainous terrain.
• Level of service C for multilane highways in urban and suburban areas.
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4.4.4. Freeways - Expressways
Freeway is defined as a divided highway with full control of access and high-density standards
while expressway as a high-speed divided arterial highway for through traffic with limited
points of access or exit and grade separations at major intersections. Selected level of service
for “urban and rural” freeways/expressways should be:
• Level of service B for freeway/expressway in plain or rolling terrain.
• Level of service C for freeway/expressway in mountainous terrain and for
freeway/expressway in urban and suburban areas.
Table 4-1 Design Speed and Design Level of Service for Rural Highways
Classification Terrain Desirable Minimum LOS
Plain 60 50 C
Locals Rolling 50 40 C
Mountainous / Steep 40 30 D
Plain 80 70 C
Collectors with AADT
Rolling 70 60 C
less than 2,000 veh/d
Mountainous / Steep 60 50 D
Plain 90 80 B
Collectors with AADT
Rolling 80 70 B
more than 2,000 veh/d
Mountainous / Steep 70 60 C
Plain 110 90 B
Arterials Rolling 100 90 B
Plain 140 110 B
Freeways/Expressways Rolling 130 110 B
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Table 4-2 Design Speed and Design Level of Service for Urban Highways
Classification Desirable Minimum LOS
Locals 40 30 D
Collectors 50 40 D
Arterials 80 50 C
Freeways/Expressways 100 70 C
4.4.5. Freeway / Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sections

On urban freeways/expressways, capacity constraints are usually by ramp merging and
diverging maneuvers or by weaving maneuvers. Traffic volumes entering and leaving the
expressway, the distance between points of entry and exit, and the geometric layout at the
terminals are factors that affect operating efficiency and should be considered in any capacity
analysis. Merging and diverging traffic will directly affect the operating efficiency in the lane
nearest the outside shoulder of the freeway/expressway.
On most urban expressways, multiple weaving is more common than simple weaving due to
the proximity of ramp entrances and exits. Operating conditions within weaving sections are
affected by the length and width of the section as well as by the volume of traffic within it.
The procedure for analyzing simple weaving sections is contained in volume SHC 201
(Planning Process).
4.4.6. Streets and Intersections

The capacity of an urban highway or street is generally governed by the capacity of the
Intersections of that street with other streets. Suburban arterials, where the distance between
signalized Intersections is 2.5 km or more, may be analyzed as multilane or two-lane highways.
A capacity analysis of an Intersection may be made:
• to determine the number of lanes required for either current traffic or future (10 - 20
years) traffic.
• to determine the level of service at which the Intersection operates.
• to determine the signal timing required for given traffic volumes and physical
conditions.
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4.5. Access Control
4.5.1. General
The regulation of access rights to and from abutting highway facilities and land uses is called
access control. Access control may be categorized as full control of access, partial control of
access, or approach road and driveway controls.
Full Control of Access

Full control of access means that preference is given to through traffic by providing
connections only with selected public highways and by prohibiting crossings at grade and
direct private road or driveway connections.
Partial Control of Access

Partial control of access means that preference is given to through traffic as in full control, but
there may be some crossings at grade and some private road or driveway connections.
Approach Road and Driveway Controls

Approach road and driveway controls means that each abutting property owner is permitted
access to the street or highway, but the location, number, and geometrics of the access points
will be limited or regulated in accordance with the design criteria in Section 4.5.3 below.
The principal advantages of access control are the preservation of highway capacity, higher
speed, and improved safety. When access is not controlled, interference from the roadside as
roadside businesses develop can become a major factor in reducing the capacity, increasing
the potential crash, and eroding the mobility function that the facility was designed to provide.
Full or partial access control generally is accomplished either by legally obtaining right-of
access from the abutting property owners (usually at the time of expropriation of the right-of-
way) or by the use of frontage roads.
4.5.2. Warrants for Access Control

All highway facilities will have some degree of access control as determined by the following
warrants:
1. Freeways/Expressways - Full control of access for freeways or partial access control for
expressways.
2. Multilane and two-lane arterials and collectors with design year AADT greater than
2,000 - partial access control.
3. Two-lane collectors with design year AADT less than 2,000 and local highways and low
volume roads - approach road and driveway regulations.
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4.5.3. Design Criteria
4.5.3.1. Freeways
Direct access from any adjacent land use, either public or private property, to the freeway is
prohibited.
4.5.3.2. Expressways
Direct access from private property to the expressway is prohibited except as may be allowed
by locked gates and special permit by the competent highway authority. Access rights shall be
acquired along interchange ramps to their Intersection with the nearest public road and shall
extend to the end of the ramp taper (or at least 50 m beyond the end of the curb return or
ramp radius). Control of access is achieved through either of the following methods.
1. Acquiring rights of access to the expressway from abutting property owners and
permitting ingress and egress to the traveled way only at interchanges.
2. Constructing frontage roads to restore access to abutting properties but permitting
access to the traveled ways only at interchanges or by slip-ramps.
In remote areas, locked gates may be provided in the fencing to provide access for infrequent
usage, such as maintenance of utilities, highway maintenance operations, etc. These access
openings will be allowed only upon satisfying the following conditions:
1. The location is in a remote area like side parking area, rest areas, truck inspection
stations etc.
2. Access from an interchange is not feasible or not economically justified.
3. Usage is infrequent (not more than once or twice per month).
4. Approach to the main lanes can be made without causing a hazardous situation.
5. Right turns only will be permitted.
6. Approval is granted by the competent highway authority (MoTLS, MoMRAH, Royal
Commission, Amanah, Municipality etc.). Formal written application must be made to
the RGA.
In the case of a crash through entering or exiting the highway, will results in an immediate
safety evaluation by the competent highway authority and countermeasures to avoid any
other future crash. If deemed necessary, the opening should be closed.
4.5.3.3. Multilane and two-lane arterials and collectors (AADT higher than 2,000
veh/d)
For multilane and two-lane arterials, as well as for two-lane collectors with design year AADT
higher than 2,000, direct access from private property is allowed.
Major or Principal Arterial

Direct access to abutting land is subordinate to the movement function. Any access connection
not conforming to the uniform 800 m signal spacing interval should be restricted to right in,
right out.
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Minor Arterial
Access is subordinate movement; however, more frequent access is permitted than on a major
or principal arterial.
Major Collector
A major collector serves internal traffic movement within a given geographic area or connects
commercial and other nonresidential developments and residential streets to the arterial
streets system.
a. Access Openings
The term "access opening" means the opening through an access control line that provides
for an exit from or entry to the highway facility.
b. Design Criteria to be Observed

1. The number of access openings shall be held to a minimum for any facility.
2. Police, fire, ambulance, and other emergency vehicles shall have a right to direct access
to the highway facility.
3. Private direct access to the highway shall be permitted only when the property in
question has no other reasonable access to the local street system. In case of a crash a
safety evaluation of the access must be undertaken and if necessary appropriate
countermeasures should be initiated.
4. Parcels fronting only on the highway shall be given access to another public road or
street by constructing suitable connections if such access can be provided at a
reasonable cost.
Access openings to the highway are limited to one per parcel except as noted below.
1. For parcels with a highway frontage of 0.5 km or greater, not more than one access
opening shall be provided unless it can be shown that additional access openings
would not be detrimental to the safety and operation of the highway and are necessary
for the safe and efficient use of the property.
2. In certain cases, a parcel may be divided by a natural barrier such as a stream or ridge,
making it necessary to provide an additional access opening. It may be preferable to
connect the physically separated portions of the parcel with a low-cost structure or
road rather than permit the two access openings.
3. Wherever possible, one common access opening should serve two parcels.
4. When the number of required access openings on one side of a divided highway
exceeds three in 400 m, a frontage road shall be provided.
5. Access openings on divided highways shall not be permitted within 100 m of a median
opening unless the access opening is directly opposite the median opening.
6. Access approaches shall be limited to right turns only unless
a. the approach does not have the potential for signalization and it can be shown
that allowing left turns would significantly re duce congestion and safety
problems at a nearby Intersection; or
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b. there are no Intersections, existing or planned, that allow a U-turn; and
c. left turns can be safety designed without signalization.
7. Access approaches that have the potential for signalization and require left turn
movements must
a. meet the signalization spacing requirements for intersecting public streets,
roads, and highways, and
b. shall not interfere with the location, planning, and operation of the general
street system and access to nearby properties.
8. No opening is allowed within the functional area of an Intersection.
c. Access Opening Width

Information for design details of approach roads and driveways is included in Chapter 10.
4.5.3.4. Two-lane collectors (AADT less than 2,000 veh/d), local highways and low
volume roads
For two-lane collectors with design year AADT less than 2,000, as well as for local highways
and low volume roads, direct access from private property is allowed. The primary function of
these highways is to provide reasonable and safe access to abutting property. Access needs
generally take priority over through-traffic movements without compromising the safety of
the highway facility. Control of access is not obtained, but the location, number, and
geometrics of access points must meet the following criteria:
1. All access approaches shall be separated by a minimum distance equal to the stopping
sight distance. The number of access approaches to a parcel shall be controlled by
safety and design considerations contained in Chapter 10.
2. Frontage roads or parallel service roads are not permitted along two-lane highways
because of safety considerations. The addition of these roadways could result in the
appearance of a multilane divided facility with the resulting assumption that the two-
lane, two-way highway is a one-way highway.
3. Left turns shall be permitted, provided the required safety and design standards are
met.
4. In rural areas, approach roads shall be provided as necessary to provide access to
pasturelands, farms, ranches, etc. along the highway, and at convenient places for
travelers to get off the highway in case of emergency or for rest stops. The maximum
spacing between approach roads shall be 5 km for these purposes.
5. In urban areas with signalized Intersections, the minimum spacing between access
points shall be that which is necessary for the safe operation and proper design of
Intersections as specified in Chapter 10.
Minor collector or residential street

A minor collector or residential street connects local streets to the major collector or minor
arterial systems and provides access to abutting single-family detached or duplex residences.
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4.5.3.5. Frontage roads
Frontage roads could be prioritized as a collector or a local highway. Frontage roads are
provided on highways for the following reasons:
• To control access to the through lanes, thus increasing safety for traffic.
• To provide access to abutting land ownerships.
• To restore continuity of the local street or road system.
• To provide continuity even though it did not exist before when unreasonable circuity
of travel would be incurred because of highway construction without a frontage road.
Frontage roads serve many purposes other than controlling or providing access. Urban
frontage roads are multifunctional as they reduce the "barrier" effect of urban
freeways/expressways since the local street grid is not severed by the freeway/expressway.
They become an extension of the surface street system, providing for continuity and traffic
circulation, and result in a freeway/expressway corridor that serves local, as well as intracity
travel needs. They also serve as separate bus routes and express buses can exit from the
expressways and use the frontage road to safely load or discharge passengers. They provide
invaluable operational flexibility, serving as detour routes when a main line crash occurs,
during major main line maintenance activity, or for overweight loads.
Frontage roads could be two-lane highways with opposite direction, either one-way single or
dual lane highway that in some countries worldwide can be found as “service roads” instead
of frontage roads.
4.5.4. Connection Types

A highway connection is defined as the Intersection of a public roadway and a private driveway
or another public roadway. Two types of connections are defined on highway network:
• full access.
• directional access.
Both connection types are appropriate for different locations within the roadway network and
serve different accessibility purposes.
Full access connections

Full access connections refer to Intersections that allow all turning movements. Examples
include the following:
• major road intersecting a major road.
• minor road intersecting a major road.
• minor road intersecting a minor road.
• interchange ramp intersecting a major road.
• driveway to a commercial business or residence intersecting a major road.
These connections can be signalized or unsignalized.
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Directional access connections
Directional access connections are generally used to provide access to and from commercial
and industrial land uses, but can also be used at major Intersections, minor Intersections, or
interchanges. Directional connections provide access to and from the highway with less impact
on traffic safety and efficiency when compared to full access connections.
Directional access connections commonly refer to:
• right-in access drives.
• right-out access drives.
• right-in/right-out access drives.
• left-in/right-in/right-out access drives.
Directional connections can also be signalized or unsignalized.
4.5.4.1. Medians
Medians are the portion of a highway separating opposing traffic flows. Medians can be raised,
depressed, or flush with the traveled way, as well as traversable or non-traversable. Information
for median design standards is included in Section 4.7.8.
Traversable or Flush Median

Traversable medians do not physically discourage or prevent vehicles from entering upon or
crossing over it. Therefore, for urban arterials where access control is desirable, flush medians
should not be used. A flush median design should include the following:
• Delineation (horizontal signage) from through lanes.
• Flexibility to allow additional left-turn bay storage if necessary.
Non-Traversable or Raised Median

Non-traversable medians separate traffic traveling in opposite directions and physically
prevent crossing or turning movements. Non-traversable medians can include raised curb or
depressed medians. They can be either grass-covered or hard-surface filled. Non-traversable
medians are an effective access management tool to help restrict vehicles crossings at
prohibited locations.
A raised median is used on urban highways where it is desirable to control or restrict mid-
block left-turns and crossing maneuvers. Installing a raised median can result in the following
benefits:
• Restricting left-turn and crossing maneuvers to specific locations or certain
movements.
• Improving the provided level of road safety.
• Increasing throughput capacity and reducing delays.
• Providing pedestrian refuge areas.
A raised median design should be considered where:
• AADT exceeds 20,000.
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• New development is occurring, and AADT is anticipated to exceed 20,000.
• There are operational concerns for mid-block turns.
For these conditions, a raised median may improve the provided level of road safety by
separating traffic flows and controlling left-turn and crossing maneuvers. The use of raised
medians should be discouraged where the highway cross-Section is too narrow for U-turns.
For median in Intersection areas where a left turn lane is provided, a median width of 1.2 m is
recommended to accommodate traffic control devices (signs traffic signals etc.). Where a
pedestrian refuge is needed, median width should be increased to a minimum of 2.0 m.
Median Openings
Median-divided highways provide median openings to allow for crossing the opposing traffic
lanes to access adjacent property, turn to and from public roadways, and to make a U-turn.
Median openings should be strategically located to provide appropriate access to adjacent
property and roadways while protecting the capacity and traffic operations of the mainline
roadway. Information regarding the dimensions of median openings is provided in Section
10.2.7.
An important factor in designing median openings is the shape of the median end or median
nose. The median end shape can directly alter the effective turning path the design vehicle can
make. The shape of a median nose should be designed to accommodate the turning path of
the design vehicle.
4.5.4.2. Spacing criteria

Minimum Spacing for Freeway Interchange Area
The minimum spacing required for a freeway interchange access with multilane highway is
provided in Table 4-3, while for freeway interchange access with two-lane highway is provided
in Table 4-4.
Illustration of freeway interchange access with multilane highway and the relevant spacing
dimension codes are provided in Figure 4-1, while illustration of freeway interchange access
with two-lane highway is provided in Figure 4-2.
Table 4-3 Minimum Spacing for Freeway Interchange Access with Multilane Highway (Williams et al., 2014)
Spacing Dimensions (m)

Type of Area
X Y Z M
Fully Developed 225 800 300 300
Suburban or
300 800 400 400
Urban
Rural 400 800 400 400
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Figure 4-1 Spacing Dimensions for Freeway Interchange Access with Multilane Highway (Williams et al., 2014)
Table 4-4 Minimum Spacing for Freeway Interchange Access with Two-Lane Highway (Williams et al., 2014)
Spacing Dimensions (m)

Type of Area
X Y Z
Fully Developed 225 400 225
Suburban or
300 400 300
Urban
Rural 400 400 400
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Figure 4-2 Spacing Dimensions for Freeway Interchange Access with Two-lane Highway (Williams et al., 2014)
Minimum Spacing for Roundabout Terminals with Two and Four Lane Highways
The minimum spacing required for roundabout terminals with a highway is based on the
decision sight distance needed. Illustration of roundabout terminals with two and four lane
highways and the relevant spacing dimension codes are provided in Figure 4-1. The typical
spacing recommendations for roundabout terminals with two and four lane highways are
provided in Table 4-5.
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Table 4-5 Minimum Spacing Recommendations for Roundabout Terminals with Two and Four Lane Highways
(Williams et al., 2014)
Number of Roundabout Spacing Dimensions (m)

Lanes on Area Design Speed
Highway (km/h) X W Y Z M
30 100 275 275 125 -
2 40 125 300 300 125 -
50 150 325 325 125 -

Urban
30 100 275 275 135 150
4 40 125 300 300 135 175
50 150 325 325 135 200
30 100 250 250 140 -
2 40 125 275 275 140 -
50 150 300 300 140 -

Suburban
30 100 250 250 150 100
4 40 125 275 275 150 125
50 150 300 300 150 150
30 75 150 150 160 -
2 40 100 175 175 160 -
50 125 200 200 160 -

Rural
30 75 150 150 160 60
4 40 100 175 175 160 75
50 125 200 200 160 90
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Figure 4-3 Typical Spacing Recommendations for Roundabout Terminals with Two and Four Lane Highways
(Williams et al., 2014)
Commercial/Industrial Driveway Spacing Requirements

The minimum driveway spacing criteria are based on the posted speed limit, Intersection
control, median presence, and access type. However, there are certain special conditions that
may require further examination to determine acceptable property access. Commercial and
industrial driveways often present challenges to spacing criteria based on the amount of
roadway frontage and the size of the parcels. Therefore, the size and type of access required
should be considered.
The spacing requirements for commercial/industrial driveways are summarized in Table 4-6.
The spacing should be measured from edge of traveled way to edge of traveled way, as shown
in Figure 4-4. Minimum spacing regarding signalized intersections reflects either spacing
between signalized and unsignalized intersections, and for consecutive signalized
intersections.
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Table 4-6 Minimum Spacing Criteria for Commercial/Industrial Driveways (ALDOT, 2021)
Minimum Spacing (m)
Posted Unsignalized
Access Category Speed
(km/h) Signalized Divided Undivided
Full Directional Full Directional

Access Access Access Access
Up to 70 300 200 80 80 80
Commercial and
Industrial 70 to 90 400 400 140 140 140
Driveway
More
800 400 200 200 200
than 90
Figure 4-4 Measuring Connection Spacing (ALDOT, 2021)
Corner Clearance
In some cases, parcel boundaries may require driveways near Intersection corners. The
required driveway corner clearance refers to the distance between an Intersection and the
nearest access connection. It is desirable to maximize this distance to preserve traffic flow in
the vicinity of Intersections. The minimum spacing requirements for corner clearances are
summarized in Table 4-7. The spacing should be measured from the edge of the traveled way
on the side street to the edge of the traveled way on the proposed access, as shown in Figure
4-5. For requirements for full access spacing, see Table 4-6. Like the minimum connection
spacing requirements, there will be cases where the minimum corner clearances are not
feasible.
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Table 4-7 Minimum Corner Clearance (ALDOT, 2021)
Corner Clearance (m)

Posted Speed
(km/h) Right-in / Right-
Right-in only Right-out only
out
Up to 50 75 75 75
50 to 70 75 75 105
More than 70 130 130 200
Figure 4-5 Corner Clearance (ALDOT, 2021)
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4.5.4.3. Driveway geometric design
Driveway design is a critical component of the transportation system and essential to achieve
efficient operations. Entry width, radius, offset, and throat length are the key components of
driveway design.
Width and Radii

Inadequate driveway design creates conflicts that can be detrimental to safety and operations
on the mainline. The driveway entry width is the most critical component of driveway design
because it has to serve both right-turning and left-turning vehicles. For non-residential
driveways, the width should be sufficient to allow a vehicle to enter without having to slow
down excessively, and it should allow vehicles to enter and exit simultaneously.
Driveways serving large traffic generators or industrial facilities should be individually designed
to handle the typical large truck that uses the access. Vehicle turning paths should be
evaluated to determine the required width. In the case of median-divided driveways, care
should be taken to limit the width of the median to a minimum along highway authority’s
right-of-way to limit the overall width of the Intersection. The recommended driveway radius
and widths for different land use types are provided in Table 4-8. The minimum acceptable
driveway radius could be 6.0 m, while CAD packages should be used for the best radius and
width application. Specific software could be used for swept path analysis for design vehicles
in these areas.
Table 4-8 Minimum Driveway Radius and Width (ALDOT, 2021)
Recommended Recommended
Driveway Type Driveway Driveway
Radius (m) Width (m)
Single-Family Residential Lot 7.5 3
Non-Commercial Agriculture 7.5 5
Commercial/Office/Retail/Subdivisions 15 * 7.5 *
Industrial-Type Facilities 20 * 8*
NOTE: Should be individually designed to handle the typical large truck that uses the access
connection.
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Encroachment
On intersection areas, design vehicle should not encroach onto the adjacent lane nor into the
opposing traffic lanes. However, this is not always practical or cost effective in all cases.
Encroachment recommendations should be evaluated against the construction and right-of-
way impacts. In case where the impacts are significant and turning traffic volume is relatively
low, an encroachment of the design vehicle could be accepted. In highways where there are
two or more traffic lanes in the same direction, the design vehicle can occupy both traffic lanes.
The turning vehicle should be able to make the turn while remaining entirely in the right
through lane. Encroachment effects and design parameters for SU and WB-15 design vehicles
are presented in Figure 4-6, while guidelines for encroachment for right turn is provided in
Table 4-9. Encroachment control is carried out by applying appropriate software that
determines the design vehicle’s swept path.
Table 4-9 Guidelines for Encroachment for Right Turn (INDOT, 2013)
Turn Made Turn Made Acceptable Encroachment for Design Vehicle for Road
From Onto or Street Onto Which Turn Made
Freeway Ramp Other Facility No encroachment into opposing lanes of travel
Arterial No encroachment into opposing lanes of travel

Arterial Collector 0.3 m encroachment into opposing lanes of travel
Local 0.6 m encroachment into opposing lanes of travel

Collector Collector 0.3 m encroachment into opposing lanes of travel

Local Collector 0.3 m encroachment into opposing lanes of travel
NOTES:
1. The encroachment criteria refer to the design vehicle.
2. Before the turn is made, the design vehicle is assumed to be in the outermost through travel lane or
exclusive right-turn lane, whichever applies. It is assumed that the vehicle does not encroach onto
adjacent lanes on the road or street from which the turn is made.
3. If determining the acceptable encroachment, the designer should also consider turning volume,
through volume, and the type of traffic control at the intersection. The desirable encroachment will be
zero into the opposing lanes of travel.
4. The table indicates the amount by which the turning vehicle can encroach into the opposing lanes of
travel. If there are two or more lanes of traffic in the same direction on the road onto which the turn
is made, the selected design vehicle can occupy both traffic lanes. The turning vehicle will be able to
make the turn while remaining entirely in the right through lane.
5. Regardless of the selected design vehicle or the criteria for encroachment, the design vehicle should
physically be able to make a turn at an intersection without backing up and without impacting a curb,
parked car, utility pole, or other obstruction.
6. Each proposed design should be checked with the appropriate software that determines the vehicle’s
turning swept path.
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Figure 4-6 Effects of Curb Radii and Parking Turnout Paths (INDOT, 2013)
Driveway offsets
Access connections on opposite sides of the roadway, if not lined up directly across from each
other, can cause traffic operation issues due to overlapping left turn movements (at locations
with two-way left turn lanes or divided highways with short turn lane lengths). Accesses on
opposite sides of the road should either be lined up directly across from each other or meet
the spacing requirements laid out in Table 4-6. If those criteria cannot be met, then the
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minimum spacing between two offset Intersections should be at least 120 m, as shown in
Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-7 Driveway Offsets (ALDOT, 2021)
Throat Length
Throat length can be defined as the distance from the edge of the traveled way along the main
roadway to the first conflict point on a driveway or roadway as provided in Figure 4-8. The
throat length distance is a key component for safe and efficient traffic operations along the
main roadway. The throat length should be designed to facilitate the movement of vehicles
off the roadway to prevent the queuing of vehicles onto the traveled way. Table 4-10
summarizes the required minimum driveway throat lengths, depending on the number of exit
lanes at the full buildout of a development.
Table 4-10 Minimum Driveway Throat Length (ALDOT, 2021)
Driveway Throat Length (m)
One (1) exit lane Two (2) exit lanes Three (3) exit lanes
30 45 60
NOTE: Capacity analysis should be conducted to verify that the expected

queues for exiting traffic do not impede the on-site circulation.
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Figure 4-8 Throat Length (Source: Stover &, V. G., and F. J. Koepke. Transportation and Land Development, 2nd
ed. Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C., 2002)
4.5.4.4. Auxiliary lanes

Left turns at Intersections with permissive left turn movements require turning vehicles to yield
to oncoming traffic and wait for an acceptable gap to make the left turn maneuver. In cases
where there is no exclusive left turn lane, these vehicles must slow down or stop in a through
lane while awaiting an acceptable gap. These conditions increase the risk of a rear-end crash
and may result in left-turning vehicles taking risks and accepting gaps in oncoming traffic that
are too small, thus increasing the chance of a right-angle crash. For these reasons, an exclusive
left turn lane may need to be provided.
Likewise, when a right-turning vehicle is approaching an Intersection, they must decelerate to
safely make their maneuver. If there is no exclusive right turn lane, then the slower-moving
turning traffic will be mixed with and adversely impact the faster-moving through traffic.
Although there are clear safety and operational benefits of additional left or right turn lanes,
they may not be required or even feasible for all locations.
More information with respect to the geometry of left and right turn lanes is provided in
Chapters 10 and 11.
4.5.4.5. Access control in the vicinity of interchanges

One of the most important access management challenges occurs in the immediate vicinity of
interchanges. The appropriate level of access near an interchange is a function of the posted
speed limit and the connection type. The spacing should be measured just as the connection
spacing is measured, from edge of traveled way to edge of traveled way, as shown in Figure
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4-7. Table 4-11 shows the minimum required spacing for the first access crossroad from the
ramp. This spacing criterion does not supersede the denied access area around interchanges.
Table 4-11 Access Spacing near Interchanges (ALDOT, 2021)
Spacing Dimensions
Posted Speed
First Directional
(km/h) First First Full First Signalized
Median
Access Access Access
Openings
Up to 70 225 300 300 400
More than 70 300 400 400 800
More information with respect to the access control in the vicinity of interchanges is provided
in Chapter 11.
4.5.5. Protection of Access Rights

For proper control of acquired access rights, fencing, or other approved barrier types, shall be
installed on all freeways and expressways and where practical on multilane divided facilities.
More information about appropriate barrier designs is included in SHC 304 (Passive Safety).
Once access rights have been acquired, no additional access openings shall be permitted upon
the splitting or dividing of parcels, or contiguous parcels under the same ownership or control.
The specified use of access openings shall not change.
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4.6. General Elements of Design
4.6.1. Introduction
The design of any highway category is based on principal elements of design including
horizontal and vertical alignment and their combination, cross-section parameters, sight
distance, superelevation, widening and others. Their design elements are described in the
present section, as well as in the later chapters in case of specific highway categories and
functional classes.
4.6.2. General Parameters for Sight Distance

4.6.2.1. Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the sum of the distance travelled during a driver’s
perception/reaction or brake reaction time and the distance travelled while decelerating until
the vehicle stops. Also considering the grade of the highway, the following equation calculates
SSD for passenger cars.
𝑽𝟐
𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽 ∙ 𝒕 + 𝒂 Equation 4-1
𝟐𝟓𝟒∙( ±𝑮)
𝟗.𝟖𝟏
where:
SSD (m) = the Stopping Sight Distance
V (km/h) = design speed
t (s) = driver’s perception/reaction or brake reaction time, considered as 2.5 s
a (m/s2) = Deceleration rate, considered as 3.4 m/s2
G (%) = grade (+ for upgrades and – for downgrades).
Results of Equation 4-5 are plotted to Figure 4-9 that can be used for definition of SSD with
respect to the design speed and the grade.
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400
350
300
Required Stopping Sight Distance (m)
250
200
150
100
50
20km/h
0
-16% -12% -8% -4% 0% 4% 8% 12% 16%
Longitudinal Slope (%)
Figure 4-9 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for all
Highway Categories
4.6.2.2. Available sight distance

The available sight distance is calculated from the horizontal and vertical alignment, also
considering cross-section elements and the configuration of the surrounding area. It is
described as an optical ray between the eye position and the obstacle position. Driver’s eye
height is considered equal to 1.08 m while the object height is considered equal to 0.60 m.
The driver’s eye height and the object height are both measured in the same lane (Figure 4-10).
Especially for freeways/expressways, the following assumptions apply:
• in left-hand curves, the driver’s eye point and the object point are on the lane that is
farthest to the left on each carriageway.
• in right-hand curves and on straights, the driver’s eye and object point are on the lane
that is farthest to the right on each carriageway.
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The curve radius and the distance between the visual obstruction and the centerline of the
chosen lane significantly limit the sight distance in left-hand and right-hand curves. This
distance is influenced by the design of the cross-section (including lane width, central reserve
width, and the width of the obstruction).
For an approximate check of the stopping sight distance in curves, the correlation between
the horizontal curve radius of the circular curve, the clear distance from the obstruction and
the available sight distance are demonstrated in Figure 4-11. It is noted that due to the various
possible combinations between clear distance and radius, software results or spreadsheets
could be used also from the designers.
Figure 4-10 Possible Line of Sight from the Driver’s Eye Point to the Object Point for the Stopping Sight Distance
in Left-Hand Curve (CALTRANS, 2019)
32
28
Clear Distance to Obstruction (m)
24
20
16
12
4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Available Sight Distance (m)
Figure 4-11 Diagram for Calculating the Available Sight Distance on Carriageways in Curves with Respect to the
Clear Distance to Obstruction
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For analytic calculations the following formulas can be used.
𝑺𝒂
𝐦 = 𝑹 ∙ [𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝟐∙𝑹 )] Equation 4-2
𝒎
𝐒𝒂 = 𝟐 ∙ 𝑹 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 [𝟏 − ] Equation 4-3
𝑹
where:
R = Radius of the centerline of the lane nearest the obstruction (m)
Sa = Available Sight Distance (m)
m = Clear distance from centerline of the lane nearest the obstruction (m).
4.6.2.3. Passing sight distance

Passing sight distance considerations are limited to two-way, single-carriageway highways. On
these highways, vehicles may overtake slower-moving vehicles and the passing maneuver
must be accomplished on a lane used by the opposing traffic. There are two different methods
used for the estimation of the needed passing sight distance. In the first method (completing
the maneuver), passing sight distance is calculated as the minimum sight distance that must
be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably,
without interfering with the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed.
On the second method (aborting the maneuver), passing sight distance has been proposed
based on field observations of passing maneuvers. This method assumes that a passing driver
will abort the passing maneuver and return to his normal lane behind the past vehicle if a
potentially conflicting vehicle comes into view before reaching a critical position in the passing
maneuver beyond which the passing driver is committed to completing the maneuver. In this
case, the required length is limited to around 50 % of the result of Method 1. It is noted that
the passing sight distance considered in the design is based on a single passenger vehicle
passing a single passenger vehicle.
The required passing sight distance according to both methods described above is provided
in Table 4-12. Method 1 without any safety concerns could be used on plain terrain, while
Method 2 may be more efficient on rolling or mountainous terrain. In order to choose the
most appropriate method to implement, the designer should evaluate all the available data
and decide in which highway sections overtaking maneuver will be allowed, considering the
available sight distance and applying performance-based criteria.
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Table 4-12 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for all Single Carriageway Highway
Categories (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)
Design Speed Required Passing Sight Distance (m)

(km/h) Method 1 Method 2
20 130 100
30 200 120
40 270 140
50 345 160
60 410 180
70 485 210
80 540 245
90 615 280
100 670 320
110 730 355
4.6.2.4. Decision sight distance

In general, the designer should consider using the decision sight distance at any relatively
complex location where the driver perception/reaction time may exceed 2.5 seconds. Example
locations where decision sight distance may be appropriate include:
• Freeway/expressway exit or entrance ramps at interchanges.
• Change in cross-section of the roadway, as in lane drops.
• Left-hand exits on freeways or expressways.
• High-speed highway diverge and merge areas.
• Approaches to detours and lane closures.
• At-grade railroad crossings.
• Intersections near or within a horizontal curve.
• Intersection on the downstream end of a crest vertical curves.
At these locations, the designer should consider providing decision sight distance to provide
an additional margin of safety. The various avoidance maneuvers for decision sight distance
are:
• Maneuver A: Stop on rural road. (t = 3.0 s).
• Maneuver B: Stop on urban road. (t = 9.1 s).
• Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road. (t = 10.2 - 11.2 s).
• Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road. (t = 12.1 - 12.9 s).
• Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road. (t = 14.0 - 14.5 s).
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The decision sight distances for all avoidance maneuvers are determined using the following
equations:
For maneuvers A and B:
𝑽𝟐
𝑫𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽 ∙ 𝒕 + 𝒂 Equation 4-4
𝟐𝟓𝟒∙( ±𝑮)
𝟗.𝟖𝟏
For maneuvers C, D and E:
𝑫𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽 ∙ 𝒕 Equation 4-5
where:
DSD = the Decision Sight Distance (m)
V = design speed (km/h)
t = pre-maneuver time varies with the avoidance maneuver (s)
a = Deceleration rate, considered as 3.4 m/s2 (m/s2)
G = grade (+ for upgrades and – for downgrades) (%).
By using the above formulas and values for maneuvers A, B, C, D and E, the calculated values
for the required decision sight distance (DSD) in meters are presented in Table 4-13.
Table 4-13 Required Decision Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for all Single Carriageway
Highway Categories (AASHTO, 2018)
Required Decision Sight Distance (DSD) (m)

Design
Speed Avoidance Maneuver
(km/h)
A B C D E
20 25 60 60 70 80
30 40 90 90 105 120
40 55 120 120 140 160
50 75 155 150 175 200
60 95 195 180 210 240
70 115 235 210 245 280
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Required Decision Sight Distance (DSD) (m)
Design
Speed Avoidance Maneuver
(km/h)
A B C D E
80 140 275 240 280 320
90 170 320 270 315 360
100 200 370 300 350 400
110 230 420 330 385 440
120 265 470 360 420 475
130 305 525 390 455 515
140 340 580 420 490 555
4.6.3. General Parameters for Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment should provide for safe and continuous operation at a uniform design
speed for substantial lengths of highway. When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it undergoes
a centripetal acceleration that acts toward the center of curvature. This acceleration is
sustained by a component of the vehicle’s weight related to the roadway superelevation, by
the side friction developed between the vehicle’s tires and the pavement surface, or by a
combination of both. In horizontal curve design, “lateral acceleration” is equivalent to
“centripetal acceleration”, while the minimum radius applied can be calculated by using the
following equation:
𝐕𝟐
𝐑 𝐦𝐢𝐧 ≥ Equation 4-6
𝟏𝟐𝟕×(𝐟𝐑+𝐞)
where:
Rmin = the minimum allowable horizontal curve radius (m)
V = the design speed of the road (km/h)
e = the applied superelevation in the curve (%)
fR= the allowable side friction factor (-).
Minimum circular arc radii derived from the above equation considering the side friction factor
for their estimation are listed in Table 4-14 for superelevation applied equal to 6 %, 8 %, 10 %
and 12 %, while design speed range from 20 to 140 km/h. It is noted that due to the various
possible superelevation rates, software results or spreadsheets could be used also from the
designers.
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Table 4-14 Side Friction Factor and Minimum Circular Arc Length and Horizontal Curve Radius with Respect to the
Design Speed for all Highway Categories
Minimum Curve Radius for Circular Arcs (m)

Design Side Minimum
Speed Friction Circular Arc Maximum Superelevation Rate (%)
(km/h) Factor (fR) Length (m)
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
20 0.35 15 10 10 10 10 10
30 0.28 20 25 25 20 20 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45 40 40
50 0.19 30 90 80 75 70 65
60 0.17 35 135 125 115 105 100
70 0.15 40 205 185 170 155 145
80 0.14 45 280 255 230 210 195
90 0.13 50 380 340 305 280 260
100 0.12 60 495 440 395 360 330
110 0.11 65 640 565 505 455 415
120 0.1 70 810 710 630 570 520
130 0.09 75 1,025 890 785 705 635
140 0.08 80 1,290 1,105 965 860 775
Transition curves should be provided between tangents and circular arcs, between consecutive
circular arcs either in the same direction (Compound Curves) or in opposing direction
(Complex Curves). Transition curves are mathematically defined as spirals (see Section Spiral
Geometry). The values of minimum spiral parameter (As) and spiral length (Ls) that should be
applied on each horizontal curve is summarized in Table 4-15, while recommended values are
presented in Table 4-16. Transition curves should be used in horizontal curves with radii equal
or less than the upper radius limit shown on the same tables (minimum and recommended
values respectively).
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Table 4-15 Minimum Parameters for Spirals and Upper Radius Limit for Spiral Application with Respect to the
Design Speed for all Highway Categories
Design Speed Minimum Spiral Minimum Length Upper Radius Limit for
(km/h) Parameter, As (m) of Spiral, Ls (m) Spiral Applications, R (m)
20 15 11 24
30 20 17 53
40 30 22 95
50 45 28 148
60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479
100 145 56 592
110 170 61 716
120 200 67 852
130 230 72 1,000
140 260 78 1,160
Table 4-16 Recommended Parameters for Spirals and Upper Radius Limit for Spiral Application with Respect to
the Design Speed for all Highway Categories
Recommended Recommended Radius

Design Speed Recommended
Length of Spiral Ls Limit for Spiral
(km/h) Parameter As (m)
(m) Applications (m)
20 15 15 100
30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000
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Length of Spiral Ls Limit for Spiral
80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900
100 205 115 2,100
110 240 125 2,300
120 280 135 2,600
130 320 145 3,000
140 375 160 4,000
4.6.4. General Parameters for Vertical Alignment

4.6.4.1. Maximum grades
Maximum grades up to 3.0 % are in general appropriate for freeways/expressways, while for
rural highways with a design speed of 110 km/h a maximum of 4.5 % should be considered.
For a design speed of 50 km/h, maximum grades are generally from 7.0 to 10.0 % percent (and
12.0 % in difficult cases), depending on terrain. Max desirable and max allowable grades with
respect to the design speed are presented in Table 4-17.
Table 4-17 Recommended Grade with Respect to the Design Speed for all Highway Categories
Design Speed Max Desirable Max allowable Grade G

(km/h) Grade G (%) (%)
20 10.0 16.0
30 9.0 14.0
40 8.0 12.0
50 7.0 10.0
60 6.0 8.0
70 5.0 6.0
80 4.0 5.0
90 3.5 5.0
100 3.0 5.0
110 2.5 4.5
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Design Speed Max Desirable Max allowable Grade G
(km/h) Grade G (%) (%)
120 2.5 4.0
130 2.0 3.5
140 2.0 3.0
The maximum design grade should be used only infrequently. In most cases, grades should
be less than the maximum. On the other hand, for short grades less than 150 m in length and
for one-way downgrades, the maximum grade maybe about 1 percent steeper than values
presented in Table 4-17. For low-volume highways in mountainous terrain in rural areas, the
maximum grade may be 2 percent steeper than values given in the above table.
4.6.4.2. Minimum grades

Flat grades can typically provide proper surface drainage on tangent sections of highways
where the cross slope is adequate to drain the pavement surface laterally. In curved Sections
grades should be provided to facilitate surface drainage. An appropriate minimum grade is
typically 0.7 %, while a slope of 0.5 % may be used where there is a paved surface accurately
sloped and supported on a firm subgrade. Special attention is needed at sections with
superelevation transition to avoid flat pavements prone to ponding where cross slope is
reduced.
4.6.4.3. Crest and sag curves

The principal issue in the design of crest vertical curves is to ensure that minimum stopping
sight distance (SSD) is available throughout the vertical curve. The minimum values of K are
predicated on the sight distance being adequate for the specific curve considering Stopping
Sight Distance (SSD), the height of eye and height of the object. Different values of the K
parameter can be extracted in cases where overtaking procedure is allowed and where the
minimum passing sight distance (PSD) should be available as provided by using Methods 1 or
2 (see Section 4.6.6.2). According to AASHTO, driver’s eye is at 1.08 m height, while the object
height is equal to 0.60 m for stopping sight distance (SSD) and 1.08 m for passing sight
distance (PSD). These assumptions are applied in the following basic equations for determining
the minimum length of crest vertical curves:
𝑺𝑺𝑫𝟐
𝑲𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐 Equation 4-7
𝟐𝟎𝟎∙(√𝟐∙𝒉𝟏 +√𝟐∙𝒉𝟐 )
Or
𝑷𝑺𝑫𝟐
𝑲𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐 Equation 4-8
𝟐𝟎𝟎∙(√𝟐∙𝒉𝟏 +√𝟐∙𝒉𝟐 )
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where:
Kmin (m) = the minimum acceptable length of vertical curve to achieve 1.00 % change in grade
SSD (m) = the Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
h1 (m) = height of eye above road surface equal to 1.08 m
h2 (m) = height of object above road surface equal to 0.60 m for SSD and 1.08 m for PSD.
Sag vertical curves are in the shape of a parabola. Typically, they are designed to allow the
vehicular headlights to illuminate the highway surface for an object with 0.0 m height in a
distance equal to Stopping Sight Distance (SSD). The light beam from the headlights is
assumed to have a 1-degree upward divergence from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, while
typically in a 0.6 m height. These assumptions are applied in the following basic equations for
determining the minimum length of sag vertical curves:
𝑺𝑺𝑫𝟐
𝑲𝒎𝒊𝒏 = Equation 4-9
𝟐𝟎𝟎∙𝒉𝟑 +𝟑.𝟓∙𝑺𝑺𝑫
where:
Kmin (m) = the minimum acceptable length of vertical curve to achieve 1.00 % change in grade
SSD (m) = the Stopping Sight Distance
h3 (m) = height of headlights above pavement surface equal to 0.60 m
To recognize the distinction in design speed and to approximate the range of current practice,
minimum lengths of vertical crest or sag curves are expressed as about 0.6 times the design
speed in km/h. Minimum values for all the above parameters are presented in Table 4-18.
In cases of freeways/expressways and high-speed arterials, where K value is exceeding 51,
special attention should be given to the superelevation rate that should be equal to or higher
than the tangent value (2.0 % or 2.5 %) in the area near the high/low point of the curve
(between - 0.5 and 0.5 %).
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Table 4-18 Recommended Values of Parameter K for Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to the Design Speed for
all Highway Categories
Minimum Crest Curve

Design K value (m/%) Minimum Sag Minimum
Speed Curve K value Curve Length
PSD Adequacy
(km/h) SSD (m/%) (m)
Adequacy Method 1 Method 2
20 1 20 12 2 12
30 2 46 17 5 18
40 4 84 23 8 24
50 6 138 30 12 30
60 11 195 38 17 36
70 17 272 51 23 42
80 26 338 69 29 48
90 39 438 91 38 54
100 52 520 119 45 60
110 74 617 146 54 66
120 95 - - 63 72
130 123 - - 73 78
140 161 - - 84 84
4.6.5. Combinations of Horizontal Alignment and Vertical Alignment

Horizontal and vertical alignment should be designed to consider each other. Horizontal and
vertical alignment are among the more important of the permanent design elements of the
highway. Excellence in the design of each and their combination enhances vehicle control,
encourages uniform speed, and improves appearance, nearly always without additional cost.
Information about the combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment is presented in
Chapters 5 up to 9 for each highway category.
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4.6.6. Cross-Section Design Parameters
4.6.6.1. Superelevation
On Tangent Sections
On tangents, the pavement of each carriageway is usually designed with the cross-slope to
the one side, with a minimum value equal to 2.0 % or preferably 2.5 % (normal crown). The
same cross-slope value should be applied in the additional traffic lanes and the acceleration
and deceleration lanes.
On Circular Arcs
In circular arcs, for reasons of vehicle dynamics and for their better identification, the
superelevation rate is applied towards the inside of the circular arc. The maximum
superelevation rate applied is 12.0 %, while the minimum superelevation slope is limited to 2.0
%. Figure 4-12 shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the horizontal curve
radius for all design speeds. Values taken from Figure 4-12 are recommended to be rounded
to the nearest 0.5 %.
Figure 4-12 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve for all
Highway Categories (max e = 12.0 %)
For cases where the Horizontal Curve Radius is higher than the values presented in Table 4-19,
a reverse cross-slope equal to - 2.0 % can be applied (towards the external edge of the circular
arc as shown in Figure 4-13), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can be avoided.
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Table 4-19 Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the Application of Adverse Superelevation in Respect to the
Design Speed
Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the

Design Speed implementation of Adverse Superelevation (m)
(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
100 ≥ 790 ≥ 830
110 ≥ 1,060 ≥ 1,125
120 ≥ 1,420 ≥ 1,515
130 ≥ 1,905 ≥ 2,050
140 ≥ 2,575 ≥ 2,810
Figure 4-13 Application of Adverse Superelevation on Curves
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To prevent vehicles from skidding on mountainous areas, the maximum compound slope
(composition of grade and superelevation), should be limited to a maximum limit of 12.0 %.
𝒑 = √𝑮𝟐 + 𝒆𝟐 Equation 4-10
where:
p = the compound slope (%)
G = the grade (%)
e = the superelevation rate (%).
Paved shoulders are designed with the same superelevation rate as one of the travel areas
while unpaved shoulders are designed with a superelevation equal to 12.0 % in the inside area
of a curve when pavement is drained through the unpaved shoulder, otherwise a
superelevation of 6.0 % is applied. For safe vehicle recovery in case of running off the pavement
an unpaved shoulder as part of the clear zone with a slope flatter than 6H:1V (17 %) is
considered normally as adequate.
4.6.6.2. Superelevation runoff development

The superelevation development shall be designed to satisfy the requirements of safety and
comfort and should be pleasing in appearance. Figure 4-14 illustrates the desirable methods
for developing superelevation. When transition curves are used, the transition curve and
superelevation runoff should be coincident. On circular curves without transition curves, 67 %
(⅔) of the superelevation runoff shall be placed on the tangent before the curve. The length
of the superelevation runoff shall be long enough, so the runoff slope meets the criteria shown
in Table 4-20. The runoff slope is the grade difference between the edge of the traveled way
profile and the center of the traveled way profile.
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Figure 4-14 Superelevation Runoff Development
The minimum length of superelevation runoff can be computed using the following equation:
𝟓𝟎∙𝒆∙𝒘
𝑳= Equation 4-11
𝒓
where:
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L = the minimum superelevation runoff length (m)
e = the superelevation rate of the curve (meters per meter)
w = the rotated section width as shown in Figure 4-15 (m)
r = the of runoff slope percent “r” as shown in Table 4-20.
Table 4-20 Superelevation Runoff Slope
Design Speed Runoff Slope

(km/h) Percent “r”
20 0.94
30 0.83
40 0.74
50 0.66
60 0.59
70 0.54
80 0.5
90 0.47
100 0.44
110 0.41
120 0.38
130 0.36
140 0.34
For example, considering a four-lane highway with a design speed of 80 km/h, a rotated
section width of 7.3 m (two lanes per direction) and a superelevation rate of 10 %, the minimum
length of superelevation runoff should be 73 m. Minimum superelevation runoff length for a
rotated section width equal to 7.3 m (two lanes per direction) is provided in Table 4-21. For
different rotated section widths, the minimum runoff length should be calculated by using
Equation 4-11. It is noted that due to the various possible pavement width combinations,
software results or spreadsheets could be used also from the designers.
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Table 4-21 Minimum Superelevation Runoff Length (m) for Traveled Way Width Equal to 7.30 m
Minimum Superelevation Runoff Length (m)

Superelevation Design Speed Ve (km/h) / Runoff Slope “r”
Rate Ve 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
e (%)
“r” 0.94 0.83 0.74 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.34
1.50 6 7 7 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 14 15 16
2.00 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
2.50 10 11 12 14 15 17 18 19 21 22 24 25 27
3.00 12 13 15 17 19 20 22 23 25 27 29 30 32
3.50 14 15 17 19 22 24 26 27 29 31 34 35 38
4.00 16 18 20 22 25 27 29 31 33 36 38 41 43
4.50 17 20 22 25 28 30 33 35 37 40 43 46 48
5.00 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 39 41 45 48 51 54
5.50 21 24 27 30 34 37 40 43 46 49 53 56 59
6.00 23 26 30 33 37 41 44 47 50 53 58 61 64
6.50 25 29 32 36 40 44 47 50 54 58 62 66 70
7.00 27 31 35 39 43 47 51 54 58 62 67 71 75
7.50 29 33 37 41 46 51 55 58 62 67 72 76 81
8.00 31 35 39 44 49 54 58 62 66 71 77 81 86
8.50 33 37 42 47 53 57 62 66 71 76 82 86 91
9.00 35 40 44 50 56 61 66 70 75 80 86 91 97
9.50 37 42 47 53 59 64 69 74 79 85 91 96 102
10.00 39 44 49 55 62 68 73 78 83 89 96 101 107
10.50 41 46 52 58 65 71 77 82 87 93 101 106 113
11.00 43 48 54 61 68 74 80 85 91 98 106 112 118
11.50 45 51 57 64 71 78 84 89 95 102 110 117 123
12.00 47 53 59 66 74 81 88 93 100 107 115 122 129
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Figure 4-15 Normal and Rotated Sections (AASHTO, 2018)
Tangent runout length is calculated with a slope of 1:400 (runoff slope 0.25 %), as shown in
Figure 4-14. For the example mentioned before, also considering a normal crown equal to 2.0
%, the calculated tangent runout length by using the Equation 4-11 is 29.2 m. Tangent runout
lengths for different rotated section widths are provided in Table 4-22. It is noted that due to
the various possible pavement width combinations, software results or spreadsheets could be
used also from the designers.
Table 4-22 Tangent Runout Length (m) for Different Rotated Section Widths
Tangent Runout Length (m)

Superelevati
on Rate Rotated Section Width – One- or Two-Lane per direction Highways (m)
e (%)
3.00 3.30 3.65 6.00 6.30 6.60 6.95 7.30
1.50 9.00 9.90 10.95 18.00 18.90 19.80 20.85 21.90
2.00 12.00 13.20 14.60 24.00 25.20 26.40 27.80 29.20
2.50 15.00 16.50 18.25 30.00 31.50 33.00 34.75 36.50
Tangent Runout Length (m)

Superelevati
on Rate Rotated Section Width – Three- Lane per direction Highways (m)
e (%)
9.00 9.30 9.60 9.90 9.95 10.25 10.60 10.95
1.50 27.00 27.90 28.80 29.70 29.85 30.75 31.80 32.85
2.00 36.00 37.20 38.40 39.60 39.80 41.00 42.40 43.80
2.50 45.00 46.50 48.00 49.50 49.75 51.25 53.00 54.75
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NOTE: Applicable cases covered in the present table.
One-Lane per Direction Two-Lanes per Direction Three-Lanes per Direction

Rotated Section Width Rotated Section Width Rotated Section Width
3.00 m 3.00+3.00=6.00 m 3.00+3.00+3.00=9.00 m
3.30 m 3.00+3.30=6.30 m 3.00+3.00+3.30=9.30 m
3.65 m 3.30+3.30=6.60 m 3.00+3.30+3.30=9.60 m
3.30+3.65=6.95 m 3.30+3.30+3.30=9.90 m
3.65+3.65=7.30 m 3.00+3.30+3.65=9.95 m
3.30+3.30+3.65=10.25 m
3.30+3.65+3.65=10.60 m
3.65+3.65+3.65=10.95 m
For freeways, expressways and arterial highways, the minimum length of superelevation runoff
shall be 50 m. For collectors and local highways, the minimum length shall be 30 m.
For long transition curves where the runoff slope r, is less than 0.30 %, the attainment of
superelevation within the superelevation runoff as shown in Figure 4-14 should be modified
as follows:
• From section B (level on the high side, normal crown on the low side) to section C
(superelevation at the normal crown rate), the runoff slope should be 0.30 percent.
• From section C to section D (full superelevation), the runoff slope should be less than
0.30 percent.
In special restrictive situations where the standard superelevation rate is not feasible or the
desirable runoff length is not attainable, the highest possible rate and longest length
respectively shall be used. These situations occur on interchange ramps, frontage roads, and
separate turning lanes where the length of radius, curve, and adjacent tangents are short.
After the superelevation development is designed, profiles of edges of the traveled way should
be plotted and irregularities removed by introducing smooth curves. Flat areas that may not
drain properly must be avoided.
4.6.6.3. Curve widening

Offtracking is the characteristic, common to all vehicles, although much more pronounced
with the larger design vehicles, in which the rear wheels do not precisely follow the same path
as the front wheels when the vehicle traverses a horizontal curve or makes a turn.
In each case, the amount of offtracking, and therefore the amount of widening needed on
horizontal curves, depends jointly on the length and other characteristics of the design vehicle
and the radius of curvature negotiated. Selection of the design vehicle is based on the size
and frequency of the various vehicle types expected. The amount of widening that is needed
increases with the size of the design vehicle and decreases with the increasing radius of
curvature. The width elements of the design vehicle that is used to determine the appropriate
highway widening on curves include:
• the track width of the design vehicles that may meet or pass on the curve, (U).
• the lateral clearance per vehicle(C).
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• the width of front overhang of the vehicle occupying the inner lane or lanes, (FA).
• the width of rear overhang, (FB).
• a width allowance for the difficulty of driving on curves, (Z).
Track width (U)
The track width (U) for a vehicle following a curve or making a turn, also known as the swept
path width, is the sum of the track width on tangent (u) and the amount of off tracking. The
track width on a curve (U) is calculated using the equation:
𝑼 = 𝒖 + 𝑹 − √𝑹𝟐 − ∑ 𝑳𝒊𝟐 Equation 4-12
where:
U = track width of design vehicle (out-to-out tires) on curves (m)
u = track width of design vehicle on tangents (m)
R = radius of the curve (m)
Li= wheelbase of design vehicle between consecutive axles (or sets of tandem axles) and
articulation points (m).
Lateral clearance (C)

The lateral clearance allowance, (C), provides clearance between the edge of the traveled way
and nearest wheel path and for the body clearance between vehicles passing or meeting.
Lateral clearance per vehicle is assumed as:
• 0.60 m for total two-lane width equal to 6.00 m.
Width of front overhang (FA)

The width of the front overhang (FA) is the radial distance between the outer edge of the tire
path of the outer front wheel and the path of the outer front edge of the vehicle body. The
width of the front overhang (FA) on a curve is calculated using the equation:
𝑭𝑨 = √𝑹𝟐 + 𝑨 ∙ (𝟐 ∙ 𝑳 + 𝑨) − 𝑹 Equation 4-13
where:
FA = width of front overhang (m)
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A = from overhang of inner lane vehicle (m)
L = wheelbase of single unit or tractor (m).
Width of rear overhang (FB)

The width of the rear overhang (FB) is the radial distance between the outer edge of the tire
path of the inner rear wheel and the inside edge of the vehicle body. The width of the front
overhang (FB) for passenger car is 0.15 m, while for truck design vehicles this width is
considered as 0.0 m.
Extra width allowance, (Z)

The extra width allowance (Z) is an additional radial width of pavement to accommodate the
difficulty of maneuvering on a curve and the variation in driver operation. This additional width
is an empirical value and is expressed by the following equation:
𝑽
𝒁 = 𝟎. 𝟏 ∙ Equation 4-14
√𝑹
where:
Z = extra width allowance (m)
V = design speed of the highway (km/h).
Considering the above elements, the applied widening for the curve should be calculated from
the following equations:
𝒘 = 𝑾𝒄 − 𝑾𝒏 Equation 4-15
where:
w = widening of travelled way on curve (m)
Wc = width of travelled way on curve (m)
Wn = width of travelled way on tangent (m)
and
𝑾𝒄 = 𝑵 ∙ (𝑼 + 𝑪) + (𝑵 + 𝟏) ∙ 𝑭𝑨 + 𝒁 Equation 4-16
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where:
Wc = width of travelled way on curve (m)
N = number of lanes (-)
U = track width of design vehicle (out-to-out tires) on curves (m)
C = lateral clearance (m)
FA = width of front overhang (m)
Z = extra width allowance (m).
All above elements are illustrated in Figure 4-16.
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Figure 4-16 Widening Components on Open Roadway Curves (AASHTO, 2018)
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4.6.7. Other Appurtenances Affecting Geometric Design
In addition to the design elements described in previous paragraphs, several other
appurtenances affect or are affected by the geometric design of a highway. These elements
could be but not limited to:
• Erosion control and landscape development that are included in volume SHC 307
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Landscape Planting, Outdoor Advertising).
• Hydraulic design elements that are described in volume SHC 302 (Highway Facilities
• Rest areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage Facilities that are described
in volume SHC 303 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design - Rest Areas, Truck
Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage Facilities).
• Safety Barriers that are described in volume SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities
Design – Passive Safety).
• Public Utilities, Highway & Street Lighting that is described in volume SHC 306
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway & Street Lighting,
Control and Monitoring Devices).
• Traffic control devices that are described in volume SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices).
• Traffic management plans for construction that are described in volume SHC 305
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Work Zone Design).
• Elements related to bridges and structures that are described in volume SHC 310
(Bridges and Tunnels Design).
4.7. Geometric Design of Cross Sections

4.7.1. General Remarks
The present section describes the general aspects for the highway cross Sections design for
new highways and improvements to the existing highway network. The cross-section of a
highway includes but not limited to the following elements:
• Traveled way and cross slopes.
• Lane widths.
• Shoulders and hard strips.
• Medians.
• Curbs and gutters.
• Sidewalks and bike or shared use paths.
• Utility and landscape areas.
• Drainage channels and side slopes.
• Clear zones and lateral offset.
4.7.2. Travel Lane Standards

No feature of a highway has a greater influence on the safety and comfort of driving than the
width and condition of the surface. There is obvious need for a wide, smooth, nonskid, all-
weather surface on highways. Studies on two-lane, two-way rural highways show that
SHC 301 115

undesirable conditions (inadequate vehicle clearances and edge-of-pavement clearances)
exist on surfaces less than 6.60 m wide carrying even moderate volumes of mixed traffic.
Narrow widths severely affect capacity. Also, the effective width of the traveled way is further
reduced when adjacent obstructions such as retaining walls, bridge trusses or headwalls, and
parked cars restrict the lateral clearance. In addition to the capacity effect, the resultant erratic
operation has an undesirable effect on driver comfort and crash rates.
Generally, studies have shown that a 7.30 m surface is required to permit desired clearance
between commercial vehicles. In the interest of safety, efficiency, and ease of operation,
traveled way widths of 7.30 m shall be considered on all highway categories except rural and
urban locals. A traveled way width of 6.60 m is considered adequate for locals since meetings
and passings are infrequent and the proportion of trucks is low. For the special case of a
highway with systematic use of military vehicles special constraints apply as for the travel
speed and necessary travel space as discussed in Section of the present Volume.
Although lane widths of 3.65 m are desirable, there are circumstances that necessitate the use
of lane widths less than 3.65 m. In mountainous areas with severe topography limitations and
in urban areas where right-of-way and existing development become stringent controls, the
use of 3.30 m lanes may be acceptable. In industrial highways lane width should be 3.65 m.
Auxiliary lanes at Intersections and interchanges often are provided to facilitate traffic
movements. Such added lanes should be as wide as the through-traffic lanes.
4.7.3. Auxiliary Lane Standards

4.7.3.1. Parking lanes
A roadway network provides for the safe and efficient movement of the vehicles operating on
the system. Although the movement of vehicles is the primary function of a roadway network,
segments of the network may, as a result of land use, be required to provide for the parking
of vehicles.
Only emergency stopping should be permitted or considered in the design of arterial and
freeway/expressway. However, within urban areas, existing and developing land uses
necessitate the consideration of on-street parking. This situation may also occur in small rural
communities located on arterial highway routes. Usually, adequate off-street parking facilities
are not available, so the designer must recognize the fact that on-street parking must be a
design consideration so that the proposed street or highway improvement will be compatible
with the land use.
Only parallel on-street parking should be considered. Angle parking should not be permitted
for the reasons that vehicle lengths vary significantly and vehicles such as vans and small trucks
require extra length so as not to interfere with the traveled way. Crash investigation studies
also show a much higher incident of crashes, particularly relating to the unparking movement,
at angle parking zones than in areas where parallel parking is permitted.
Parking lanes shall be designed for all local and collector streets. On all other highway
categories, the shoulder shall act as a designated parking lane or as an area available for
emergency parking. The desirable parking lane width shall be 2.5 m from edge of traveled way
to face of curb. The desirable length of a typical parallel parking space shall be 6.5 m. Further
details on the design of parking facilities are provided in Chapter 4 of SHC 303 (Highway
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Facilities and Utilities Design – Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage
Facilities).
4.7.3.2. Passing lanes

A passing lane is an additional lane on a two-lane rural highway needed for the safe overtaking
of a slow-moving vehicle. Relevant information about passing lanes is provided in Section 5.4.6
and Configuration of Passing Lanes on Rural Highways.
4.7.3.3. Turning lanes

Turning lanes (left and right) are provided in intersections to separate the through traffic
movement from the turning traffic movement. Traffic lanes include the taper zone, the
deceleration zone and the storage zone. Relevant information about left and right turn lanes
is provided on Chapter 10.
4.7.3.1. Acceleration / deceleration lanes

Acceleration and deceleration lanes are provided mainly in interchanges in order to provide
the required space for an accelerating/decelerating vehicle to attain the desired speed and
merge safely with the rest of the traffic. Relevant information about acceleration and
deceleration lanes is provided on Chapter 11.
4.7.4. Shoulder Standards

On highways, shoulders are necessary to provide structural support for the pavement edges.
On highways carrying higher volumes, shoulders provide structural support, emergency
parking space for stopped vehicles, and the required side clearance between moving vehicles
and stationary objects. On most urban streets, shoulders are not necessary, as structural
support is provided by the curbs and gutters, and disabled vehicles can find refuge in
parking lanes, side streets, and driveways. Typical shoulder widths with respect to the
functional classification is provided in
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Table 4-23 for rural highways and in Table 4-24 for urban highways.
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Table 4-23 Shoulder Width (m) in Rural Highways
Desirable Minimum
Classification Terrain
Inside Outside Inside Outside
Plain - 2.00 - -
Locals Rolling - 2.00 - -
Mountainous /
- 2.00 - 1.25
Steep
Plain - 2.50 - -
Collectors Rolling - 2.50 - -
Mountainous /
- 2.50 - 1.25
Steep
Plain - 2.50 - -
Arterials Rolling - 2.50 - -
Mountainous /
- 2.50 - 1.25
Steep
Plain 2.00 3.00 - -
Freeways/Expressways Rolling 2.00 3.00 - -
Mountainous /
2.00 3.00 - 2.50
Steep
Table 4-24 Shoulder Width (m) in Urban Highways
Desirable Minimum
Classification
Inside Outside Inside Outside
Locals Does Not Apply – Parking Lanes are Required
Collectors - 2.50 - 1.25
Arterials 2.00 3.00 0.60 0.60
Freeways/Expressways 2.00 3.00 1.00 2.50
More detailed information for shoulders is provided on Chapters 5 to 9.
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4.7.5. Side Ditches
The ditch cross-sections should be in line with the following basic rules:
• Must have adequate hydraulic capacity.
• Flow line of ditch must be adequate to accommodate drainage of the pavement.
• Have a streamlined cross-section for safety and ease of maintenance.
• Have wide ditch bottoms to facilitate grading operations where side borrow methods
are used.
In cut areas a triangle unlined ditch should be minimum provided with a minimum depth of
25 cm. Different hydraulic side formation could be applied according to Chapter 6 of SHC 302
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
4.7.6. Curbs and Gutters

Curbs and gutters shall be used only when they are justified by the following:
1. Where required for proper drainage.
2. Where needed for channelization, delineation, control of access, or other means of
improving traffic flow and safety.
3. For replacement of existing curbs and gutters.
4. In Intersection median openings to shield traffic signal posts.
4.7.6.1. General curb design information

A curb may be designed as a separate unit or integrally with the pavement. Curbs can be
vertical (non-mountable type) and sloping curbs (semi- and mountable type). Curb designs
may include a gutter, forming a combination curb and gutter section. Gutter sections may be
provided on the traveled-way side of a vertical or sloping curb to form the principal drainage
system for the roadway. Inlets shall be provided in the gutter or curb, or both."
Gutters are generally 0.3 to 1.8 m wide, with a cross slope of (5 to 8%) to increase the hydraulic
capacity of the gutter section. In general, the (5 to 8 %) slope should be confined to (0.6 to 0.9
m) adjacent to the curb. Shallow gutters without a curb have a small flow capacity and thus
limited value for drainage.
Gutters of contrasting colors and textures should not be considered part of the traveled way.
When a gutter has the same surface color and texture as the traveled way and is not much
steeper in cross slope than the adjoining traveled way, it may be considered as part of the
traveled way. This arrangement is used frequently in urban areas where restricted right-of-way
width does not allow for the provision of a gutter.
Four types of concrete curbs and gutters are suggested for use with the following
characteristics:
• Type A: Non-mountable curbs and gutters where typical difference between bottom
and top could be 20 cm, using almost vertical slope on the face of the curb with a
rounding on the top.
• Type B: Mountable curbs and gutters where typical difference between bottom and
top could be 15 cm, using a smoother slope equal to 45 degrees with a rounding on
the top.
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• Type C: Mountable curbs and gutters where typical difference between bottom and
top could be 10 cm, using a smoother slope equal to 22.5 degrees with a rounding on
the top.
• Type D Typical gutters may be used in central medians.
Generally, it is not practical to design gutter sections to contain all of the runoff; some overflow
onto the surface can be expected. The spread of water on the traveled way is kept within
tolerable limits by the proper size and spacing of inlets.
Additional two types of bituminous curbs could be used at the edge of the highway shoulder
with the following information:
• Type E Around 15 cm height trapezoidal curb with two sloped faces and a width of 25
cm at the bottom and 13 cm at the top of the curb, by using a rounding on corners.
• Type F Around 22 cm height trapezoidal curb with one sloped face and a width of 20
cm at the bottom and 10 cm at the top of the curb, by using a rounding on the top
corner.
General information and dimensions regarding curbs and gutters are provided in Figure 4-17.
Additional information regarding the construction of curbs and gutters is provided in Section
3.4 of SHC 403 (Construction of Highway Facilities)
The use of other curb designs is discouraged but may be necessary where site conditions
dictate. For projects at spot locations, it is acceptable to use a curb design that perpetuates
the design that is predominant in the adjacent roadway sections.
A design speed greater than 70 km/h is considered “high-speed” when designing curbs. If
possible, curbs should not be used in high-speed locations.
Safety barriers alongside curbs should be avoided. Instead of using guardrail, every effort
should be made to remove fixed objects or relocate them outside the clear zone. Additional
information regarding safety barriers is provided in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities
Design – Passive Safety Systems Design).
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Figure 4-17 General Information and Dimensions of Concrete Curbs and Gutter, Dimensions in Millimeters
In special cases, for example in tunnels for safety reasons, the precast slot type of gutter as
shown in Figure 4-18 is appropriate. In tunnel sections with insufficient longitudinal slope, to
warrant a continuous drainage of the pavement a variation of the slot type gutter can be used
which includes a curb with a height of for example 0.07 m according to Figure 4-18.
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Figure 4-18 Precast Slot Type Gutter and Slot Type Gutter with Curbs (FGSV, 2021)
4.7.6.2. Curb placement

The location of the face of curb in relation to the edge of traveled way may affect the lateral
placement of a moving vehicle because drivers tend to shy away from curbs.
Table 4-25 provides guidance for locating curbs, especially for cases of local urban highways
and in areas where channelized left turn lanes and right turn lanes are applied. In collectors,
arterials and freeways/expressways where shoulder has been applied, the face of the curb
should be kept outside of shoulder width defined in Table 4-24.
Table 4-25 Curb Offsets - Dimensions in Meters
Curb Offset
Number of
Type of the Highway
Basic Lanes
Preferred Acceptable
2 1.00 Face of curb located at

Low speed urban highways
the outer edge of the
(design speed ≤ 70 km/h)
4 0.70 traveled way
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Curb Offset
Number of
Type of the Highway
Basic Lanes
Preferred Acceptable
Continuous raised medians

and channelized left turn - 0.70
lanes
Face of curb located at the outer edge
Right turn lanes -
of the right turn lane
Face of curb located at the outer edge
Expressway/Freeways -
of the paved shoulder
NOTE: Curb offset measured from the back of curb to the edge of the traveled way.
4.7.7. Side Slopes

Side slopes should be designed to ensure the stability of the roadway and to provide a
reasonable opportunity for recovery for an out-of-control vehicle.
Earth cut and fill slopes should be flattened as appropriate with the topography and consistent
with the overall type of highway. Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and
adequate drainage of the subgrade are dependent upon proper shaping of the side slopes.
Slope and soil data are used in combination to approximate the stability of the slopes and the
erosion hazard potential. Overall economy depends not only on the element of initial
construction cost but also on the maintenance cost over the years, where the slope stability is
a key factor.
4.7.8. Median Standards

4.7.8.1. General
A median is a highly desirable element on all highways carrying four or more lanes. A median
is defined as the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled way for traffic in
opposing directions. The median width is expressed as the dimension between the edges of
the traveled ways and includes the left shoulders. The principal functions of a median are as
follows:
• Provide the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic.
• Provide a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles, to provide a stopping area in case
of emergencies.
• Provide for speed change lanes and storage lanes for left turning and U-turning
vehicles.
• Minimize headlight glare, installation of utilities, illumination, traffic control devices.
• Provide width for future lanes.
A depressed median is preferred on expressways. This type is more efficient for drainage.
Median side slope should be no steeper than 17 % (6H:1V), and preferably 10 % (10H:1V).
Slopes of 25 % (4H:1V) may be adequate structurally and for vegetation, but they are
questionably steep for roadside safety. All drainage inlets in the median shall be designed with
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the top flush with the ground or culvert ends provided with safety grates so they will not be
hazardous to out of control vehicles that run off the roadway.
Raised medians have application on urban streets where it is desirable to regulate left-turn
movements. They are also frequently used where the median is to be landscaped, particularly
where the width is relatively narrow.
4.7.8.2. Median widths

The desirable median width is 20 m for all rural and urban highways except that the desirable
width for rural mountain highways is 10 m. Application of the concept of the Highway Safety
System leads to considerable wider medians.
Under restraining circumstances that arise due to economical, topographical or environmental
factors the median width may be reduced to a minimum width of 3.0 m for any highway
category.
Whenever two abutting highway sections have different median widths, a smooth transition
shall adjust the difference. For good appearance the transition length shall be as long as
possible and occur within a horizontal curve.
4.7.9. Typical Cross Sections

4.7.9.1. Rural highways
A rural highway refers to roadways consisting of two lanes in the cross-section, one for each
direction of travel. Τhey are often characterized by high traffic volumes (rural arterials), while
in several cases traffic is limited (rural collectors and local roads). Occasionally, passing lanes
may be added to one or two sides of the highway extending the cross-Section to three or four
lanes at those locations. Information about typical cross-section characteristics for rural
highways is provided in Chapter 5.
4.7.9.2. Residential streets

Residential streets refer to a subdivision street adjacent to property that is anticipated to
develop as single-family residences or multi-family blocks, apartment buildings, or other
similar dwelling structures. Information about typical cross-section characteristics for rural
highways is provided in Chapter 6.
4.7.9.3. Collectors in urban areas

A collector highway or distributor highway is a low-to-moderate-capacity highway which
serves to move traffic from local streets to arterial highways. Information about typical cross-
section characteristics for rural highways is provided in Chapter 6.
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4.7.9.4. Arterials in urban areas
An arterial highway is a high-capacity urban highway that corresponds below
freeways/expressways on the highway hierarchy in terms of traffic flow and speed. Information
about typical cross-section characteristics for rural highways is provided in Chapter 6.
4.7.9.5. Freeways
Rural freeways are mainly connecting heavily populated regions and large cities. A Freeway is
a fully controlled-access highway that provides an unhindered flow of traffic, with no traffic
signals, Intersections, or property access. Urban freeways are limited-access, multi-lane divided
highways in populated areas. Information about typical cross-section characteristics for urban
and rural highways is provided in Chapters 6 and 7.
4.7.9.6. Expressways
The main difference between an expressway and a freeway is that an expressway is a limited-
access highway, whereas a freeway is a fully controlled-access highway. An expressway is a
divided or in some cases undivided highway with partial control of access. Urban expressways
(major or principal arterials) are intra-city expressways and controlled-access, multi-lane
divided highways in populated areas. Information about typical cross-section characteristics
for urban and rural highways is provided in Chapters 6 and 7.
4.7.9.7. Low and very low volume highways

Rural low-volume and very low-volume highways are mainly locals that lying outside of built-
up areas of cities, towns, and communities that have a traffic volume of less than 2,000 veh/d
AADT for low volume highways and less than 400 veh/d for very low volume highways.
Information about typical cross-section characteristics for rural highways is provided in
Chapter 8.
4.7.9.8. Access highways

Access highways refer to a highway that is giving access to a property that could be in urban
or rural environment. Information about typical cross-section characteristics for urban and
rural highways is provided in Chapters 6 and 7.
4.7.9.9. Industrial highways

An industrial highway is a special purpose highway that provides access to a specific industrial
area within the arterial or distributor highway system. Industrial highways represent a separate
category of highways that serve solely industrial facilities, with a high truck composition (it
may be > 80 %). Information about typical cross-section characteristics for industrial highways
is provided in Chapter 9.
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4.7.10. Traffic Quality and Typical Cross-Sections
The desired traffic flow quality is based on the level of service provided for the relevant
highway category as described in volume SHC 201 (Planning Process). Traffic flow quality is
enhanced when:
• the alignment is generous.
• the dimensions of the cross-section are sufficient, even for peak times (hour of
measurement) in the forecast period, and drivers can travel at acceptable speeds for
the planned environment.
• there are enough lanes on ascending grades (climbing lanes).
• the number of Intersections is restricted to the absolute minimum required.
• sufficient room is available for road maintenance and road operational services to
ensure that they do not hamper traffic flow unnecessarily.
• the usual number of lanes remains in use during roadworks and the inspection of
structures.
4.7.11. Consideration of Other Traffic Modes

The designer’s goal should be a balanced design that serves multiple transportation modes,
as appropriate. The guiding design principle is that the balance among transportation modes
selected for each road and street should be a conscious decision arrived at after thorough
consideration of the needs of each mode, local and regional transportation agency master
plans, and community needs.
In assessing the needs of each transportation mode, planners and designers should consider
the current and future demand for travel by each mode. The following parameters should be
considered:
• The functional category of the highway.
• The contextual highway classification.
• Bicycle network or corridor plans.
• Pedestrian network or corridor plans.
• Truck network plans.
• Micro-mobility network or corridor plans.
4.7.12. Structure Clearances and Elements

The total clearance should be strictly no less than 5.20 m on freeways/expressways and
arterials, while in collectors, local roads and low volume road could be limited to 4.60 m. This
dimension already comprises a buffer of 0.20 m to allow for the future rehabilitation of the
pavement using overlays. However higher vertical clearances can be selected. Typically, in the
Saudi Highway Code a total vertical clearance of 5.50 m is mandatory.
If the highway structure crosses a railway, the vertical clearance shall be at least 7.0 m above
the top of the rails. The lateral clearance to piers or abutment walls shall be 6.0 m from the
centerline of the track.
The vertical clearance for overhead communication lines is 7.0 m and for power lines is limited
as follows:
SHC 301 127

• For 0 to 750 volts vertical clearance should be at least 7.0 m.
• For 750 to 15,000 volts vertical clearance should be at least 9.0 m.
• Greater than 15,000 volts vertical clearance should be at least 10.0 m.
4.7.13. Airway-Highway Clearances

4.7.13.1. General
An object is considered an obstruction to air navigation, if any portion of that object is of
greater height than the approach surfaces extending outward and upward from the airport
runway. These objects include overhead signs, light standards, and moving vehicles, and grade
separation structures.
4.7.13.2. Clearances
The following procedure must be observed in connection with airway-highway clearances in
the vicinity of airports and heliports.
1. For civil airports see Figure 4-19.
2. For heliports see Figure 4-20.
3. For military airports see Figure 4-21.
4. For navy carrier landing practice fields see Figure 4-22.
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Figure 4-19 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Civil Airports (CALTRANS, 2019)
SHC 301 129

Notes:
(1) FATO dimensions “a” and “b” are equal to one and one-half times the overall length of the design
helicopter, except for transport category heliports, where “a” equals two times the rotor diameter
(Minimum 30 meters) and “b” equals two-times the rotor diameter (Minimum 60 meters). Need to
be checked with heliport owner to verify helicopter category.
(2) Minimum vertical clearance is 5.10 m for freeways/expressways and 4.50 m for other highways and
local roads, and 3.0 m for private roads. However higher vertical clearances can be selected.
Typically, in the Saudi Highway Code a total vertical clearance of 5.50 m is mandatory.
(3) Contact the heliport owner/operator to determine the approved approach/departure paths.
Highway Clearance: Profile at pavement edge near airfield
* 10 % for Military Heliports
**Final Approach/Take Off Area
Figure 4-20 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Heliport (CALTRANS, 2019)
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Notes:
Minimum vertical clearance is 5.0 m for freeways/expressways, 4.50 m for other highways and local
roads and 3.0 m for private roads. However higher vertical clearances can be selected. Typically, in the
Saudi Highway Code a total vertical clearance of 5.50 m is mandatory.
Figure 4-21 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Military Airports (CALTRANS,
2019)
SHC 301 131

Figure 4-22 Typical Cross-Section of Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements for Navy Carrier Landing Practice
Field (CALTRANS, 2019)
When the horizontal and vertical alignment within the vicinity of the airport has been designed,
a letter of notice shall be sent to the Ministry of Defense and Aviation through the competent
highway authority with accompanying maps showing the following minimum information:
• Distance and azimuth from highway to runway.
• Elevation of runway.
• Relationship between airport runway and highway elevations.
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4.8. Special Design and Operation Considerations
4.8.1. Transit Facilities
Transit vehicles operate in a wide range of environments. Highways often must accommodate
transit vehicles as well as motor vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians. Transit provisions are best
accomplished when incorporated into all phases of street planning, design, and operation.
The dominant form of public transportation in most urban areas is bus transit. Most bus transit
operates in mixed traffic on streets. Generally, designs that make traffic move faster and more
safely will improve bus speeds and service reliability. Highway geometry should be adequate
for bus movement, and pedestrian access to stops should be convenient. Regardless of the
type of treatment, the geometric design and traffic control features should adequately and
safely accommodate all vehicles, pedestrians and bicyclists that would use the highway. Where
a highway facility will be limited to bus use only, design features can generally be modified
easily from those that apply for general traffic use. More information for transit facilities is
included in Section 6.9.
4.8.2. Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities

4.8.2.1. Bicycle facilities
The needs of all transportation modes, including bicyclists, should be considered in the design
of each highway. In some cases, the same facilities that serve motor vehicles can adequately
serve bicyclists as well, and specific traffic control devices have been developed for the benefit
of both motor vehicle drivers and bicyclists. In many other cases, dedicated bicycle facilities
on or off the roadway, including marked bicycle lanes and off-road or shared-use bicycle paths,
are appropriate.
All roads and streets, except those where bicyclists are legally prohibited, should be designed
and constructed under the assumption that they will be used by bicyclists. Therefore, bicyclists’
needs should be addressed in:
• all phases of transportation planning.
• new highway design.
• highway reconstruction.
• operational and maintenance activities.
• capacity improvement.
• bridge and transit projects.
• along with other modes of transportation.
They should also integrated into plans and projects at an early stage to ensure they function
together effectively. More information for bicycle facilities is included in Section 6.10.1.
4.8.2.2. Pedestrian facilities

Sidewalks
Sidewalks near or along the highway in the rural and suburban contexts are more often needed
at points of development that generate pedestrian concentrations, such as residential areas,
schools, businesses, and industrial plants.
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In the suburban and urban contexts, a border area generally separates the highway from a
community’s homes and businesses. The main function of the border is to provide space for
sidewalks and utilities. Other functions are to provide space for streetlights, fire hydrants, street
hardware, and aesthetic vegetation, and to serve as a buffer strip. Border width varies
considerably, but 2.4 m is considered an appropriate minimum width.
Sidewalk widths in residential areas may vary from 1.5 to 2.4 m. Sidewalks less than 1.5 m in
width require the addition of a passing section every 60 m for accessibility. The width of a
planted strip between the sidewalk and traveled-way curb, if provided, should be a minimum
of 0.6 m to allow for maintenance activities. Sidewalks covering the full border width are often
appropriate in commercial areas, adjoining multiple-residential complexes, near schools and
other pedestrian generators, and where border width is restricted.
In general, wherever roadside and land development conditions generate pedestrian
movement along a roadway, a sidewalk or path area, as suitable to the conditions, should be
provided.
Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings

A grade-separated pedestrian facility allows pedestrians to cross at either over or under the
highway and provides pedestrians with a path for crossing the roadway without vehicle
interference. Pedestrian separations may be needed to accommodate heavy peak pedestrian
movements, such as at central business districts, factories, schools, or athletic fields, in
combination with moderate to heavy vehicular traffic or where unusual risk or inconvenience
to pedestrians may result. Pedestrian separations, usually overpasses, may be needed at
freeways or expressways where cross streets are terminated. Pedestrian crossings or
overcrossing structures at arterials are not likely to be used unless it is obvious to the
pedestrian that it is easier to use such a facility than to cross the traveled way.
Pedestrian ramps or elevators should be provided at all pedestrian separation structures.
Where desired, a stairway can be provided in addition to the ramp. Elevators should be
considered where the length of ramp would result in a difficult path of travel for a person with
or without a disability. Walkways for pedestrian separations should have a minimum width of
2.4 m.
Possible locations where pedestrian overpass definitely should be considered are:
• Near a school, a playground, or elsewhere where it would be expected that the
pedestrian overpass would be frequently used by children unaccompanied by adults.
• In large urban areas on overpasses used exclusively by pedestrians and not easily kept
under surveillance by police.
• Where the history of incidents on nearby structures indicates a need for pedestrian
overpass.
More information for pedestrian facilities is included in Section 6.10.2.
4.8.3. Special Purpose Truck Highway Facilities

Special Purpose Truck Highway Facilities are mainly provided in freeways/expressways and
could be serving either the inspection of the trucks (Truck Inspection Stations), or the rest of
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the truck drivers (Rest Areas). Information about truck highway facilities is provided in SHC 303
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking &
Garage Facilities).
4.8.4. Bridge Geometric Design

During the design of bridges with separate carriageways (superstructures), the central median
is widened to 3.00 m. This widening could be made either by designing separate horizontal
alignment for each carriageway, or with a lane/median offset with an angle limited to 1:100
(1.0 m offset in 100 m length). In certain difficult cases sharper inclination could be used but
in no case sharper than 1:75.
Vehicle restraint systems on structure areas are carried out according to Section 6.3 of SHC
304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design).
Additional information about bridge geometric design issues is provided in Sections 5.6 and
7.6.
4.8.5. Tunnel Geometric Design

4.8.5.1. Introduction
This section refers to the basic principles and criteria for the geometric design of tunnels. These
principles and criteria comply with the European Union’s Tunnel Directive 2004/54/EG of the
European Parliament and Council of April 24, 2004, on the minimum safety requirements for
tunnels in the Trans-European Road Network.
This section is related directly to Volumes SHC 310 (Bridges and Tunnel Design) in Section 6.5,
SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway and Street Lighting,
Control and Monitoring Devices), and SHC 603 (Road Safety) as well as SHC 602 (Volume on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
4.8.5.2. Scope
The application of the design principles and criteria mentioned in this section warrants the
safe operation of the tunnel structure, the avoidance of critical situations, and the protection
as well as self-rescue of tunnel users in conjunction with the appropriate safety installation and
equipment as a result of the corresponding tunnel risk analysis. Further, the design principles
and criteria of this chapter promote environmental protection requirements and support the
intervention actions of the rescue teams in case of fire, accidents, vehicle failure, or traffic
breakdown.
Exceptions and deviations from the design parameters are allowed if necessary and properly
justified, and the defined safety level of the tunnel operation is not undermined.
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4.8.5.3. Application
The content of this chapter can be applied to all new highway tunnels with a covered length
of more than 80 m (pavement centerline length between the entrance and exit portals) with
the corresponding design speed.
Further, the content of this chapter can be applied to the rehabilitation and reconstruction of
existing tunnels longer than 80 m for the corresponding design speed.
Tunnels are also regarded as all partially covered or enclosed highway segments and galleries.
Tunnels do not include enclosed roadways created by highway bridges, railroad bridges, or
other bridges.
In case tunnels are used by other traffic modes (for example, pedestrians, etc.), the special
requirements for safe and comfortable movement of these modes should be additionally
considered.
4.8.5.4. Tunnel alignment

General Considerations
Tunnels are segments of a highway. Therefore, the same traffic operational characteristics
apply in tunnels as in open (surface) highways.
The shape of a tunnel can be rectangular, circular, or curvilinear, depending on the tunnel
construction method and ground conditions. The geometric design parameters correspond to
those of an open highway in general. Because of the extraordinary traffic and operational
safety demands of tunnels, the ramifications of applying these design parameters should be
considered. Tunnels are classified as divided and undivided (opposing traffic in the same tube)
tunnels. Tunnels should accommodate all potential vehicles that use the approach highways,
including over-height vehicles like military vehicles. Unless specific design and safety measures
are taken, the use of pedestrians and cyclists within the same tunnel tube should be
discouraged. For pedestrians or cyclists, a separate duct should, in general, be provided.
Tunnels may have cargo restrictions. These may include hazardous materials, flammable
gasses and liquids, and over-height or wide vehicles. Provisions should be made for the
detection of these vehicles and their accommodation, including special time periods for tunnel
use, diversion to tunnel bypasses, or rerouting.
The traffic capacity of tunnels should be the same as for the open approach highways.
Tunnels longer than 1,000 m may be constructed with rigid pavements.
Tunnels are designed with either a design speed of 80 km/h or 100 km/h. Design controls for
rural and urban highways as presented in this Volume apply also for tunnels except for the
special considerations presented in the following discussion.
Tunnel Grade
Grades less than 3.0 % should be, in principle, striven for in tunnels. A grade of more than 5.0
% should be avoided.
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For tunnel lengths of more than 400 m and a grade of more than 3 %, special measures should
be undertaken to improve the level of road safety. A corresponding specific risk analysis is
needed to ensure the need and performance of these special measures.
Tunnel Cross-Section Design

The design of a tunnel cross-Section depends on the highway's functional classification, the
traffic volume, and the selected construction method.
The number of lanes is determined by the expected traffic volume and the desired LOS.
Generally, the number of lanes in the tunnel is the same as the number of lanes on the
approach highway.
The dimensions of the typical cross-section are selected so that the tunnel equipment, like
lighting, ventilation, signage, and safety appurtenances, lie outside the section’s clearances
(see Figure 4-23). In specific cases, the installation of ventilation and wayfinding signage may
require a local or full widening of the tunnel cross-section. The minimum width of the sidewalk
is 1 m. The lane width must be at least 3.30 m wide. In existing tunnels, this warrant may lead
to the use of a narrow horizontal marking and, if needed, even on the slot gutter.
Carrying the full cross-section of the open highway and especially of the outside (right) and
inside (left) hard shoulder of divided highways through the tunnel, the resulting cost may be
prohibitive. Therefore, usually, the inside shoulder is eliminated completely, while the use of
an outside shoulder is subject to a cost-benefit analysis in conjunction with the tunnel risk
analysis.
Typical cross-sections of tunnels are shown in Figure 4-24 up to width of 36 m. For wider
Tunnels the elements of the cross-sections are determined on the basis of a corresponding
risk analysis.
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Figure 4-23 Traffic Envelope and clearances of a tunnel cross-Section (FGSV, 2019)
According to Figure 4-23, the required vertical clearance along the travel area is typically 5.50
m. Because the side clearances are constructed vertically, additional width is needed when the
pavement is superelevated in the case of rectangular tunnel cross-sections. The additional
width is given in Table 4-26.
Table 4-26 Additional Width in Tunnels with Rectangular Cross-Section due to Superelevation (EABT 80/100).
(FGSV, 2019)
Superelevation Rate e (%) Additional width (m)
> 3.5 up to 4.5 0.05
> 4.5 up to 5.5 0.10
> 5.5 up to 6.5 0.15
> 6.5 0.20
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Legend: T=Cross-Section with hard shoulder, t=cross-Section without hard shoulder, Tr=Cross-Section
with combined hard shoulder and sidewalk in case breakdown emergency alcoves for vehicles cannot
be provided
Figure 4-24 Typical Cross-Sections for all Design Classes on Freeways/Expressways on Tunnels (FGSV, 2008)
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4.8.5.5. Tunnel safety facilities
Breakdown emergency alcoves for vehicles should always be provided for tunnels that are
longer than 900 m and have no shoulders. Occasionally the tunnel risk analysis may require
breakdown emergency alcoves for tunnel lengths from 600 m long. Typical breakdown
emergency alcoves for vehicles are shown in Figure 4-25.
*If vehicles enter the traffic envelope, traffic regulation measures need to be taken
Figure 4-25 Configuration of Breakdown Emergency Alcoves for Vehicles in Tunnels (FGSV, 2019)
Face walls of the alcoves may be inclined with a slope of 3:1 without the need for a traffic
barrier or crash cushion. If this inclination is not possible, then the face wall of an alcove must
be passively protected according to the arrangements of SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and
Utilities Design – Passive Safety System Design). In the case of tunnels with opposing traffic,
this protection is needed for all face walls of an alcove.
The density of the alcoves should be less than 600 m. In tunnels with opposing traffic the
alcoves of both directions are arranged at the same location on both sides of the tunnel.
Alcoves are equipped with the appropriate sign and are lit.
4.8.5.6. Emergency sidewalks (walkways)

On both sides of the pavement, sidewalks, at least 1.00 m wide, are arranged. The vertical
clearance along the sidewalks must be 2.25 m. Sidewalks are separated from the travel area
with curbs of 3 cm in height.
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4.8.5.7. Emergency egress, escape passages, and emergency turnarounds
Escape passages in case of emergency must be provided through emergency egresses at
regular intervals inside a tunnel that will provide refuge to tunnel users. Throughout a tunnel,
clearly marked escape routes for use in an emergency should be supplied.
For tunnel lengths more than 400 m long, emergency egresses must be foreseen at distances
no more than 300 m. These emergency egresses lead to:
1. Open space.
2. Directly to the parallel tunnel tube.
3. Indirectly to the parallel tunnel tube through cross passages.
4. Rescue shafts.
5. Rescue gallery.
Cross passages are connection structures between two parallel tunnel tubes. They should be
closed with self-closing fire doors that open in both directions on both sides of the passage.
The cross passages should be at least two-hour fire rating construction and equipped with
emergency walkways 1 m wide.
In twin tube tunnels with a length over 900 m long, a vehicular emergency passage or
turnaround to the adjacent tube should be constructed that will allow rescue and fire
extinguishing vehicles to enter the adjacent tube. This case should also be justified and be part
of the concept of tunnel risk analysis. Tunnels that are over 1,800 m long should have
emergency turnarounds spaced every 1,200 m.
Rescue shafts are vertical structures that serve as escape paths equipped with staircases that
end in the open space. Staircases should be at least 1.50 m wide. When designing the rescue
shafts, people with disabilities and the elderly, as well as the transfer of injured persons, should
be part of the design criteria.
Rescue galleries are structures that serve as rescue routes. They may lead through an
emergency egress of a tunnel to a common exit into the free space. The grade should not be
greater than 10 %. Rescue galleries may be designed for use only by pedestrians or vehicles.
Galleries designed for pedestrians should have a cross-Section with dimensions 2.25 m x 2.25
m. The length of the rescue route for use by pedestrians should not exceed 1,500 m with one
portal of the gallery and 3,000 m with two portals of the rescue gallery. Rescue routes longer
than 3,000 m should be designed for vehicular use. The cross-section dimension should be
3.50 m x 3.50 m. For vehicular blind galleries, U-turns must be foreseen. In exceptional cases,
rescue galleries less than 3,000 m long may be constructed also for emergency vehicle use.
This requirement must be justified by the tunnel operational unit. In such a case, the galleries
should be equipped with ventilation equipment for exhaust emissions dilution.
All escape and rescue passages should be signed according to SASO ISO 7010 and lit
according to SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway and
Street Lighting, Control and Monitoring Devices). The minimum light intensity in the rescue
passages and routes should be 1 Lux with homogeneity of 1:40. Escape passages are fire
isolated from rescue passages. To avoid fire spreading into the rescue passages, special lock
chambers must be arranged. Lock chambers are bound by gates. Their length lies from 3 to
30 m for pedestrian use and 10 to 30 m in case of vehicular use. Instead of lock chambers,
overpressure ventilation in the rescue passages may be installed. Behind every emergency
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gate, an intermediate staying area of 5 m2 must be foreseen. Figure 4-26, Figure 4-27, Figure
4-28 and Figure 4-29 show typical arrangements for escape and rescue passages.
Additional information about tunnel geometric design issues is provided in Sections 5.6 and
7.6.
Figure 4-26 Cross Passage to Adjacent Tunnel Tube (FGSV, 2019)
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Figure 4-27 Rescue Gallery to Open Space (FGSV, 2019)
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Figure 4-28 Rescue Gallery with Rescue Shaft (FGSV, 2019)
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Figure 4-29 Rescue System with Parallel Rescue Galleries (FGSV, 2019)
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4.8.6. Climbing Lanes
In two-lane rural highways, it is desirable to provide an extra lane on the upgrade side as a
climbing lane where the longitudinal grade, the traffic volume, and the heavy vehicle volume
combine to degrade traffic operations. A climbing lane should be considered when one of the
following three conditions exist:
• 15 km/h or greater speed reduction is expected for a typical heavy vehicle.
• Level-of-service E or F exists on the upgrade.
• A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced when moving from the
approach segment to the upgrade.
For low-volume highways there is minimal delay and a climbing lane may not be justified. For
this reason, a climbing lane should only be considered on low-volume highways with the
following traffic conditions:
• Upgrade traffic flow rate is greater than 200 vehicles per hour.
• Upgrade truck flow rate is greater than 20 vehicles per hour.
The beginning of a climbing lane should be introduced before the start of the high longitudinal
grade. The climbing lane should be preceded by a tapered section with a desirable taper ratio
of 25:1 that should be at least 90 m long.
Attention should also be given to the location of the terminal point of the climbing lane.
Ideally, the climbing lane should be extended to a point beyond the crest curve where a typical
truck could reach a speed that is within 15 km/h of the speed of other vehicles. The climbing
lane should be followed by a tapered section with a ratio of 50:1 that should be at least 180 m
long. In addition, climbing lanes should not end just prior to an obstruction such as a bridge.
Information about climbing lanes for freeways/expressways is provided in Section 7.7.1.
4.8.7. Emergency Escape Ramps

4.8.7.1. General
On long descending grades, the construction of emergency escape ramps at appropriate
locations is desirable. Emergency escape ramps serve the purpose of safely slowing and
stopping out-of-control vehicles away from the main traffic stream. Out-of-control vehicles
may result from loss of brakes through overheating, driver error, or equipment failure.
Emergency escape ramps designed and constructed according to the following criteria will
provide acceptable deceleration rates with good driver control of the vehicle on the ramp.
The three basic types of escape ramps shown in Figure 4-30 are:
• the gravity ramp.
• the descending grade arrestor bed.
• the sandpile.
4.8.7.2. Ascending grade gravity escape ramp

An ascending gravity escape ramp is a road that runs on a positive or uphill grade and may be
paved or densely compacted aggregate surface, relying primarily on gravitational forces to
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slow and stop the runaway. Rolling-resistance forces contribute little to assist in stopping the
vehicle. Gravity ramps are usually long, steep, and are constrained by topographic controls
and costs.
Advantages
• Less routine maintenance.
• Special equipment is not needed to remove the truck from the ramp.
• The effectiveness of the ramp is not affected by adverse weather.
Disadvantages
• This type of ramp is usually long and therefore expensive.
• It cannot always be located where needed because of topographic limitations.
• It may be unsafe because there is no way to prevent the truck from rolling backwards
if the truck has lost all breaking.
4.8.7.3. Arrestor bed

A descending grade arrestor bed escape ramp is a roadway with a bed of loose gravel that
causes a truck to slow down and become mired in the loose material.
Advantages
• Shorter than a gravity ramp.
• Easier to locate near the problem area.
• Can be located adjacent to the mainline highway on a negative grade.
Disadvantages
• Wreckers or special equipment are usually required to remove the truck from the
descending grade arrestor bed.
• The surface of the arrestor bed must be smoothed after each use.
• The arrestor bed must be maintained in a loose condition by periodically loosening the
material and, in some cases, replacing the material if it has been badly contaminated.
• It may be a safety hazard for maintenance employees when maintenance operations
must be performed on the ramp.
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Figure 4-30 Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps (AASHTO, 2018)
4.8.7.4. Sandpile
Sandpiles, composed of loose, dry sand dumped at the ramp site, are usually no more than
120 m in length. The influence of gravity is dependent on the slope of the surface. The in-
crease in rolling resistance is supplied by loose sand. Deceleration characteristics of sandpiles
are usually severe and the sand can be affected by weather. Because of the deceleration
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characteristics, the sandpile is less desirable than the arrestor bed. However, at locations where
inadequate space exists for another type of ramp, the sandpile may be appropriate because
of its compact dimensions.
4.8.7.5. Design considerations

Speeds in excess of 130 to 140 km/h for an out-of-control vehicle will rarely, if ever, be
attained. Therefore, an escape ramp should be designed for a minimum entering speed of 130
up to 140 km/h design speed being preferred.
The design and construction of effective escape ramps involve several considerations as
follows:
• To safely stop an out-of-control vehicle, the length of the ramp should be sufficient to
dissipate the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle.
• The alignment of the escape ramp should be tangent or on very flat curvature to
minimize the driver’s difficulty in controlling the vehicle.
• A minimum width of 8 m may be all that is practical in some areas, though greater
widths are preferred. Desirably, a width of 9 to 12 m would more adequately
accommodate two or more out-of-control vehicles.
• The surfacing material used in the arrester bed should be clean, not easily compacted,
and have a high coefficient of rolling resistance.
• Arrester beds should be designed and constructed with a minimum aggregate depth
of 1.0 m.
• The entrance to the ramp should be designed so that a vehicle traveling at a high rate
of speed can enter safely.
• As much sight distance as practical should be provided preceding the ramp so that a
driver can enter safely.
• The full length of the ramp should be visible to the driver.
• The angle of departure for the ramp should be small, usually 5 degrees or less.
• An auxiliary lane may be appropriate to assist the driver to prepare to enter the escape
ramp.
• A service road located adjacent to the arrester bed is needed so tow trucks and
maintenance vehicles can use it without becoming trapped in the bedding material.
The width of this service road should be at least 3.0 m.
4.8.7.6. Forces acting on a vehicle in motion

Forces that act on every vehicle to affect the vehicle’s speed include engine-, braking-, and
tractive-resistance forces. Engine- and braking-resistance forces can be ignored in the design
of escape ramps because the ramp should be designed for the worst case, in which the vehicle
is out of gear and the brake system has failed. The tractive-resistance force contains four
subclasses:
• Inertial.
• Aerodynamic.
• Rolling.
• Grade.
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Inertial and negative grade forces act to maintain motion of the vehicle, while rolling-, positive
grade-, and air-resistance forces act to retard its motion. Figure 4-31 illustrates the action of
the various resistance forces on a vehicle.
Figure 4-31 Forces Acting on a Vehicle in Motion (AASHTO, 2018)
Inertial resistance can be described as a force that resists movement of a vehicle at rest or
maintains a vehicle in motion, unless the vehicle is acted on by some external force. Inertial
resistance must be overcome to either increase or decrease the speed of a vehicle. Rolling-
and positive gradient-resistance forces are available to overcome the inertial resistance.
Rolling resistance is a general term used to describe the resistance to motion at the area of
contact between a vehicle’s tires and the highway surface and is only applicable when a vehicle
is in motion. It is influenced by the type and displacement characteristics of the surfacing
material of the highway. Each surfacing material has a coefficient, expressed in kg/1,000 of
gross vehicle weight (GVW), which determines the amount of rolling resistance of a vehicle.
The values shown in Table 4-27 for rolling resistance have been obtained from various sources
throughout the country and are a best available estimate.
Gradient resistance results from gravity and is expressed as the force needed to move the
vehicle through a given vertical distance. The remaining component of tractive resistance is
aerodynamic resistance, the force resulting from the retarding effect of air on the various
surfaces of the vehicle. Air causes a significant resistance at speeds above 80 km/h, but is
negligible under 30 km/h. The effect of aerodynamic resistance has been neglected in
determining the length of the arrester bed, thus providing a small additional margin of safety.
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Table 4-27 Rolling Resistance of Highway Surfacing Materials (AASHTO, 2018)
Rolling Resistance
Equivalent Slope
Surfacing Material (kg / 1,000 kg
(%)
GVW)
Portland cement concrete 10 1.0
Asphalt concrete 12 1.2
Gravel, compacted 15 1.5
Earth, sandy, loose 37 3.7
Crushed aggregate, loose 50 5.0
Gravel, loose 100 10.0
Sand 150 15.0
Pea gravel 250 25.0
To determine the distance needed to bring the vehicle to a stop with consideration of the
rolling resistance and gradient resistance, the following simplified equation may be used:
𝑽𝟐
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟓𝟒∙(𝑹+𝒔) Equation 4-17
where:
L = length of arrester bed (m)
V = entering speed (km/h)
R = rolling resistance, expressed as equivalent percent grade divided by 100 (m)
s = design speed of the highway (%).
4.8.8. Lane Reductions

Lane reductions are required in areas where a freeway/expressway or a multilane highway is
connected with a highway section with less available lanes. Necessary transitions and more
information about lane reductions is provided in Section 7.7.2.
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4.8.9. Median Openings
Median openings are areas where the traffic can be transferred across the central median
during construction periods. Openings can be created for future use when constructing a new
freeway/expressway or reconstructing an existing freeway/expressway or they can be created
as the need arises on Sections of freeway/expressway that are in use. Information about
median openings is provided in Section 7.7.3.
4.8.10. Wildlife and Camel Crossings

Wildlife crossings are structural passages beneath or above roadways that are designed to
facilitate safe wildlife movement across roadways. Wildlife crossings coupled with roadside
fencing are ways to increase road permeability and habitat connectivity while decreasing
wildlife-vehicle collisions.
The underpass should accommodate a wider range of wildlife. There are a range of features
within and adjacent to underpasses that can enhance their performance such as:
• Using wildlife fencing to guide animals to the underpass.
• Providing habitat/cover appropriate to the target species leading to a culvert inlet
and/or outlet.
• Using culverts large enough and short enough to allow daylight to be viewed through
the structure.
• Using the natural ground surface or providing natural materials within the culvert/
underpass.
Figure 4-32 shows a wildlife underpass that will also serve as a waterway passage during wet
periods. The minimum width of a wildlife underpass should be 12.75 m including 11.55 m
approach pavement and 0.60 m walkway on each side. The vertical clearance should be 6.5 m
in rural areas, while in urban areas could be limited to 6.0 m.
Especially for the case of camel crossings can be designed either as overpasses or underpasses.
The preferred option in KSA is overpasses.
Figure 4-33 shows section of a typical camel underpass crossing for general reference, while a
typical camel overpass arrangement is provided in Figure 4-34. The minimum width of a camel
underpass should be 12.00 m including 8.00 m approach pavement covered by sand and 2.00
m sidewalk on each side. The vertical clearance should be minimum 6.0 m. In case of camel
overpass, ramps with a longitudinal slope of maximum 5.0 % should provide access to the
overpass structure from the ground level as shown in Figure 4-34.
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall (MSE Wall) could be provided on each side of the structure,
while a metal screen louvre type fence should be provided on each side of the cross-section
for security and safety. For rainwater runoff, gullies could be used at the edge of the cross-
section. The minimum width of a camel overpass should be 15.00 m including 12.00 m
approach pavement width and 1.50 m sidewalk on each side. The vertical clearances should
follow the minimum requirements mentioned in Section 4.7.12.
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Figure 4-32 Typical Cross-Section of Wildlife Underpass (Government of Abu Dhabi, 2016)
Figure 4-33 Typical Cross-Section of Camel Underpass (Government of Abu Dhabi, 2016)
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Figure 4-34 Typical Camel Overpass
4.8.11. Sand Abatement in Dune Areas

4.8.11.1. General
Within The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, sand dune areas present a unique challenge to roadway
designers. Blowing and shifting sand, prevalent in many areas, not only affects maintenance
costs but also driver safety. It must be realized that it is virtually impossible to eliminate all the
problems associated with blowing sand. The designer can minimize these problems by
understanding how sand moves and applying techniques that have successfully reduced the
problems associated with windblown sand.
Figure 4-35 shows some of the major dune fields within the Kingdom. Less well-defined areas
are located throughout the Kingdom and designers need to be aware of the problems caused
by blowing sand and identify sand areas during reconnaissance surveys.
Many of the principles described herein of necessity, are based upon assumptions of uniform
wind direction, level surfaces, etc. Nature has not been so kind, however, as each field location
and design requires special study with regards to prevailing wind directions, wind velocities,
topography, natural obstructions etc. It is incumbent upon both the design and the
construction supervisor to be aware of the various principles involved in sand movement and
apply these design techniques as necessary in the various field applications.
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The designer can minimize the problems associated with blowing sand by understanding how
sand moves and judiciously applying techniques previously found to be successful.
Figure 4-35 Sand Terrains in the Arabian Peninsula
4.8.11.2. Design process

During preliminary studies, highway design through the sand dune areas should be tried to
be avoided. If this is not possible, the following should be considered for the horizontal
alignment design:
• Design the horizontal alignment towards the windward side of the dunes.
• Design the horizontal alignment parallel to the prevailing wind direction to minimize
the sand accumulation.
• Avoid excavations in road geometric design as much as possible. Raising of the vertical
alignment should be tried by providing the highway on an embankment.
• Design the horizontal alignment such the prevailing winds can pass through the bridge
openings.
Where sand deposits could be found, the following should be considered during designing a
highway:
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• Raising of the vertical alignment 1.0 to 1.5 m above the surrounding terrain should be
investigated.
• In case of cut cross-sections, slopes of 10 % inclination or flatter should be considered.
• In case of fill cross-sections, slopes of 6H:1V (17 %) inclination or flatter should be
considered, while maximum fill height shall not exceed 4.0m.
• Provided superelevation should be limited to 5.0 % maximum.
• On freeways and expressways wide and shallow medians should be investigated to
eliminate the need of a road restrain system in the median (steel or concrete).
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5. Rural Highway Design
5.1. Introduction
The present chapter refers to the guidelines, standards, and criteria for geometric design of all
rural highways categories except for freeways and divided expressways, with two or three
traffic lanes, connected with interchanges or at-grade Intersections outside build-up areas or
the urban range.
5.2. Objectives
Rural highways must fulfill their spatial function by also providing a high safety level and the
appropriate quality of traffic flow. They must be harmonized with the environment and occupy
as little valuable land as possible. Rural highways must be located at the required distance
from environmentally sensitive areas and affect residential development as little as possible.
Rural highways design should adaptabe to the terrain, resulting in less environmental impacts,
as well as lower construction costs, low maintenance and operation costs.
The above requirements should be foreseen in the design process, while the following goals
should be considered:
• Increased road safety level.
• Increased quality of traffic flow.
• harmonized with the environment.
• Lower construction, operation and maintenance costs achieved.
5.3. Basic Design Principles

5.3.1. Design Process
Design for new rural highways as well as the reconstruction, rehabilitation and widening works,
takes place in a progressive process runs through various design stages (Concept Design,
Preliminary Design, Final Design etc.). Special design features associated with rural highway
rehabilitation (3R) and reconstruction (4R) are presented in Chapter 12.
Inputs for the geometric design of rural highways generally include measurements,
topographical surveys, reconnaissance reports from site visits, site investigation, laboratory
test results, recommendations on minimum values of geometric features, findings of traffic
counts, traffic analysis & modeling, H & H studies, geotechnical study, etc. Outputs generally
include reports, designs and drawings, recommendations, bills of quantities, proposals for
alternative or additional schemes, and possibly other outputs on a case-by-case basis.
The degree of detail and the scale of study for each design stage including contents, plans and
drawings should be commensurate with the needs of each stage while making clear
understanding of the effects on the highway context, as well as the local design exceptions
and necessary adjustments in layout, profile and cross-sections.
In the Concept Design the primary function is to identify and select the alignment of the new
rural highway. This stage is generally completed as part of the spatial planning procedure and
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ends with the determination of the alignment. During the spatial planning procedure,
assessments are conducted to determine whether the highway complies with spatial planning
requirements and whether, in this regard, it has been coordinated with other spatially
significant plans or measures (territorial impact assessment with environmental impact
assessment). Depending on the jurisdiction in question, the process of evaluating all
considerations relating to a project uses either the spatial planning or the alignment
determination procedure.
The Preliminary Design begins within the established analysis limits of the planning area, which
should include all variants that are appropriate from a traffic point of view and must be broad
enough to ensure that all significant impacts on the surrounding environment of the future
road can be determined. The number of intersections, as well as their positions and basic forms
must also be specified at this planning stage. The same applies to highways-related structures
and their fundamental dimensions. Subsequently, all variants should be assessed in terms of
their road safety characteristics.
At the Final Design stage, horizontal and vertical alignment of the preferred alignment are
further specified. The design speed, typical cross-section and the relevant applied parameters
should be finalized. In comparison with the Preliminary Design, realignments are still possible
within a limited corridor. The information included in the Final Design stage is presented with
adequate detail in plans and reports for an official decision.
5.3.2. Categories and Design Speed

To warrant high road safety levels and increased quality of traffic flow, rural highways must
comply with the functional categories described in Section 2.3. In normal cases the design
speed for a rural highway segment is defined based on the rural highway functional category.
In cases of increased traffic volumes on a specific category rural highway section, a higher
design speed should be selected as a result of increased traffic demand. In existing highways,
the average running speed or operating speed or speed limit could be used as design speed,
upon decision of the competent highway authority.
The vehicle speed on a rural highway is proportional to the uses of the highway. For this
purpose, specific speeds are determined based on the functional and design characteristics of
these highways.
The goal when designing rural highways of a specific category is to define a design speed that
serves the safe operation of this rural highway. Based on this design speed, the limiting values
of the design parameters are determined, while driving dynamics are also considered. Rural
highways are associated therefore with a design speed from 60 to 110 km/h for arterials and
50 to 90 km/h for collectors, (see Sections 2.4.3.3 and 2.4.3.4). For highways that are
systematically used by military vehicles or are eventually assigned to the national defense
system by the Ministry of Defense the operating speeds according to Section 5.8 apply.
5.4. Cross-Sections
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For rural highways the selection of cross-section components and the specification of
dimensions of each element is determined with respect to the forecast traffic volume and the
desired quality of traffic flow. Based on Volume SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering), it should be
checked if the traffic flow quality (LoS) is satisfactory for the selected typical cross-section. In
addition, based on the same traffic volumes, the quality of traffic flow (LoS) at Intersections
should also be demonstrated. Compatibility between cross-sections with different consecutive
sections should also be checked to provide relative uniformity between them. Transition points
should be made identifiable and designed accordingly to provide high safety levels.
For highways that are systematically used by military vehicles or eventually assigned to the
national defense system by the Ministry of Defense of KSA, special traffic rules and design
controls for using the highway cross-section apply (see Section 5.8).
5.4.2. Cross-Section Components

The rural highway typical cross-section consists of traffic lanes, edge strips, a central median
and paved or unpaved shoulder.
Traffic lanes, often used by heavy vehicles, should be 3.65 m wide. The acceleration lanes, since
they are not often used by heavy vehicles, could be 3.30 m wide. The purpose of the guidance
edge markings is to delineate the boundary line of the paved surface. When the number of
traffic lanes are increased from two to three, then the width of the edge strip is increased to
0.75 m to increase the available space provided for service vehicles.
Raised curbs should be avoided if possible. Where vehicle restraint systems are used (see
Chapter 14 of SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems
Design)), their height is limited to 0.07 m.
The central median should be provided, when deemed necessary, for traffic or road safety
reasons, usually along arterials and major collectors or at specific intersections. Medians could
be raised medians (apply to divided highways) or a flush medians with markings only (may
apply to undivided highways). It serves to separate oppositely moving traffic directions.
Raised medians separate the opposing traffic on a divided rural highway and may include
vehicle restraint systems (steel or concrete barriers), traffic signage, lighting posts and anti-
glare devices. They should not be less than 2.50 m wide, usually without vegetation.
Considering drainage facilities and a provision of an overpass pillar, the total width of the
structural median can be further widened to accommodate the drainage facilities and the
support pillars. Wider than 2.50 m medians are also recommended for maintenance reasons.
The flush medians separate the opposing directions of traffic on an undivided highway. They
include linear marking and hatching and should be recognizable by their strong coloring and
other additional traffic devices.
Paved shoulders could be provided to allow vehicles to stop away from through traffic lanes
in case of emergency. In two-lane rural highways, hard shoulder width should be at least 2.50
m, while in cases where the traffic volume of heavy vehicles is high, an increased paved
shoulder width of 3.00 m should be considered.
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Non-paved shoulders on the roadside of the highway support the placement of various
equipment (traffic control devices, lighting posts, vehicle restraint systems, etc.). In order to
have an increased built-in road safety level and accommodate run-off vehicles and at the same
time provide room for maintenance operations on the roadside, shoulders should have
sufficient soil stability and should not be less than 1.50 m wide. In cut areas a relevant drainage
system should be applied (see SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology
and Hydraulic Design)).
5.4.3. Cross-Section Clearances

5.4.3.1. Design vehicle dimensions
The typical design vehicle for highway design is the tractor-semitrailer WB-15 unless otherwise
specified by the competent highway authority. The basic vehicle dimensions are presented in
Section 3.4 of the present volume.
5.4.3.2. Basic dimensions for the traffic operation

The vehicle’s safe on-road positioning space includes both the occupied space for the design
vehicle, the lateral and vertical safety space (instability areas), plus an additional overhead
safety space (above the boundaries of the instability area).
The lateral safety space has a standard width of 1.00 m on both sides of traffic passage. For
design speed higher than 70 km/h, this width shall be increased to 1.25 m.
The overhead safety space should be 0.30 m high, while the total vertical clearance should be
strictly no less than 5.20 m. This dimension already comprises a buffer of 0.20m to allow for
the future rehabilitation of the pavement using overlays. However, as a basic principle for
designing the cross-section of rural or urban roads within this volume of the Saudi Highway
Code, it is mandatory to provide a total vertical clearance of 5.50
The cross-Section clearance (laterally and vertically) should be kept clear of obstructions.
Vertical signing is allowed to be on the limit of the cross-section clearance. Protective elements
and easily deformable objects are allowed to be inside the cross-section clearance and up to
0.50 m away from the traffic passage area. In certain difficult cases, this distance can be
reduced to 0.25 m. Raised curbs are allowed to be within the total clearance area and up to
the limit of the traffic area.
5.4.4. Typical Cross-Sections

Figure 5-1, Figure 5-2 and Figure 5-3 show the typical cross-sections depicting the essential
elements of rural highways. Undivided multilane cross-sections (without a median) are not
allowed in rural highways, in order to avoid unsafe roadway environments.
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Legend: slopes in the figure denote vertical:horizontal dimension, CRZ=clear recovery zone, ETW= edge of the
traveled way, R/W: Right of way
Figure 5-1 Typical Cross-Sections for Two-Lane Rural Highways (CALTRANS, 2019)
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Figure 5-2 Typical Cross-Sections for Three-Lane Rural Highways (CALTRANS, 2019)
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Figure 5-3 Typical Cross-Sections for All Paved Multilane Highways (CALTRANS, 2019)
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5.4.5. Traffic Quality and Typical Cross-Sections
The relevant typical cross-section of an undivided highway, as well as the intended overtaking
sections, should be checked whether the typical cross-section provides sufficient traffic quality
flow (see Section 7.2 of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering)). In case the quality of traffic flow is not
sufficient, a higher highway category or additional passing lanes should be considered.
5.4.6. Passing Lanes

5.4.6.1. Basic considerations
Passing (overtaking) lanes are applied to cross-sections of undivided highways to increase the
provided road safety level and the quality of traffic flow. Through the design of additional
traffic lanes in each direction, where needed, the separation of slow-moving vehicles (mainly
trucks) from faster-moving vehicles (mainly passenger cars) is achieved, without requiring the
use of the opposite direction traffic lane. Passing lanes should not be confused with climbing
lanes (see Section 4.8.6).
5.4.6.2. Continuous three-lane rural highways

Application Criteria
A characteristic design element on three-lane rural highways is the continuous existence of
passing lanes, which alternate for each direction of traffic. The location and length of passing
lanes are defined based on their connection to the rest of the highway network and the
topography of the area. Passing lanes should be uniformly distributed as possible on the
highway section. Overtaking segments should be as long as needed to accommodate the
overtaking process. On the other hand, the sections in which an overtaking lane is proposed
in the opposite direction should not, however, be long, to reduce the possibility that drivers
violate the overtaking prohibition. For this reason, the overtaking sections should be at least
1,000 m long, preferably 1,200 m, and should be limited to a maximum of 2,000 m.
General Arrangement
On three-lane roads there is a succession of overtaking lanes in each direction. The widening
of one direction coincides with the narrowing of the other. Critical areas are basically the areas
where the narrowing is taking place (two lanes reduced into one), as well as sections where
the widening is taking place (one lane is upgraded into two).
For the arrangement of passing lanes the following need to be considered:
• The change points should be placed in areas with satisfactory visibility and not where
there is poor drainage (e.g., bridges).
• Overtaking lanes should not be placed at the end of construction sites, where the
highway characteristics may differ.
Overtaking lanes in hilly or mountainous terrain should be on the uphill side.
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Intersection Areas
Three-lane rural highway Intersections are usually designed as full or partial interchanges. At
Intersections the following rules apply:
• A section with an overtaking lane can be developed from an acceleration lane. This
additional lane is not recommended on sections where there is a high percentage of
heavy vehicle traffic flow (for example higher than 10 %) or a high grade (for example
higher than 5 %). These sections should also be above the minimum length long.
Marking type between both traffic lanes should be continuous for a total length of 40
m.
• The right lane of a passing section should not be converted to a deceleration lane
through a lane reduction.
• In certain difficult cases, where interchange areas are combined with the critical area
of a passing lane direction change, the passing lane should be at least 800 m long
before the deceleration lane and at least 600 m long after the acceleration lane. If a
flush median is used (usually 1 m wide) without a barrier along the passing lane section
intersection marker posts should be installed in the area where the acceleration lane is
developed.
5.4.6.3. Occasional three-lane rural highways

Application Criteria
In this specific case passing lanes along a typical two-lane rural highway, which alternate for
each direction of traffic, are installed occasionally to improve traffic quality and road safety by
eliminating passing maneuvers. Occasional three-lane sections however have to be installed
on at least 20 % of the total length of the two-lane rural highway segment for each direction
of traffic.
Two-lane rural highway sections where a passing lane is installed should be evaluated whether
the necessary Level of Service has been attained for the total length of the highway or whether
additional sections with passing lanes of the highway are needed to warrant consistent traffic
flow quality along the whole highway length.
Based on level of service of traffic flow (refer to Section 7.2 of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering)) a
passing lane can be installed also on long downgrade highway sections.
General Arrangement
Passing lanes should be uniformly distributed as far as possible along the total length of the
highway and be timely perceived by the driver. Passing lane lengths can be shorter than those
on continuous three-lanes rural highways, in case of lower traffic volumes. However, they
should not be shorter than 600 m and no longer than 1,500 m.
In any case, with respect to the location of overtaking lanes applies the criteria and rules
mentioned in Section 5.4.6.2 apply. In addition, attention should be paid to the following:
• Passing lanes should, in hilly or mountainous sections, be developed in the uphill
direction. In cases along crest vertical curves where two passing lanes of both directions
of traffic overlap, it should be checked whether the passing lane with the milder grade
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should be transposed or completely removed. If this is not possible the resulting four
lane section where the marking separating the two directions of traffic occurs should
be additionally equipped with small marker posts.
• Passing lanes should not be placed before highways entering provincial towns or at
the end of a road upgrade section, where there are different highway characteristics.
• Due to the risk of skidding into the opposite direction of traffic, overtaking lanes should
not be placed along sharp right-hand turning horizontal curves.
Typical transitions from two lanes to one lane is provided in Chapter 12, according to Figure
12-1.
Intersection Areas
At Intersections the following issues should be considered: when installing a passing lane:
• Passing lanes should be located outside intersection areas.
• Passing lanes should never end within the functional area of an intersection. The left-
turn lane should be located behind the hatched marking area at the end of the passing
lane.
• In certain difficult cases, passing lanes can start inside the intersection. In such a case,
the pavement widening should be performed within the entrance area to the
intersection.
5.5. Alignment
The geometric design of rural highways regarding the layout, profile and superelevation is
carried out based on safety considerations and vehicle dynamics and on the principles of
three-dimensional view of the alignment (see Section 5.5.5). The overlap of the design
elements in horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway should warrant an adequate
anticipation of the alignment course of the highway in terms of the spatial elements and the
satisfactory vision of the highway structures. In cases where any doubt is arising as for the
resulting highway picture to the driver, perspective views of these highway sections should be
provided and considered. Special attention is required in the transition between the existing
highway section and highway sections with lower design standards. Structures are always
integrated into the three-dimensional perspective views, considering their construction costs
and criteria. After determining the design element parameters, vehicle dynamics criteria should
be considered to achieve an increased built-in road safety level in the highway.
5.5.2. Sight Distance

5.5.2.1. Required stopping sight distance
Objects located within the road surface should be perceptible from a distance that allows the
driver to stop the vehicle, while driving at the preset design speed (required stopping sight
distance). Figure 5-4 shows the required stopping sight distance in relation to the grade and
the design speed. In order to provide sufficient perception-reaction time to the driver, as well
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as sufficient time to stop the vehicle, longer visibility lengths are generally required. Generally,
visibility lengths should be at least 30 % longer than the required minimum stopping sight
distance.
250
200
150
100
50
-5% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Figure 5-4 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Rural
Highways

The available sight distance is calculated from the horizontal and vertical alignment, also
considering cross-Section elements and the configuration of the surrounding area. It is related
to the optical ray between the eye position and the obstacle position. The eye position and
the obstacle position are both at a height of 1.08 m above the traffic lane or centerline of the
pavement.
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The available visibility lengths must be calculated for each traffic direction separately and
displayed on relevant diagrams, considering the horizontal and vertical alignment of the road
with its side equipment (e.g., noise barriers, road restrain systems, large vertical signs), as well
as tree planting.
5.5.2.3. Checking of the required stopping sight distance

In order to have an increased built-in road safety level, each point of the highway corridor
should be checked with respect to the required stopping sight distance. The available visibility
length must be higher than the required stopping sight distance in 100 % of the road section.
In certain difficult cases that the available visibility length is less than the required stopping
sight distance and this disadvantage cannot be corrected due to the conditions of the
surrounding area, it must be checked whether it is possible to reduce the allowed speed for
the section.
5.5.2.4. Required passing sight distance

Passing sight distance is the minimum sight distance that must be available to enable the
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely and comfortably, without interfering with
the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. It is important, for reasons of
safety, to provide as many passing opportunities on two-lane highways as possible. Based on
the two methods provided on Section 4.6.2.3, for two-lane rural highways the required passing
sight distance is provided in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways (Method 1:
AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)
Required Passing Sight Distance (m)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
50 345 160
60 410 180
70 485 210
80 540 245
90 615 280
100 670 320
110 730 355
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5.5.3. Horizontal Alignment
5.5.3.1. Tangents
Tangents are easily adapted on plain terrain, as well as near to linear elements e.g., railway
lines, canals and on linear fences. They are providing good visibility towards Intersections and
the necessary passing sight distance on two-lane highway sections. Long tangents, especially
those with a constant grade, have the following disadvantages:
• there is an increased difficulty to adapt to hilly and mountainous reliefs.
• make difficult the estimation of distances and speeds of vehicles traveling ahead on
the opposing traffic direction as well as vehicles, following.
• reduce visibility at night, due to glare from the headlights of oncoming vehicles.
• reduce drivers’ activity to a minimum and cause fatigue and therefore reducing the
built-in road safety level.
For the above reasons, it is recommended that the length of tangents be limited to 1,500 m.
For better adaptation to the landscape or due to other limitations, longer tangent lengths can
be tolerated in certain cases. In order to provide an increased road safety level, radii before
and after tangents should be consistent. Therefore, curve radii after tangents should be in the
good range of Figure 5-5 for new highways. Combinations of tangent lengths and curve radii
in the fair region of Figure 5-5 can be tolerated in the rehabilitation or reconstruction of
existing highways.
5.5.3.2. Circular arcs

The radii of circular arcs should provide an increased road safety level, during vehicle
movement at the allowed speed. Also, radii should be adapted to the topography of the
terrain.
Minimum circular arc radii and the side friction factor for their estimation are listed in Table
5-2. Higher value radii could be chosen if in this case the highway alignment adapts better to
the terrain. It should be considered that a smooth curvilinear alignment gives the impression
that overtaking is possible, while in some cases this is not possible. In addition, the application
of larger radii can lead to the wrong feeling to the driver that he or she is on a highway
designed with a higher design speed. For road users to perceive circular arcs as independent
design elements within the curve, the minimum circular arc lengths in accordance with Table
5-2 should be provided.
Design Speed for Rural Highways
Minimum Curve Radius for Circular

Minimum Arcs (m)
Design Speed Side Friction
Circular Arc Maximum Superelevation Rate (%)
(km/h) Factor
Length (m)
6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
50 0.19 30 80 75 70 65
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Minimum Arcs (m)
(km/h) Factor
Length (m)
6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
60 0.17 35 125 115 105 100
70 0.15 40 185 170 155 145
80 0.14 45 255 230 210 195
90 0.13 50 340 305 280 260
100 0.12 60 440 395 360 330
110 0.11 65 565 505 455 415
For the increase of the built-in level or road safety, successive curves must be consistent
between them. Figure 5-5 shows the relationship of radii between two successive curves. For
new highways the good range of succeeding radii applies. For rehabilitation and
reconstruction highway projects the fair range of Figure 5-5 can be tolerated.
Figure 5-5 Consecutive Radii Limits (FGSV, 2012)
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Figure 5-6 shows the minimum values of radii with respect to the tangent length before
entering the curve. The specific radii should be at least in the fair range. In tangents with a
length shorter than 300 m, the fair range with successive radii should be ensured, based on
Figure 5-5. Tangents between consecutive horizontal curves in the same direction should be
avoided.
Figure 5-6 Consistent Radii Values with Respect to the Tangent Length Lg Before Entering the Curve (FGSV, 2012)
5.5.3.3. Transition (spiral) curves

Geometry). The values of minimum spiral parameter and length that should be applied on
each horizontal curve is summarized on Table 5-3, while recommended values are presented
on Table 5-4. Transition curves should be used in horizontal curves with radii equal or less than
the upper radius limit shown on the same tables (minimum and recommended values
respectively).
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(km/hr) Parameter, As (m) of Spiral, Ls (m) Spiral Applications, R (m)
50 45 28 148
60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479
100 145 56 592
110 170 61 716
Table 5-4 Recommended Parameters for Spirals and Upper Radius Limit for Spiral Application with Respect to the

Length of Spiral, Limit for Spiral
Ls (m) Applications, R (m)
50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000
80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900
100 205 115 2,100
110 240 125 2,300
5.5.4. Vertical Alignment

5.5.4.1. Grades
Low grades, up to 4 %:
• improve the provided road safety level (exception: areas of adjustment of grades with
superelevation change).
• improve the quality of traffic flow and the provided level of service.
• reduce operating costs, as well as costs for road users.
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• reduce emissions.
Under conditions, higher grades allow for:
• the best adaptation to the natural landscape.
• reduced interventions in the environment.
• lower construction costs.
For traffic operation purposes and for an improved road safety level, the maximum grades
should not exceed the values on Table 5-5.
Table 5-5 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Rural Highways
Design Speed Desirable Maximum allowed Grade

(km/h) Grade G (%) G (%)
50 7.0 10.0
60 6.0 8.0
70 5.0 6.0
80 4.0 5.0
90 3.5 5.0
100 3.0 5.0
110 2.5 4.5
In certain difficult cases, the maximum grades of Table 5-5 could be exceeded, but the
composite slope resulting from both the longitudinal and the cross slope should not have a
value higher than 12.0 % (see Section 4.6.6.1).
In tunnels longer than 400 m, the grade should not exceed 3.0 %. Otherwise, special tunnel
design measures are necessary in compliance with tunnel risk analysis.
In areas where Intersections are planned, small grades (G ≤ 4.0 %) should be adopted. Grades
higher than 6.0 % should be avoided along the physical area of the Intersection.
To avoid areas with poor drainage, in areas where there is pavement rotation (superelevation
transition), grades should be higher than 1.0 % (1.5 % is preferred). In certain difficult cases
where the above limiting value is not possible to achieve, the minimum grade should be
limited to 0.7 %. If the pavement is limited by sidewalks, a minimum grade of 0.5 % is
recommended. Otherwise, the pavement drainage should take place through special hydraulic
facilities (see SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic
Design)).
On long bridges (≥ 100 m) and in tunnels, a minimum grade of 0.7 % should be provided to
warrant pavement drainage.
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For highways that are systematically used by military vehicles or are eventually assigned to the
national defense system a maximum recommended grade of 8.0 % applies. Absolute maximum
grade is 10 %. At Intersections the maximum grade of 4 % applies for a distance of at least 50
m. On mountainous areas the compound slope of the highway should not be greater than 10
%.
5.5.4.2. Crest and sag vertical curves

Changes in grades in the highway profile are curved. The radii of crest and sag curves should
be chosen in such a way that:
• in combination with the horizontal alignment elements, a balanced three-dimensional
highway alignment result.
• the required stopping sight distance is warranted.
• the alignment adapts to the terrain.
• the environmental impact is minimized.
The rounding of crest and sag curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical
circular arcs are approximated with a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and
Sag Vertical Curves).
Table 5-6 shows the recommended values of K parameter (length of vertical curve to achieve
1.00 % change in grade) for crest and sag curves and the minimum values of curve lengths,
considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object height is equal to 0.60 m for stopping
sight distance (SSD) and 1.08 m for passing sight distance (PSD), according to AASHTO.
Table 5-6 Recommended Values of Parameter K for Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to the Design Speed f or
Rural Highways
Minimum Crest Curve Minimum

Design Speed K value (m/%) Minimum Curve
Sag Curve K
(km/h) Length (m)
SSD Adequacy PSD Adequacy value (m/%)
50 6 138 12 30
60 11 195 17 36
70 17 272 23 42
80 26 338 29 48
90 39 438 38 54
100 52 520 45 60
110 74 617 54 66
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The minimum K values for crests curves ensures that the required stopping sight distances is
available for the drivers, in case where the horizontal alignment is in tangent. In case where
the horizontal alignment is in curve and in cases where values used are below the minimum
values provided in Table 5-6, evidence from spatial analysis using appropriate CAD software
shall be provided that the stopping sight distance is met.
5.5.5. Three-Dimensional Alignment

5.5.5.1. General
The three-dimensional alignment has a substantial influence on driver behavior and the
provided road safety level. The highway traffic area includes the traffic surface and the lateral
area of the highway. It should be perceptible, understandable, concise and clear for the driver.
These requirements should also apply to the road equipment, which constitutes the
information for the driver. In addition, the highway should be in harmony with the surrounding
area.
Through the combination of the design elements of the horizontal and vertical alignment,
three-dimensional elements and the corresponding results emerge. The three-dimensional
alignment is generally satisfactory, when the curvatures in horizontal and vertical alignment of
the highway are approximately made at the same point and the number of turning points in
layout and profile are harmonized. Visibility checks should be carried out through specific road
design software that has the ability of 3-D supervision and 3-D visibility check of the adequacy
of the stopping sight distance.
In a crest curve, it may be necessary to shift the start of the horizontal curve ahead of the start
of the crest curve, to warrant the perception of the horizontal curve. The necessary shift values
are shown in Table 5-7.
Table 5-7 Required Displacement of the Start of Crest Vertical Curve after the Start of the Horizontal Curve
(Tangent – Spiral – Circular Arc) for Rural Highways (FGSV, 2012)
Crest Curve Spiral Parameter A (m)*
Radius Hk 150 200 250 ≥ 300

3,000 25 50 65 80
4,000 15 35 55 75
5,000 25 50 70
6,000 15 40 60
7,000 30 55
8,000 20 45
no shift required
9,000 10 40
10,000 30
NOTE: For the definition of spiral parameter A (m) refer to Section Spiral Geometry
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5.5.5.2. Design deficiencies
Errors in generating spatial elements lead to deficiencies in three-dimensional alignment.
Table 5-8 contains the various resulting deficiencies in terms of their impact on driver behavior
and road safety. No deficiency should be allowed on new road constructions, while in cases of
reconstruction and highway upgrade projects this applies at least to the sections where the
alignment shows hidden parts or not perceivable curve beginnings.
Table 5-8 Effects of Three-Dimensional Alignment Deficiencies (FGSV, 2012)
Effects on driver
Deficiencies
behavior and road safety
Jump/sink case High
hidden curve beginning High
Extensions Medium
Compression Low
Appearance deficiencies Low
Visually hidden areas

A visual hidden area results when the highway surface is not visible by the driver (eye height
equal to ha = 1.00 m (due to a crest curve or a backslope) in his vicinity. Such an area is
problematic when the alignment is not visible for a length of more than 75 m and becomes
visible again for a distance less than 600 m (see Figure 5-7). Such a situation becomes
dangerous when, in a certain area, the depth of the non-visible part is higher than 0.75 m. This
case is particularly critical when the opposite traffic lane is used for overtaking. In these cases,
the possibility of prohibiting overtaking should be considered.
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Legend: HX=Crest curve radius; HW=Sag curve radius; G=Grade
Figure 5-7 Critical Area of Consecutive Crest and Sag Vertical Curves (FGSV, 2012)
Non-visible beginning of a horizontal curve

The case of a non-visible beginning of a horizontal curve occurs, when from a distance of 75
m before the beginning of the horizontal curve, the visible highway surface ahead of the driver
undergoes a change of direction angle (heading) by 3.2 degrees. Therefore, it should be
ensured that the beginning of the non-visible part of the crest vertical curve lies beyond the
point of the relevant direction change. For large spiral parameters (A ≥ 300 m) the curved
section is perceived if the spiral is visible for at least 100 m.
Elongation and compression

In the case of a sag vertical curve the horizontal curve radius appears longer than it really is,
while in the case of a crest vertical curve the horizontal curve radius appears shorter than it
really is. The amount of elongation/deformation of the corresponding curve radii is affected
by the horizontal-to-vertical radius (R:H) ratio.
5.5.6. Superelevation
5.5.6.1. Superelevation in tangent
On tangents, the pavement of each carriageway is usually designed with the superelevation to
the one side, with a minimum cross-slope equal to 2.0 % or preferably 2.5 %. The same
superelevation rate should be applied in additional traffic lanes and the acceleration and
deceleration lanes.
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5.5.6.2. Superelevation in circular arcs
superelevation rate applied is 12.0 %, while the minimum superelevation slope is limited to 2.0
%. Figure 5-8 shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the Horizontal Curve
Radius for all design speeds. Values taken from Figure 5-8 are recommended to be rounded
to the nearest 0.5 %.
national defense system by the Ministry of Defense the maximum desired superelevation rate
is 4 %. An absolute maximum superelevation rate of 8 % applies.
12%
10%
Superelevation on Circular Arc (%)
8%
6% 0.13
0.12
4% 0.11
0.1
0.09
2% 0.08
0%
20
-2% 30
50 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 1000 1500 2,000 40
Horizontal Radius (m) 50
60
Figure 5-8 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of The Curve (Max e = 12.0
%) for Rural Highways
Curve radii on bridges should be larger than 550 m in order to reduce the superelevation rate
applied to a maximum of 5.0 %.
For cases where the horizontal curve radius is higher than the values presented in Table 5-9, a
reverse slope equal to - 2.0 % can be applied (towards the external edge of the circular arc as
shown in Figure 4-13), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can be avoided.
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(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
100 ≥ 790 ≥ 830
110 ≥ 1,060 ≥ 1,125
To prevent vehicles from skidding on mountainous areas, the maximum compound slope
(composition of grade and superelevation), should be limited to a maximum limit of 12.0 %.
Formula for the compound slope is provided in Section 4.6.6.1. In addition, the relevant
formula, and the basic parameters for the calculation of the minimum superelevation runoff
length are provided in Section 4.6.6.2.
Paved shoulders are designed and constructed with the same superelevation rate as the one
of the travel areas while unpaved shoulders are designed and constructed with a
superelevation equal to 12.0 % in the inside area of a curve when pavement is drained through
the unpaved shoulder, while otherwise a superelevation of 6.0 % is applied. For safe vehicle
recovery in case of running off the pavement an unpaved shoulder as part of the clear zone
with a slope flatter than 6H:1V (17 %) is considered normally adequate.
5.5.6.3. Superelevation transition

The rotation of the pavement to attain a change in the superelevation rate is basically made
within the transition curve (spiral), regardless of the reference point of the road surface around
which the pavement rotates. In cases where spirals are not applied (see Section 5.5.2.3), then
the pavement rotates 2/3 on the tangent and 1/3 inside the curve. In certain difficult cases, the
rotation of the pavement could be carried out in tangent (at the beginning or at the end).
Pavement rotation in bridges should be avoided.
On undivided highways the pavement rotates around the axis (centerline) of the road, while
on divided highways the rotation around the centerline of each separated pavement is
preferred (Figure 5-9). In certain difficult cases, including the case to better adapt to local
conditions, the pavement can be rotated around the inner or outer boundary line of the
pavement.
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Figure 5-9 Pavement Rotation Axis for Superelevation Adaptation (FGSV, 2012)
5.5.6.4. Grade of pavement edges with respect to grade of the axis

The length of the superelevation runoff shall be enough, so the runoff slope meets the limiting
values shown in Table 7-8. The runoff slope r is defined as the difference in grade between the
axis of the road and the grade of boundary lines of the pavement. The minimum length of the
superelevation runoff can be calculated using the following equation:
𝟓𝟎∙𝐞∙𝐰
𝐋= Equation 5-1
𝐫
where:
e = the superelevation rate of the curve (%)
w = the width of traveled way (m)
r = the percent of runoff slope as shown in Table 5-10 (%).
For rural highways, the minimum length of superelevation runoff shall be 30 m and the
recommended shall be 50 m.
To avoid steep superelevation, the maximum value of runoff slope should not exceed the
values of Table 5-10. For long transition curves, where the runoff slope is less than 0.30 %, the
attainment of superelevation runoff should be modified as follows:
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• In section between points A and C the runoff slope should be 0.30 %.
• In section between points C and E the runoff slope should be less than 0.30 %.
Table 5-10 Superelevation Runoff Slope (%) (MoC, 1992)
Design Speed Runoff Slope r

(km/h) (%)
50 0.66
60 0.59
70 0.54
80 0.50
90 0.47
100 0.44
110 0.41
5.5.7. Traveled-Way Widening

5.5.7.1. Lane widening in curves with small radius
On horizontal curves, especially in those with small radius, widening is required for the design
vehicle to remain within the traffic lane. The required widening depends on the design vehicle,
the width of the traffic lane and the horizontal curve value. Details of the required widening
and the geometry applied are presented in Section 4.6.6.3. The widening of the lane is usually
carried out linearly within the spiral. In short length spiral, the widening could be extended
equally to the tangent and the circular arc.
5.5.7.2. Lane addition and widening

For the construction of passing lanes and traffic islands, the pavement needs to be widened.
For widening the traffic lane surface for the application of passing lanes, the same design
guidelines provided in Section 11.5 should be followed, while auxiliary left-turn and right-turn
traffic lanes are carried out according to Section 10.2.8.
national defense system by the Ministry of Defense and for radii less than 50 m the pavement
widening should accommodate at least the Vehicle Meeting Case I according to Section 5.8.
5.6. Special Design Features in Areas of Bridges and Tunnels

Bridges should be adapted to the layout of the highway. In areas that bridge construction is
required, such as crossings with other roads or railways, or even in areas of crossing wadis, the
highway layout should ensure as much perpendicular crossing as possible, in order to reduce
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the required structure length and also to reduce the intervention in the environment. For this
reason, a crossing angle of 72 degrees to 108 degrees is recommended.
For bridges proposed in a circular arc, a sufficiently large radius should be chosen so that the
superelevation rate should be limited to a maximum value of 5.0 %. Transition curves (spirals)
should be avoided on bridges, while superelevation changes are not desirable on bridges, a
constant grade should be chosen as a rule.
In the case of using a bridge construction method the incremental launching method, a
constant curvature should be applied in horizontal and vertical alignment.
For the satisfactory drainage of bridges, a minimum grade equal to 0.7 % should be applied
in long bridges. A combination of the superelevation rate with the grade could be performed
in difficult cases where minimum grade equal to 0.7 % could not be achieved. In these cases,
the adequacy of the bridge drainage system should be checked. Low or high elevation points
(grade at this specific point is equal to 0 %) should be avoided as much as possible since they
cause problems in the drainage of the bridge and consequently to highway safety.
The geometric design in tunnels should be carried out in horizontal and vertical alignment
with sufficiently above-limiting design values. The grade should be limited to 3.0 %. In cases
of long tunnels (over 500 m), the grade should not be greater than 2.5 %.
5.7. Highway Appurtenances

In rural highways several types of appurtenances may be located at the side of non-paved
shoulders outside the paved area. This equipment could be, but not limited to:
• Drainage facilities as described in SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –
Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
• Road Restraint Systems as described in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design
– Passive Safety Systems Design).
• Public utilities and road lighting as described in SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and
Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway and Street Lighting, Control and Monitoring
Devices).
• Traffic signs and pavement markings as described in SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform
5.8. Highway Use by Military Vehicles

5.8.1. General Aspects
The use of a highway by heavy military vehicles is subject to operational restrictions. Three
types of vehicle restrictions can apply:
Typical Case I: No restrictions at all

A civil vehicle can meet military vehicles without difficulties. The following two sub-cases apply
in this respect:
SHC 301
182 SHC 182
301
1. No restrictions apply when two military vehicles encounter each other. This condition
is found when military vehicles are systematically and often using a specific highway.
2. No restrictions apply when a military vehicle is encountering a civil vehicle. This
condition applies when the highway should be used without hindering the civil traffic
flow and the highway is not often used by military vehicles at the discretion of the KSA
Defense Ministry. In this case the passing of a military vehicle from a civil vehicle should
also take place without any traffic conflicts with the rest of traffic.
Typical Case II: Restrictions apply between military vehicle and civil vehicles
Case II requires that encounter of military and civil vehicles is possible but with caution. In
most cases this requirement leads to the necessity to use walking speed from both military
and civil vehicles and prohibition of passing maneuvers. Three specific sub-cases apply herein:
1. Restrictions apply only among military vehicles themselves. This condition is found
when a highway is used occasionally by military vehicles in both directions of traffic.
2. Restrictions refer between military vehicles and civil vehicles when both vehicles are
co-existing in the same highway location. This condition should be considered only
either when traffic volumes of civil vehicles are relatively low or when civil vehicles
encounter military vehicles only occasionally.
3. Restrictions refer either between military vehicles among themselves or between
military and civil vehicles rarely at the same location of a highway. For this subcase
usually local short lane widening, or turnouts addresses the issue satisfactorily from the
point of view of traffic safety and operation. The density of these local lane widenings
or turnouts is every 300 m usually or as far a mutual sight distance between opposing
vehicles allows. Their lengths should be at least 25 m long.
Typical Case III: No possibility to encounter another or a military vehicle at all

In case III the highway can be used by civil vehicles when military vehicles are not present or
when the civil vehicles do not exceed specific widths.
SHC 301 183

5.8.2. Pavement Width
Highways that are used systematically by military vehicles should have basically a pavement
width of 7.30 m or the pavement width should allow the meeting of a 3.75 m wide military
vehicle with a civil vehicle 2.60 m wide.
For two-lane rural highways the pavement utilization from both military and civil vehicles is
the sum of the travel area width plus the edge strip width (Figure 5-10).
Legend:Κ1, Κ2= vehicle width classes

Sm= travel lane
R= edge strip
BB= pavement width
T= unpaved shoulder
Figure 5-10 Highway Cross-Section with Pavement and Crown Width (FGSV, 1996)
The relationship between cross-Section elements, pavement and lane width and types of
military vehicles use of a rural highway is displayed in Table 5-11 and Table 5-12.
5.8.3. Safe Speeds

Safe speeds accommodated when heavy military vehicle encounter civil vehicles result from
applying Table 5-11 and Table 5-12 as follows:
• Civil vehicles:
o no restrictions apply: the existing speed limit should be observed,
o restrictions apply: walking speed should be imposed.
• Military vehicles:
o no restrictions apply and when no combined traffic of military and civil vehicles
apply: 40 km/h during daytime and 30 km/h during nighttime,
o restrictions apply: walking speed should be followed by military vehicles.
SHC 301
184 SHC 184
301
Table 5-11 Vehicle Width Classes, Lateral Clearances, Lane Widths and Edge Strip Widths
(3) (5)
(4) = (2) + (3)
(1) (2) Safety Edge
Travel Lane Width
Critical Speed Width Class Lateral Strip
(km/h) (m) Clearance Width
I (m) II (m) III (m)
(m) (m)
Walking Speed 0.00 - 2.00 - 0.25
= 50 0.25 2.25 0.25

2.00
> 50 = 70 0.50 2.50 0.25
All
> 70 0.75 2.75 0.25
vehicles
Walking Speed 0.00 - 2.60 - 0.25
= 50 2.60 0.25 3.00 - 0.25
> 50 0.50 3.25 - 0.25
Walking Speed 0.50 - 3.25 - 0.25
40 km/h daytime - 2.75

1.25 4.00 - 3.75 0.25
30 km/h nighttime
Walking Speed 0.50 - 3.50 - 0.25

1.25 4.25 - 4.00 0.25
30 km/h nighttime
Military
Walking Speed heavy 0.50 - 3.75 - 0.25
vehicles
with no 1.25 4.50 - 4.50 0.25
30 km/h nighttime air tires*
Walking Speed 0.50 - 4.00 - 0.25

1.25 4.75 - 4.50 0.25
30 km/h nighttime
Walking Speed 0.50 - 4.25 - 0.25

1.25 5.00 - 4.75 0.25
30 km/h nighttime
Legend: *) If military heavy vehicles are transported on trucks with air tires the lateral clearance of trucks
applies (K=2.60 m).
SHC 301 185

Table 5-12 Necessary Pavement Widths for Military Vehicles Encountering Civil Vehicles
Impossible
Encountered Unconditional Encountering Restricted Encountering
Encounterin
Vehicles Case Case
g Case
Typical Case
Width Class Typical Case (I) Typical Case (II)
(III)
(m) (m) (m)
(m)
2.7 3.0 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.5 3.7
Κ2 3.25 3.50 3.75
5 0 5 0 5 0 5
Κ1 -
Speed
[km/h]
Walkin
K1=2.0 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.7
g - - - - - -
0 5 0 5 0 5
speed
6.7 7.0
V=50 7.25 7.50 7.75 - - - - - -
5 0
V>50 - 7.0 7.2
7.50 7.75 8.00 - - - - - -
V=70 0 5
7.2 7.5
V>70 7.75 8.00 8.25 - - - - - -
5 0
Walkin
K1=2.5 6.2 6.5 6.7 7.0 7.2
g - - - - - -
0 5 0 5 0 5
speed
7.5 7.7
V=50 8.00 8.25 8.50 - - - - - -
0 5
V>50 7.7 8.0 8.25 8.50 8.75 - - - - - -

5 0
K1=2.7 8.5 8.7 7.0 7.2 7.5 7.7 8.0
9.00 9.25 9.50 4.25
5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
K1=3.0 8.7 9.0 7.2 7.5 7.7 8.0 8.2
9.25 9.50 9.75 4.50
0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5
K1=3.2 9.0 9.2 10.0 7.5 7.7 8.0 8.2 8.5
9.50 9.75 4.75
5 0 5 0 0 5 0 5 0
K1=3.5 9.2 9.5 10.0 10.2 7.7 8.0 8.2 8.5 8.7
9.75 5.00
0 5 0 0 5 5 0 5 0 5
K1=3.7 9.5 9.7 10.0 10.2 10.5 8.0 8.2 8.5 8.7 9.0
5.25
5 0 5 0 5 0 0 5 0 5 0
SHC 301
186 SHC 186
301
6. Streets in Urban Areas
6.1. Introduction
Streets in Urban areas are divided into four individual and different categories:
• Residential Streets that mainly serve the access to the residences and usually allow
parking on the side of the road. In most cases could be provided as one-way streets
and priority control signs are used in the Intersections.
• Urban collectors that mainly serve to connect residential streets with urban arterials.
The access provided to the properties is reduced with respect to residential streets,
while a higher traffic flow is served and higher running speed is allowed. In most cases
two-way directions are applied without a central medial, while priority control signs are
used in the Intersections. In case of higher traffic volumes signaling could be applied
in the Intersections.
• Urban arterials are the main corridors in urban areas, where most of the traffic flow is
served. Access to the properties is usually prohibited, while higher running speed is
allowed. In certain cases of very high traffic volumes, more than one lane per direction
is provided and usually in these cases a central median is provided to separate the two
different carriageways. In most cases two-way directions are applied with a central
median, while signaling is applied in Intersections due to high traffic flow to be served.
• Urban freeways/expressways that are multilane high-speed divided highways with
limited or full control of access. Traffic flow served is usually very high, access to the
properties is prohibited and higher running speed is allowed. Two directions of traffic
are always divided by a central median, while in most cases access to the
freeway/expressway is provided through interchanges. In certain cases of expressways,
at-grade intersections could be applied, while in most of them traffic signaling should
be applied due to very high traffic volumes and running speeds.
6.2. Residential Streets

6.2.1. General Design Considerations
The general design considerations that should be considered for residential streets are the
following:
• Τhe main function is accommodation and access.
• They are located within residential areas.
• Parking is permitted on the side of the road.
• The peak hourly traffic flow does not exceed 300 vehicles/hour.
• Intersections are provided frequently (not longer than 300 m).
• Design speed between 30 and 40 km/h.
SHC 301 187

6.2.2. Basic Design Principles
The design of residential streets is based on the space needed for the design vehicle
(passenger car, mini-bus, coach etc.) and not on vehicle dynamics on curves.
The allowed speed should be reduced to 30 up to 40 km/h. In certain cases, allowed speed
could be reduced to 20 km/h.
Basic design principles as cross-section elements, horizontal and vertical alignment,
superelevation values, stopping and passing sight distances, intersections etc. are described
in the following sections.
6.2.3. Cross-Section Elements

The applied dimension in residential streets could be limited to:
• 3.65 m width for one-way vehicle traffic.
• 1.50 m width without any obstacles for the pedestrian path (2.40 m is preferred).
• 6.00 m width for two-way vehicle traffic with low percentage of heavy vehicles.
• 6.60 m ~ 7.20 m for two-way vehicle traffic with high percentage of heavy vehicles
• 2.10 m width for passenger car parking spaces parallel to the corridor (2.50 m is
preferred).
• 1.50 m width for bicycle lane with one-way traffic (1.80 m is preferred).
• 2.40 m width for bicycle lane with two-way traffic (3.00 m is preferred).
A typical cross-section of residential street in urban area is provided in Figure 6-1 with one-
sided superelevation and Figure 6-2 with reverse crown applied.
Figure 6-1 Typical Cross-Section of Residential Street with One-Sided Superelevation in Urban Area, 17.5 m Wide
(MoMRAH, 2019)
SHC 301
188 SHC 188
301
Figure 6-2 Typical Cross-Section of Residential Street with reverse crown in Urban Area, 15.0 m wide (Riyadh
Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-section Elements for Streets and Roads, 2006)
6.2.4. Alignment
6.2.4.1. Visibility adequacy
Required Stopping Sight Distance
Objects located within the road surface should be perceptible from a distance, that allow the
the design speed for residential streets.
75
50
25
20km/h
0
-20% -15% -10% -5% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20%
Figure 6-3 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Residential
Streets
SHC 301 189

Available Sight Distance
The available sight distance should be calculated from the horizontal and vertical alignment,
also considering cross-section elements and the configuration of the surrounding area. It is
related to the optical ray between the eye position and the obstacle position. The eye position
and the obstacle position are both at a height of 1.08 m above the traffic lane or centerline of
the pavement.
Required Passing Sight Distance

the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. For residential streets the
required passing sight distance according to Methods 1 and 2 (see Section 4.6.2.3), is provided
in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets (Method 1:
AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
20 130 100
30 200 120
40 270 140
6.2.4.2. Horizontal alignment

On residential streets, it is not necessary to calculate horizontal and vertical alignment
elements in terms of driving behavior because speeds (allowed and operating) are very low.
Therefore, the design is based on the space needed for the design vehicle and not on vehicle
dynamics on curves.
On the other hand, circular arc radii and the side friction factor for their estimation for
residential streets for design speed between 20 and 40 km/h should be limited in values
presented in Table 6-2. For road users to perceive circular arcs as independent design elements
within the curve, the minimum circular arc lengths in accordance with Table 6-2 should be
provided.
SHC 301
190 SHC 190
301
Design Speed for Residential Streets

Design Side Minimum
(km/h) Factor Length (m)
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
20 0.35 15 10 10 10 10 10
30 0.28 20 25 25 20 20 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45 40 40
For design speed up to 30 km/h, transition (spiral) curves are not necessary. In case where
spiral curves are provided between tangents and circular arcs the minimum values for spiral
parameter and spiral length are summarized on Table 6-3, while the recommended values are
presented in Table 6-4. In the same tables the upper radius limit for the necessity of spiral
application is provided (minimum and recommended values respectively). Transition curves
are mathematically defined according to Section Spiral Geometry
20 10 11 24
30 15 17 53
40 20 22 95
Design Recommended Radius

Recommended Recommended Length
Speed Limit for Spiral
Parameter As (m) of Spiral, Ls (m)
(km/h) Applications, R (m)
20 15 15 100
30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
SHC 301 191

6.2.4.3. Vertical alignment
For traffic operation purposes, especially for heavy vehicles, the maximum grades should not
exceed the values on Table 6-5. Considering that the slopes selected for residential streets may
have a significant effect on heavy vehicle operational performance and can also affect
pedestrian and bicycle operations, special effort should be made to reduce their values as
much as possible (if possible, up to 8.0 %).
Table 6-5 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Residential Streets

20 10.0 16.0
30 9.0 14.0
40 8.0 12.0
In certain difficult cases and only for small parts of the residential street, the maximum grades
of Table 6-5 could be exceeded.
Changes in grades in residential street profile need to be curved. The rounding of crest and
sag curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are
approximated with a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical
Curves). Table 6-6 shows the recommended values of K parameter (length of vertical curve to
achieve 1.00 % change in grade) for crest and sag curves and the minimum values of curve
lengths, considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object height is equal to 0.60 for
stopping sight distance (SSD) and 1.08 m for passing sight distance (PSD), according to
AASHTO.
Residential Streets
Minimum Crest Curve

SSD PSD Adequacy
(km/h) (m/%) (m)
20 1 20 12 2 12
30 2 46 17 5 18
40 4 84 23 8 24
SHC 301
192 SHC 192
301
On residential roads with predominantly car traffic, smaller vertical radii can be selected.
In tangents the applied cross-slope rate should be 2.0 % and preferably 2.5 % (normal crown),
while in horizontal curves, maximum cross-slope rate could be limited to 12.0 % towards the
inside edge of the circular arc, while the minimum cross-slope is limited to 2.0 %. Figure 6-4
shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the horizontal curve radius for all
design speed. Values taken from Figure 6-4 are recommended to be rounded to the nearest
0.5.
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
1 5 10 20 30 40 50 100
Horizontal Radius (m)
Figure 6-4 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (Max e = 12.0
%) for Residential Streets
Due to very low design speed applied on residential streets, recommended maximum
superelevation could be limited to 4.0 %, while higher rates of 6.0 to 8.0 % could be used in
certain cases.
reverse slope equal to - 2.0 % (or - 2.5 %) can be applied (towards to the external edge of the
circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), in case where with this solution an area with poor
drainage can be avoided.
SHC 301 193


(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65
For the calculation of the minimum superelevation runoff length, relevant formula and basic
parameters are provided in Section 4.6.6.2.
6.2.5. Intersection Design

At-grade Intersections with priority control signs are used in connections of residential roads.
On the other hand, at-grade Intersections of residential roads with a major collector urban
highway that serve an increased traffic flow, the application of light signaling should be
considered according to information provided in volume SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering),
especially when the following conditions for the collector road are met:
• Allowed speed of major collector urban highway is increased to 50 km/h or higher.
• Traffic flow is higher than 5,000 veh/d.
• Local conditions reduce the provided visibility below than the required according to
Figure 6-11.
Additional left turn lanes are not usually needed in residential streets, due to the low traffic
volumes served and the low operation speeds.
6.2.6. Other Design Issues

6.2.6.1. Cul-de-sac
In some cases, residential streets are designed as dead-end, while suitable geometric
formation (Cul-de-sac) should be proposed as a turning area. Consequently, turning facilities
must usually also meet urban design requirements in addition to the geometric requirements
of turning traffic for small vehicles up to 10 m (Figure 6-5). Small green areas and trees can be
used to highlight the difference between the street and space function. Specific software could
be used for swept path analysis for design vehicles in these areas.
SHC 301
194 SHC 194
301
Figure 6-5 Geometric Requirements of Turning in Cul-De-Sac Areas (AASHTO, 2018)
In case that cul-de-sac needed to accommodate the turning movements of longer vehicles,
different cul-de-sac formation type could be used according to Figure 6-6 and Figure 6-7, and
information provided in Table 6-8. In all cases swept path analysis should be performed with
specific CAD-based simulation software.
SHC 301 195

Figure 6-6 Squared End Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO, 2018)
Figure 6-7 Circular End Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO, 2018)
Table 6-8 Minimum Dimensions for Squared and Circular Cul-De-Sac Formations (AASHTO, 2018)
Dimensions (m)
Design Vehicle Squared End Cul-De-Sac Circular End Cul-De-Sac
W L W R
Passenger Car (P) 10 20 6 10
Single Unit Truck (SU) 15 30 10 15
Intermediate Semitrailer (WB12) - - 8 13
Large Semitrailer (WB15) - - 10 15
SHC 301
196 SHC 196
301
6.3. Collectors in Urban Areas
The general design considerations that should be considered for collectors in urban areas are
the following:
• Τhe main function is connection and access.
• They are located usually within residential areas, but also where commercial uses,
offices and public service buildings are provided.
• Parking is usually prohibited. In certain exceptional cases could be permitted on the
side of the road.
• The peak hourly traffic flow does not exceed 1,000 veh/h.
• Pedestrian flow is foreseen along the road. Crosswalks in selected areas are provided.
• Public Transport could be served.

The design of collectors in urban areas is based on vehicle dynamics on curves.
The allowed speed should be reduced to 40 up to 50 km/h. In certain cases, allowed speed

The applied dimension in collectors in urban areas could be limited to:
• 3.65 m width for one-way vehicle traffic (4.50 m is preferred).
• 7.20 m for two-way vehicle traffic with high percentage of heavy vehicles.
preferred).
Typical cross-sections of a collector highway in urban area is provided in Figure 6-8, Figure 6-9
and Figure 6-10. Cross-sections with four traffic lanes without a median should be considered
as an exceptional case for safety reasons and their selection should undergo the exceptional
design procedure.
SHC 301 197

Figure 6-8 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, with Median including Parking Space, 30.0
m Wide (MoMRAH, 2019)
Figure 6-9 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, without Median and including Parking
Space, 25.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-section Elements for Streets
and Roads, 2006)-Exceptional Case
Figure 6-10 Typical Cross-Section of Collector Highway in Urban Area, without Median and without Parking
Space, 30.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-section Elements for
Streets and Roads, 2006). Exceptional Case
SHC 301
198 SHC 198
301
6.3.4. Alignment
the design speed for collectors in urban areas.
100
75
50
25
-15% -10% -5% 0% 5% 10% 15%
Figure 6-11 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Collectors
in Urban Areas

the pavement.

SHC 301 199

the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. For collectors in urban areas
the required passing sight distance according to Methods 1 and 2 (see Section 4.6.2.3), is
Table 6-9 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas
(Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
30 200 120
40 270 140
50 345 160

On collectors in urban areas, the design is based on vehicle dynamics on curves. Circular arc
radii and the side friction factor for their estimation for collectors in urban areas for design
speed between 30 and 50 km/h should be limited in values presented in Table 6-10. For road
users to perceive circular arcs as independent design elements within the curve, the minimum
circular arc lengths in accordance with Table 6-10 should be provided.
Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas

Design Side Minimum
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
30 0.28 20 25 25 20 20 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45 40 40
50 0.19 30 90 80 75 70 65
In case where spiral curves are provided between tangents and circular arcs the minimum
values for spiral parameter and spiral length are summarized on Table 6-11, while the
recommended values are presented in Table 6-12. In the same tables the upper radius limit
for the necessity of spiral application is provided (minimum and recommended values
respectively). Transition curves are mathematically defined according to Section Spiral
Geometry
SHC 301
200 SHC 200
301
30 20 17 53
40 30 22 95
50 45 28 148
the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas

30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
50 65 60 500

exceed the values on Table 6-13. Considering that the slopes selected for collectors in urban
areas may have a significant effect on heavy vehicle operational performance and can also
affect pedestrian and bicycle operations, special effort should be made to reduce their values
as much as possible (if possible, up to 8.0 %).
Table 6-13 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Collectors in Urban Areas
Design Speed Desirable Maximum Allowed

(km/h) Grade G (%) Grade G (%)
30 9.0 14.0
40 8.0 12.0
50 7.0 10.0
In certain difficult cases and only for small parts of the collectors in urban areas, the maximum
grades of Table 6-13 could be exceeded.
SHC 301 201

Changes in grade in collectors profile need to be curved. The rounding of crest and sag curves
is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are approximated with
a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves). Table 6-14
shows the recommended values of K parameter (length of vertical curve to achieve 1.00 %
change in grade) for crest and sag curves and the minimum values of curve lengths,
considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object height is equal to 0.60 for stopping
Collectors in Urban Areas
Minimum Crest Curve

SSD PSD Adequacy
(km/h) (m/%) (m)
30 2 46 17 5 18
40 4 84 23 8 24
50 6 138 30 12 30
On collectors in urban areas with predominantly car traffic, smaller vertical curve length can
be selected.
In tangents the applied superelevation rate should be 2.0 % and preferably 2.5 %, while in
horizontal curves, maximum superelevation rate could be limited to 12.0 % towards the inside
edge of the circular arc, while the minimum superelevation slope is limited to 2.0 %. Figure
6-12 shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius for
all design speed. Values taken from Figure 6-12 are recommended to be rounded to the
nearest 0.5 %.
SHC 301
202 SHC 202
301
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
10 20 30 40 50 100 200
Figure 6-12 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (Max e =
12.0 %) for Collectors in Urban Areas
Due to low design speed applied on collectors, recommended maximum superelevation could
be limited to 4.0 %, while higher rates of 6.0 % to 8.0 % could be used in certain cases.
For cases where the horizontal curve radius is higher than the values presented in Table 6-15,
a reverse slope equal to - 2.0 % (or - 2.5 %) can be applied (towards to the external edge of
the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), in case where with this solution an area with poor
drainage can be avoided.

(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
SHC 301 203

6.3.5.1. At-grade intersections with priority control signs
At-grade Intersections with priority control signs are basically used in connections of collectors
and residential streets, while at-grade Intersection with light signaling are basically used in
connection of arterials with collectors. On the other hand, at-grade Intersections between
collectors and residential streets that serve an increased traffic flow, the application of light
signaling should be considered according to information provided in Chapter 2 of SHC 601
(Traffic Engineering) and in Section 5.55 of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices), especially when the following conditions are met:
• Allowed speed in increased to 50 km/h or higher.
Figure 6-16.
In case that at-grade Intersections with priority control signs are applied in urban collectors,
left turn movements should be considered only in cases where the traffic flow is limited up to
3,000 veh/d. In case that left turn movements need to be maintained for cases with increased
traffic volumes, a separate left turn lane with the simultaneous installation of light signaling
should be considered. More specific information regarding the need of application of
signalized intersections (signal use criteria – warrants) is provided in Section 5.5 of SHC 602
(Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
6.3.5.2. At-grade intersections with traffic lights

At-grade Intersections with traffic lights could be used in urban collectors when the traffic flow
is increased. The number and length of queuing lanes for motor vehicles is derived from the
traffic signaling assessment according to Chapter 2 of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering) as well as
the safety considerations. Also, traffic control devices can be used according to Section 5.4 of
SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices). Usually, the queuing zone should be
designed long enough, or the signal program should be modified, so that vehicles
approaching in one cycle can be accommodated.
6.3.6. Railroad-Highway at-Grade Crossings

Railroad-highway at-grade crossings are Intersections where a highway crosses a railroad at
the same level, usually in rural areas where train traffic flow is very limited. In urban areas this
is rarely founded due to the higher traffic flow of vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists. If for certain
difficult cases an at-grade railroad-highway crossing is provided, then warning/control devices
are required to avoid collisions. Active At-grade crossings have active warning and control
devices such as bells, flashing lights, and gates, in addition to passive warning devices such as
crossbucks (the familiar x-shaped signs that mean yield to the train), yield or stop signs and
pavement markings. These warning/control devices are specified in Section 5.5. of SHC 602
SHC 301
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301
6.3.7. Other Design Issues
Information about curve widening is provided in Section 4.6.6.3.

For the provision of passing lanes and distribution lanes, the road surface should be widened.
The geometrical configuration of the lane addition and widening is described in Chapter 10.
6.4. Arterials in Urban Areas

The general design considerations that should be considered for arterials in urban areas are
the following:
• Τhe main function is connection.
• They are located usually where commercial uses, offices and public service buildings
are provided.
• Parking is usually prohibited. In certain exceptional cases could be permitted on the
side of the road.
• The peak hourly traffic flow range between 400 to 1,800 veh/h.
• Pedestrian flow is foreseen along the road. Crosswalks in selected areas are provided.

The design of arterials in urban areas is based on vehicle dynamics on curves.
The allowed speed should be from 60 up to 80 km/h. In certain cases, allowed speed could be
reduced to 50 km/h.

The applied dimension in arterials in urban areas could be limited to:
• 3.65 m width for one-way vehicle traffic (5.00 m is preferred).
• 7.20 m for two-way vehicle traffic with high percentage of heavy vehicles.
preferred).
SHC 301 205

A typical cross-section of arterial highway in urban area (left and right semi-cross-sections) is
provided in Figure 6-13, Figure 6-14 and Figure 6-15.
Figure 6-13 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, including Service Road, 60.0 m Wide
(MoMRAH, 2019)
Figure 6-14 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, without Service Road and including Parking
Space, 40.0 m wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-section Elements for Streets
and Roads, 2006)
Figure 6-15 Typical Cross-Section of Arterial Highway in Urban Area, without Service Road and without Parking
Space, 40.0 m Wide (Riyadh Municipality, ROAD-RIYADH-Appendix Cross-Section Elements for
Streets and Roads, 2006)
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6.4.4. Alignment
the design speed for arterials in urban areas.
200
150
100
50
-12% -11% -10% -9% -8% -7% -6% -5% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1%
Figure 6-16 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Arterials
in Urban Areas

the pavement. More information for the evaluation of the available sight distance is provided
in Section 4.6.6.2 of the present Volume.

SHC 301 207

the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. For collectors in urban areas
the required passing sight distance according to Methods 1 and 2 (see Section 4.6.6.3), is
Table 6-16 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas
(Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
50 345 160
60 410 180
70 485 210
80 540 245

On arterials in urban areas, the design is based on vehicle dynamics on curves. Circular arc
radii and the side friction factor for their estimation for arterials in urban areas for design speed
from 50 to 80 km/h should be limited in values presented in Table 6-17. For road users to
perceive circular arcs as independent design elements within the curve, the minimum circular
arc lengths in accordance with Table 6-17 should be provided.
Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas
Minimum Minimum Curve Radius for Circular Arcs (m)

Design Side
Circular
Speed Friction Maximum Superelevation Rate (%)
Arc Length
(km/h) Factor
(m) 4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
50 0.19 30 90 80 75 70 65
60 0.17 35 135 125 115 105 100
70 0.15 40 205 185 170 155 145
80 0.14 45 280 255 230 210 195
recommended values are presented in Table 6-19. In the same table the upper radius limit for
SHC 301
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301
the necessity of spiral application is provided (minimum and recommended values
Geometry
50 45 28 148
60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas

50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000
80 140 90 1,700

exceed the values on Table 6-20. Considering that the slopes selected for arterials in urban
areas may have a significant effect on heavy vehicle operational performance and can also
affect pedestrian and bicycle operations, special effort should be made to reduce their values
Table 6-20 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Arterials in Urban Areas

50 7.0 10.0
SHC 301 209

60 6.0 8.0
70 5.0 6.0
80 4.0 5.0
In certain difficult cases and only for small parts of the arterials in urban areas, the maximum
Changes in grades in arterials profile need to be curved. The rounding of crest and sag curves
is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are approximated with
a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves). Table 6-21
shows the recommended values of K parameter (length of vertical curve to achieve 1.00 %
change in grade) for crest and sag curves and the minimum values of curve lengths,
Arterials in Urban Areas
Minimum Crest Curve

Speed PSD Adequacy Curve K value Curve Length
(km/h) SSD (m/%) (m)
Adequacy
Method 1 Method 2
50 6 138 30 12 30
60 11 195 38 17 36
70 17 272 51 23 42
80 26 338 69 29 48
6-17 shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius for
nearest 0.5 %.
SHC 301
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301
12%
10%
8%
6%
0.13
0.12
4% 0.11
0.1
0.09
2%
0.08
0%
20
-2%
30
50 100 200 300 400 500
40
60
Figure 6-17 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (Max E =
12.0 %) for Arterials in Urban Areas
Due to lower design speed applied on arterials than freeways and expressways, recommended
maximum superelevation could be limited to 6.0 %, while higher rates of 8.0 to 10.0 % could
be used in certain cases.
the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can
be avoided.

(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
SHC 301 211


At-grade Intersections with priority control signs are not normally used in connections
between arterials and collectors in urban areas. These Intersections could be applied with
priority control signs, only in exceptional cases and only when the following conditions are
met:
• Allowed speed in reduced to 60 km/h or lower.
• Traffic flow is lower than 3,000 veh/d.
• Local conditions ensure that the provided visibility is significantly greater than the
required according to Figure 6-16.
In at-grade Intersections where priority control signs are applied in urban arterials, left turn
movements should be prohibited and only right turn movements should be allowed. In case
that left turn movements need to be maintained, a separate left turn lane with the
simultaneous installation of light signaling should be considered.

At-grade Intersections with traffic lights are mainly used at arterials in urban areas.
The number and length of queuing lanes for motor vehicles is derived from the traffic signaling
assessment according to see Chapter 2 of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering) as well as the safety
considerations. Usually, the queuing zone should be designed long enough, or the signal
program should be modified, so that vehicles approaching in one cycle can be accommodated.
Information regarding the need of application of signalized intersections (signal use criteria –
warrants) is provided in Section 5.55 of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
6.4.6. Frontage Highways and Outer Separations

Along urban arterials and urban, frontage highways are usually provided on one or both sides
of the main road. Property access should be provided through frontage highways that are
usually parallel to the urban arterials. From an operational and safety perspective, one-way
frontage highways are preferred while reducing vehicular and pedestrian conflicts at
intersecting streets.
An outer separation is defined as the area between the travelled way of the urban arterial main
lanes and a frontage highway. Because of the dense development along urban arterials,
frontage highways are often necessary to maintain local service and to collect and distribute
ramp traffic entering and leaving the urban arterial.
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301
6.5. Urban Freeways and Expressways
The general design considerations that should be considered for freeways/expressways in
urban areas are the following:
• Τhe main function is connection.
• They are located usually peripherally of the town center serving motorized traffic over
long distances at high speeds. They are mainly connected with arterials or collectors,
while connecting urban with rural road network.
• Parking is prohibited.
• The peak hourly traffic flow range over 1,500 veh/h.
• Pedestrian flow is prohibited.
• Connections with arterials in urban areas are usually provided as interchanges. At-
grade Intersections could be provided in expressways.
• Design speed from 80 to 100 km/h for freeways.
• Design speed from 70 to 90 km/h for expressways.

The design of freeways/expressways in urban areas is based on vehicle dynamics on curves.
The allowed speed should be equal or less than the design speed ranged up to 100 km/h for
urban freeways and up to 90 km/h for urban expressways. In certain cases, allowed speed

The applied dimension in freeways/expressways in urban areas could be limited to:
• On freeways travel (traffic) lanes that are predominantly used by heavy vehicles should
preferably be 3.65 m wide to ensure an even distribution on the carriageway. The inner
left lanes, which are not used as frequently by heavy vehicles or are prohibited to be
used in case of three lanes or more per direction of travel, should be 3.30 m wide.
• Generally, all lanes on expressways can be 3.30 m wide (to reduce construction costs
and space requirements respectively).
• The vertical clearance for the design of overpasses (highways passing over the
freeway/expressway) should be at least 4.90 m, while overhead (vertical) safety and
instability space could be taken equal to 0.30 m. Based on the above, the overall vertical
clearance on freeways/expressways should not be less than 5.20 m as stated in Section
4.7.12. Typically, in the Saudi Highway Code a total vertical clearance of 5.50 m is
mandatory.
• Hard shoulders, sometimes designated as Emergency or Breakdown Lanes should be
provided in all freeways and expressways. The width of the hard shoulder should be at
least 3.00 m in urban areas.
SHC 301 213

• The absolute minimum width of medians could become 3.00 m by applying a two-
sided central barrier. Therefore, the inner edge strip or hard shoulder adjacent to the
median should be minimum 1.20 m wide.

the design speed for freeways/expressways in urban areas. In order to provide sufficient
perception-reaction time to the driver, as well as sufficient time to stop the vehicle, longer
visibility lengths are generally required. Therefore, visibility lengths should be at least 30 %
longer than the required stopping sight distance.
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
-8% -6% -4% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8%
Figure 6-18 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for
Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas

SHC 301
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301
the pavement. The available sight distance could be defined through specific road design
software, or by using formulas and diagram provided on Section 4.6.2.2.

On freeways/expressways in urban areas, the design is based on vehicle dynamics on curves.
Circular arc radii and the side friction factor for their estimation for freeways in urban areas for
design speed between 80 and 100 km/h and for expressways in urban areas for design speed
between 70 and 90 km/h, should be limited in values presented in Table 6-23. For road users
to perceive circular arcs as independent design elements within the curve, the minimum
circular arc lengths in accordance with Table 6-23 should be provided.
Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas
Minimum Minimum Curve Radius or Circular Arcs (m)

Design Side
Circular
Speed Friction Maximum Superelevation Rate (%)
Arc Length
(km/h) Factor
(m) 4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 %
70 0.15 40 205 185 170 155
80 0.14 50 280 255 230 210
90 0.13 55 380 340 305 280
100 0.12 60 495 440 395 360
recommended values are presented in Table 6-25. In the same table the upper radius limit for
the necessity of spiral application is provided (minimum and recommended values
Geometry
Design Upper Radius Limit for

Minimum Spiral Minimum Length of
Speed Spiral Applications, R
Parameter, As (m) Spiral, Ls (m)
(km/hr) (m)
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479
SHC 301 215

Design Upper Radius Limit for
Minimum Spiral Minimum Length of
Speed Spiral Applications, R
Parameter, As (m) Spiral, Ls (m)
(km/hr) (m)
100 145 56 592
the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas

70 115 80 1,000
80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900
100 205 115 2,100

exceed the values on Table 6-26. Considering that the slopes selected for
Freeways/Expressways in urban areas may have a significant effect on heavy vehicle
operational performance, special effort should be made to reduce their values as much as
possible (if possible, up to 4.0 %).
Table 6-26 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas

70 5.0 6.0
80 4.0 5.0
90 3.5 5.0
100 3.0 5.0
Changes in grades in freeways/expressways profile need to be curved. The rounding of crest

and sag curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are
Curves).
SHC 301
216 SHC 216
301
Table 6-27 Recommended Values of Parameter K For Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to the Design Speed for
Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas
Design Speed Minimum Crest Curve Minimum Sag Curve K Minimum Curve
(km/h) K value (m/%) value (m/%) Length (m)
70 17 23 42
80 26 29 48
90 39 38 54
100 52 45 60
6-19 shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the horizontal curve radius for
nearest 0.5 %.
12%
10%
8%
6%
0.13
0.12
4% 0.11
0.1
0.09
2%
0.08
0%
20
-2%
30
100 200 400 600 800 1,000
40
60
SHC 301 217

Figure 6-19 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (max e =
12.0 %) for Freeways/Expressways in Urban Areas
the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can
be avoided.

(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
100 ≥ 790 ≥ 830

Due to very high traffic flow served and the high speed allowed, all at-grade Intersections
should be signalized.

At-grade Intersections with traffic lights are used in expressways in urban areas.
The number and length of queuing lanes for motor vehicles is derived from the traffic signaling
assessment according to see SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering) as well as the safety considerations.
Usually, the queuing zone should be designed long enough, or the signal program should be
modified, so that vehicles approaching in one cycle can be accommodated.
Geometric design of at-grade Intersections is described in Chapter 10.
SHC 301
218 SHC 218
301
6.5.5. Interchange Design
Interchanges are used on urban freeways where full control of access is provided and in some
cases in expressways.
Geometric design of interchanges is described in Chapter 11.
6.5.6. Frontage Highways and Outer Separations

Along urban freeways/expressways, frontage highways are usually provided on one or both
sides of the main road. Property access should be provided through frontage highways that
are usually parallel to the urban freeways/expressways. From an operational and safety
perspective, one-way frontage highways are preferred while reducing vehicular and pedestrian
conflicts at intersecting streets.
An outer separation is defined as the area between the travelled way of the urban
freeway/expressway main lanes and a frontage highway. Because of the dense development
along urban freeways/expressways, frontage highways are often necessary to maintain local
service and to collect and distribute ramp traffic entering and leaving the urban
freeway/expressway.
Frontage highways are designed as collectors or local highways, considering the relevant
geometric design information provided in specific chapters of the present volume (Chapter 5
for rural highways and Chapter 6 for urban highways).
6.6. Special Design Features for Urban Freeways /

Expressways
6.6.1. General Design Characteristics
Freeways/expressways in urban areas are classified as:
• Depressed.
• Elevated.
• Ground-level.
• Combination-type.
These freeway types are employed as appropriate for conditions.
Freeways/expressways in urban areas can carry high traffic volumes. In case when more than
four or five lanes in one direction of travel are provided, freeway/expressway becomes less
efficient. When more than four lanes in each direction are needed, consideration should be
given to implementing a special freeway design. These include:
• freeways/expressways with reverse-flow roadways.
• dual-divided freeways/expressways.
• freeways/expressways with collector–distributor roads.
SHC 301 219

6.6.2. Depressed Freeways / Expressways
6.6.2.1. General characteristics
A depressed freeway/expressway could be used in urban areas where the available space is
limited. May occupy a high width for the implementation of the main freeway/expressway
cross-section and be parallel to the frontal roads for most of its length. The corridors of a
depressed freeway/expressways are typically located lower than the frontage roads at an
approximate depth more than 5.0 m. in order to have the required clearance to widen frontage
roads above the main corridor. An allowance for future pavement overlays is frequently
considered for the required vertical clearance. All major highways pass over the depressed
freeway/expressway while other minor streets are intercepted by frontage roads or terminated
at the right-of-way line.
Fencing should be considered for structures passing over the depressed freeway/expressway
and for retaining walls located near the traveled way to reduce the possibility that objects will
be dropped or thrown onto vehicles below.
In developed areas, space may not be available for the design of the depressed
freeway/expressway, especially where extra space is needed for ramps and frontage roads. In
this case retaining walls may be needed, while sight distance should be checked in
combination with retaining walls. On curved alignment, retaining walls, and other side
obstructions should be sufficiently offset from the pavement edge to provide an adequate
stopping sight distance for a vehicle in the traffic lane nearest to the obstruction.
6.6.2.2. Typical cross-sections

Cross Sections of depressed freeways/expressways may vary considerably through urban and
suburban areas. Whereas these cross sections have an increased width due to the number of
traffic lanes needed, another important factor is availability of right-of-way, which depends on
the type and value of urban development, topography, soil and drainage conditions, and the
frequency and type of interchanges to be used.
Figure 6-20 shows a typical cross-section for depressed freeways/expressways, including
interchange ramps or not, either with side slopes or retaining walls. In case where the available
space is very limited restrictive typical cross-sections presented in Figure 6-21 could be used,
considering retaining walls or overhanging section where part of the frontage road is
cantilevered over the freeway/expressway shoulder. While the value of this alternative will vary
depending on the restrictions and design selected, a typical overhang distance will range from
3.0 to 4.2 m. This design type may be applicable in exceptional cases where large buildings or
other obstructions cannot be avoided. A special benefit of this design is its effectiveness in
containing freeway/expressway noise within the roadway, thereby shielding abutting areas
from such noise. Although the restrictive cross-sections shown are acceptable, they should be
used only where additional right-of-way would be extremely costly or where this type of cross-
section is needed to preserve the surrounding environment.
SHC 301
220 SHC 220
301
Figure 6-20 Typical Cross-Sections for Depresses Freeways/Expressways (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301 221

Figure 6-21 Restrictive Typical Cross-Sections for Depresses Freeways/Expressways (AASHTO, 2018)
6.6.3. Elevated Freeways / Expressways

An elevated freeway/expressway may be constructed on either a viaduct or an embankment.
Continuous elevation of the freeway may be appropriate in level terrain where:
• Restrictive right-of-way.
• High water table.
• Extensive underground utilities.
• Close pattern of streets to be retained.
• Other circumstances make construction of a depressed freeway undesirable and
perhaps infeasible.
Several structure types are used for viaducts carrying elevated freeways/expressways. Viaduct
design is influenced by:
• Traffic demands.
• Right-of-way.
• Topography.
• Foundation conditions.
• Character of urban development.
• Interchange needs.
• Availability of materials.
• Economic considerations.
SHC 301
222 SHC 222
301
Because of these multiple considerations, viaducts are perhaps the most difficult of all
freeway/expressway types to fit harmoniously into the environment.
The supporting columns for viaducts are positioned to provide reasonable clearance on each
side and to leave much of the ground-level area free for other use. This design has the
following advantages:
• Practically all cross streets can be left open with little or no added expense.
• Existing utilities that cross the freeway/expressway right-of-way are minimally
disturbed.
• Surface traffic on cross streets usually can be maintained during construction with few,
if any, detours.
In addition, the space under the structure can be used for surface-street traffic, for parking, or
for a transit line. If this space is not needed for these purposes, the area under the viaduct may
have a high potential value to the community for joint development or other use.
An elevated freeway/expressway on an earth embankment should be of sufficient height to
permit intersecting surface roads to pass under it. Freeways/expressways on embankments are
feasible in suburban areas where crossing highways are widely spaced and where wide right-
of-way and fill material are available. Usually, an embankment section occurs on a
combination-type freeway/expressway (see Section 6.6.5) in rolling terrain where excavation
material from depressed portions is used for the embankment.

The total widths of elevated freeway/expressway sections, as well as the total right-of-way
widths in which they are developed, can vary considerably. For elevated freeways on
embankments, the total width needed is about the same as the total width needed for
depressed freeways. Elevated freeways on structures may be cantilevered over parallel
roadways or sidewalks.
Figure 6-22 and Figure 6-23 show typical cross-sections for elevated freeways/expressways.
The following dimensions are used for general illustration:
• Lane width could be 3.65 m for lanes used for heavy vehicles, while 3.30 m could be
used for light traffic.
• Parapet width could be 0.6 m.
• Shoulder width for four lanes could be 3.0 m for the right shoulder and 1.2 m for the
left shoulder, for six or more lanes, shoulder width could be 3.0 m for both right and
left shoulders.
• Central median width could be 2.5 m or 4.0 m.
• Minimum offset between structure and building line could be 4.5 m. For Figure 6-22,
the minimum building offset should be 6.0 m.
SHC 301 223

Figure 6-22 Typical Cross Sections for Elevated Freeway / Expressway on Structures without Ramps (AASHTO,
2018)
The overhang shown in Figure 6-22, enables surface roads to be provided outside the lines of
columns, and the area between the columns can be used for vehicular traffic, public transit, or
parking. Where it is impractical to obtain the right-of-way widths needed for a conventional
viaduct freeway/expressway, it may be practical to convert the normal two-way, one-level
structure to a two-level structure with the two direction carriageways above each other. The
double-deck design in Figure 6-22 is not a common type, but is adaptable to narrow rights-
of-way, particularly where no (or few) ramps are needed. Double-deck structures may also be
adaptable where it is not practical to continue the freeway/expressway as a single-deck
structure because of large buildings or for other reasons. A double-deck construction through
such confined areas may be the only practical solution. Double-deck structures have the
disadvantage of long ramps on structures to allow vehicles to make the change in elevation
from the top freeway/expressway to the local city streets.
Sometimes an elevated freeway is constructed on two one-way structures, as shown in Figure
6-22 These structures may be separated by one or more city blocks. In addition, the structure
may be either a two-column Section, or a single-column, cantilevered Section, depending on
the arrangements of understructure streets and other controls.
An elevated section on structure has great flexibility in right-of-way arrangements. The most
flexible element is the outer separation. In tight locations where ramps are not provided, the
frontage roads can be located under a cantilevered section of the structure, as shown in Figure
6-23. At these locations, the minimum building-line offset may provide sufficient space for
frontage roads.
SHC 301
224 SHC 224
301
Figure 6-23 Typical Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways / Expressways on Structures with Frontage
Roads (AASHTO, 2018)
Elevated freeways may be constructed on earth embankments provided that the embankment
is high enough to permit crossing highways to pass under the freeway/expressway. Such
freeways/expressways are particularly suitable where the terrain is flat and the right-of-way is
sufficiently wide to allow gentle sideslopes that can be pleasingly landscaped.
Figure 6-24 presents typical and restricted cross-sections for elevated freeways/expressways
on embankments. The left part of these cross-sections illustrates outer separations without
ramps within the same right-of-way width.
The outer separation may permit the use of earth slopes at locations without ramps but
retaining walls may be needed for ramp allocation. By omitting frontage roads and using
walled sections, total widths may be reduced to widths that are typical used on elevated
structures on viaducts.
SHC 301 225

Figure 6-24 Typical Restricted Cross Sections for Elevated Freeways / Expressways on Embankment (AASHTO,
2018)
6.6.4. Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways

Many freeways/expressways constructed for long sections at ground level. This design is often
used in plain terrain and parallel to railroads or other hydraulic corridors (streams, rivers etc.).
Ground-level freeways/expressways are also suitable in suburban areas where crossing
highways are widely spaced. A major consideration in the design of ground-level
freeways/expressways is the change in longitudinal profile of each crossing highway that
passes over or under the freeway/expressway.
Where a ground-level freeway follows the grid of a city, it is usually desirable to provide
continuous one-way frontage roads that serve the access to the properties. Ground-level
freeways usually are employed in outlying sections of metropolitan areas where right-of-way
is not as expensive as it is in downtown areas. As a result, the variable width elements of
medians, outer separations, and borders could be widened to enhance the roadside design
and appearance of the freeway/expressway.

Figure 6-25 illustrates a typical cross-section for a ground-level freeway/expressway with and
without frontage roads. Where additional right-of-way is available, the outer separations and
borders should be sufficiently wide to provide aesthetically pleasing green space and to
insulate the surrounding area from the freeway/expressway. In areas where ramp connections
are made to frontage roads, the width of outer separations should be sufficient to allow
adequate space for ramps and ramp terminals.
SHC 301
226 SHC 226
301
Figure 6-25 Typical Cross Sections for Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways (AASHTO, 2018)
Figure 6-26 illustrates typical restrictive cross-sections for ground-level freeways/expressways.

In the upper case a typical restrictive cross-section with a two-way or one-way frontage
highway is provided, while in lower case a typical restrictive cross-section without frontage
highways is presented. With restrictive cross-sections, both the median and outer separation
are normally paved. On these narrow medians, a median barrier is appropriate. In case where
frontage highways are designed, it is also desirable to provide a barrier in the outer separation
in lieu of an access control fence. For more information see volume SHC 304 (Highway Facilities
and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design). Where there is no fixed-source lighting,
glare screening may also be desirable in the outer separation. More information is available in
volume SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Public Utilities, Highway and Street
Lighting, Control and Monitoring Devices).
Figure 6-26 Restrictive Cross Sections for Ground-Level Freeways / Expressways (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301 227

6.6.5. Combination-Type Freeways / Expressways
In many cases, freeways/expressways in urban areas incorporate some combination of
depressed, elevated, and ground-level designs. Combination-type freeways/expressways
result from variations in longitudinal profile or cross-section. For these two controlling
conditions the following paragraphs are provide general considerations.
6.6.5.2. Longitudinal profile control

The typical horizontal layout and longitudinal profile of a combination-type
freeway/expressway in hilly/mountainous terrain is provided in Figure 6-27. The best profile is
typically developed by underpassing some crossing highways and overpassing others.
Between A and C, the roadway has a fixed cross-section with a narrow median because of
lateral restrictions and cost of earthwork. Near each end of the illustration, the profile and
cross-section are varied to fit cross sloping terrain and less rigid controls, with independently
designed centerlines and profiles for each one-way roadway. This type of design, which is
similar to the character of a freeway in a rural area, should be considered wherever sufficient
right-of-way is available.
Figure 6-27 Profile Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway in Hilly/Mountainous Terrain (AASHTO,

2018)
A variation of a combination-type freeway/expressway in plain terrain is illustrated in Figure

6-28. Between grade separation structures, the highway longitudinal profile closely follows the
existing ground. The freeway/expressway could also overpass important crossing highways by
elevating the final road level to the appropriate height above the surface of the highway, while
where practical, crossing highways could overpass the freeway/expressway (as at A in Figure
6-28). This combination-type freeway/expressway design is suitable for plain terrain where soil
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and groundwater conditions or underground utilities preclude depressing the
freeway/expressway to any great extent below the existing ground, or where continuous
viaduct construction is too costly or is otherwise objectionable. The freeway may overpass a
crossing highway on an earth embankment with a conventional underpass structure (as at B
in Figure 6-28) or by using a relatively long bridge (as at C in Figure 6-28). The factors that
control the profile design are the availability of fill material and the soil conditions. In addition,
this combination-type freeway/expressway design permits parallel or diagonal ramps to be
provided between the grade separations.
Figure 6-28 Profile Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway in Plain Terrain (AASHTO, 2018)
6.6.5.3. Cross-section control

The examples in Figure 6-29 are also considered combination-type freeways/expressways, but
the primary influence on their design is the cross-section. These special designs usually apply
to relatively short lengths of roadway to meet specific conditions near urban centers or on a
very steep ground topography.
Figure 6-29 illustrates three cases:
• A design in which one carriageway of the freeway/expressway is located above the
other, with one carriageway above the existing ground level and the other below that.
• A special design with partly elevated and walled sections at staggered levels because
of extremely steep ground can be employed. The design selected would depend on
the slope of the ground, soil conditions, and right-of-way width. Difficulty may be
encountered for crossing highways that are likely to have steep grades; however, areas
with such topography usually have only few cases for crossing highways.
• One through carriageway at the ground level and the other on an elevated viaduct.
This design may be appropriate along a waterfront or a railroad where the right-of-
way is relatively narrow and there are no highway crossings.
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Figure 6-29 Cross-Section Control—Combination-Type Freeway / Expressway (AASHTO, 2018)
6.6.6. Special Freeway / Expressway Designs

Special freeway/expressway designs could be needed in some urban area locations. Three
separate cases are described in the following paragraphs:
• Freeways/expressways with reverse-flow roadways.
• Dual-divided freeways/expressways.
• Freeways/expressways with collector–distributor roadways.
6.6.6.1. Reverse-flow roadways

A reverse-flow roadway is a separate carriageway, usually between the main carriageways of a
freeway/expressway that serves traffic for opposite directions of travel at different times of a
day. This is usually accomplished by situating a separate reversible lanes within the normal
median area, as shown in Figure 6-30, while typical dimensions are shown in Figure 6-31.
Reverse-flow roadways are advantageous in that they provide an opportunity for better
operations for vehicles but are disadvantageous in that they may have unused capacity much
of the time because of the limited numbers of access points. The costs of construction,
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maintenance, and operation of a freeway/expressway with a reverse-flow roadway also may
differ considerably from those of a conventional freeway/expressway.
A separate reverse-flow roadway may be considered on the following conditions:
• the directional distribution during peak hours is substantially unbalanced (e.g., a 65:35
percent split) and capacity analysis indicates a need for a conventional facility more
than eight lanes wide.
• design controls and right-of-way limitations are such that providing two or more
parallel facilities on separate rights-of-way is not practical.
• a sizable portion of traffic in the predominant direction during peak hours is destined
for an area between the central city area and the outlying area.
In large metropolitan areas, demand may be sufficiently great to justify the use of a reversible
roadway exclusively for buses or other high-occupancy vehicles.
Figure 6-30 Typical Cross Section for Reverse-Flow Operation in Underpass (AASHTO, 2018)
Figure 6-31 Typical dimensions for Reverse-Flow Operation (AASHTO, 2018)
The exit connection from a reversing carriageway needs careful consideration to avoid
undesirable merging situations and backups during peak flows. As a minimum, the
connections should normally be designed as 350 to 600 m long. Preferably, an auxiliary lane
or lanes should be provided beyond the Intersection point to the next interchange exit for 750
to 1,000 m to provide for adequate merging length.
6.6.6.2. Dual-divided freeways / expressways

Where more than eight total through lanes are needed and the directional distribution of
traffic is sufficiently balanced so that a reversible roadway is not appropriate, a dual-divided
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freeway/expressway could be provided where each direction of travel is split into two one-way
carriageways that may provide the optimum traffic operations. All four carriageways lie within
the control-of-access lines. The outer freeway/expressway carriageways usually serve all
interchange traffic, but they may also serve a substantial portion of the through traffic. For
example, all trucks might be required to use the outer roadways only. The inner carriageways
serve the through traffic, while vehicles using these carriageways are insulated from weaving
movements at closely spaced interchanges.
Dual-divided construction may be the most practical solution to widening an existing freeway
where the present traffic volumes are so great that the disruption in traffic during complete
reconstruction cannot be tolerated. Where the future need can be anticipated and sufficient
right-of-way can be reserved, it may be workable to develop a dual-divided facility in two
stages.
Disadvantages of dual-divided facilities include:
• The additional shoulder width needed.
• Increased costs.
• Increased impact on the surrounding area.
• Reduces the flexibility of traffic distribution, resulting in uneven distribution among
lanes.
• Increases maintenance needs than those on a normal divided freeways/expressway.
Figure 6-32 shows a typical layout for a dual-divided freeway/expressway. All interchange
connections are made to the outer carriageways, and intermediate slip-ramp connections are
provided between the inner and outer carriageways so that traffic on the inner roadways can
access the interchanges. The number of these connections should be kept to a minimum, with
one set serving several successive interchanges.
Figure 6-32 Typical Dual-Divided Freeway / Expressway (AASHTO, 2018)
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6.6.6.3. Freeways / expressways with collector-distributor roads
An arrangement having cross-section elements like the dual-divided freeway/expressway is a
freeway/expressway with a collector–distributor (C–D) road system. The purpose of a C–D road
is to eliminate weaving on the main corridor of the freeway/expressway lanes and reduce the
number of entrance and exit points on the main corridor, while satisfying the demand for
access to and from the freeway. C–D freeways/expressways may be provided within a single
interchange (see Section 11.3.2), through two adjacent interchanges, or continuously through
several interchanges of a freeway/expressway segment.
The inner carriageways are identified as main corridors, while the outer carriageways are
identified as C–D corridors. Usually, the traffic volumes and speeds on the C–D system are less
than those encountered on the dual-divided freeway/expressway, with fewer lanes.
Connections between the main corridors and C–D corridors may be made with slip ramps
similar to those discussed in dual-divided freeways/expressways. These connection ramps
could be one or two lanes in width, and the principle of lane balance applies to their design.
The outer separation should be as wide as practical with an appropriate barrier. Terminals of
C–D and connecting ramps should be designed in accordance with guidelines for ramps, as
presented in Section 11.6. Preferably, distance between the terminal of the connecting ramp
and an exit ramp of the next interchange exit should be at least 750 m to provide for adequate
merging length.
6.6.7. Special Design Facilities

6.6.7.1. General considerations
Managed lanes are defined as special design highway facilities or a set of lanes where
operational strategies are implemented and managed in response to changing conditions to
increase freeway/expressway efficiency, maximize capacity, manage demand, and generate
revenue. Examples of managed lanes include:
• High-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes.
• Value-priced lanes.
• High-occupancy toll (HOT) lanes.
• Exclusive or special use lanes such as express lanes, bus lanes, transit lanes, and
reversible flow lanes.
Combining mass transit or managed-lane facilities with freeways/expressways is a means for
providing optimum transportation services in larger cities. This type of improvement can be
accomplished by the joint use of right-of-way to include rail transit or separate roadway
facilities for managed lanes.
When transit, either bus or rail, is located within the freeway/expressway median, access to the
transit vehicles is generally obtained from the frontage at interchange locations. Reverse-flow
roadways, like the one in the median of the freeway shown in Figure 6-33, can also be operated
as exclusive bus roadways. Bus roadways within the median essentially restrict operations to
the line-haul or express type because ramps that would permit collection and distribution from
the median area are expensive or operationally and in terms of safety undesirable.
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Figure 6-33 Bus Roadway Located between a Freeway / Expressway and a Parallel Frontage Road (AASHTO, 2018)
6.6.7.2. Transit bus

Rapid transit service by bus has only currently very limited or no application in KSA. However,
in compliance with the 2030 KSA Vision as well as with international trend this may change in
the coming years. In such a case many metropolitan areas of KSA will need to construct
nonstop freeway express buses that operate on the freeway/expressway corridor between
suburban pickup points near the freeway/expressway and destinations within the central
business district or to other heavy traffic generators. The number of buses that should operate
during peak hours, the spacing of bus stops, and the design of bus turnouts depend on the
efficiency of bus operation and its effect on highway operations. Buses operating with short
headways and frequent drop-off and pick-up points are likely to accumulate at stops and
interfere with through traffic. On the other hand, express bus operation with few, if any, stops
along the freeway/expressway provides superior transit service for suburban areas and affects
freeway/expressway operation the least.
In the case when the metropolitan areas of KSA decide to implement a rapid transit system
the following aspects should be considered:
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Exclusive HOV lanes
HOV lanes are used reduce the travel time of the public transportation. An exclusive HOV
corridor is an entire highway facility reserved at all times solely for the use of buses or buses
and other HOVs. This facility offers buses and HOVs a high level of service, improves schedule
reliability and operating speeds, and decreases travel time for the users.
Bus stops in freeways and expressways

The spacing of bus stops largely determines the overall speed of buses. Bus stops on
freeways/expressways should be spaced to permit buses to operate at or near the prevailing
speed of the rest free flow traffic. To achieve this goal, a spacing of at least 3.5 km between
bus stops is normally appropriate. Bus stops along freeways/expressways are usually located
at intersecting highways where passengers transfer to or from other lines or passenger cars.
These stops may be provided at the freeway/expressway level, which passengers reach via
stairs, ramps, escalators, or elevators, or at the highway level.
Bus-stop arrangements
The benefit of bus stops located at the freeway/expressway level is that buses take less time
for stop, embark-disembark and start activities, while the disadvantage is that more special
construction is needed (turnouts, ramps, stairs etc.) or may be needed. With bus stops at
frontage road level, less special construction is needed and stairs or ramps are avoided.
However, buses have to mix with traffic on the ramps and frontage roads and generally must
cross the intersecting street at grade. Generally, street-level stops are appropriate in and near
downtown districts, and freeway/expressway-level stops are appropriate in suburban and
outlying areas. Combinations of these two types may be used on any one freeway/expressway.
Connections between the crossing highway and the bus drop-off/pick-up area must be
accessible to and usable by people with disabilities.
Bus stops at freeway/expressway level

Bus stops logically are located at highway crossings where passengers can use the grade-
separation structure for access from either side of the freeway/expressway. The upper image
of Figure 6-34 shows an arrangement at an overpassing highway without an interchange. The
loading platforms are under the overpass and therefore need greater span lengths or
additional openings. Access between the freeway/expressway and the overpassed highway is
made with stairs and ramps for passengers. The middle image of Figure 6-34 shows an
arrangement with an undercrossing highway without an interchange.
Transit stops are sometimes needed at locations other than at overpassing/underpassing
highways, such as in outlying areas or in built-up districts. Such stops preferably should be
located opposite cross streets intercepted by frontage roads or major passenger walkways. A
pedestrian overpass is needed to make bus stops usable from either side of the
freeway/expressway. The lower image of Figure 6-34 illustrates two likely layout plans. In the
lower half of the figure, the turnout is located at the freeway/expressway level under the
pedestrian overpass. Pedestrians may reach highway level by stairs, ramps, or elevators. An
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alternative layout, shown in the upper half of the figure, features a turnout located at the level
of the frontage road, eliminating the need for stairs, ramps, or elevators.
Figure 6-34 Bus Stops at Freeway / Expressway Level (AASHTO, 2018)
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Figure 6-35 illustrates bus stops located at freeway/expressway level on a depressed section
with diamond-type interchange ramps connecting to one-way frontage roads. The bus stops
are located under the crossing highway. Connections between the crossing highway and the
bus pick-up/drop-off area must be accessible to and usable by people with disabilities.
Figure 6-35 Bus Stops at Freeway / Expressway-Level in Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018)
Bus stops at street-level

Street-level bus stops can be provided at interchanges. For example, on diamond ramps, the
bus stop may be located adjacent to the ramp corridor, or it may be located on a separate
roadway. Generally, street-level bus stops adjacent to on-ramps are preferred. Bus pick-
up/drop-off areas and any other facilities for bus patrons must be accessible to and usable by
people with disabilities.
Figure 6-36 shows two examples of street-level bus stops on diamond interchanges. The upper
image illustrates two possible locations for a bus stop at a simple diamond interchange
without frontage roads. The bus stop can be located adjacent to either the entry or exit ramp.
An analysis of turning conflicts should be made to determine the feasibility and
appropriateness of either option. The lower image illustrates a street-level bus stop on a one-
way frontage road at diamond interchanges. Buses use the off-ramp to reach the surface level,
drop-off/pick-up their passengers at the frontage road, and proceed via the on-ramp.
Street-level bus stops are difficult to provide effectively within cloverleaf or directional
interchanges. Consequently, bus stops should be omitted at such interchanges or be located
on the cross street beyond the limits of the interchange.
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Figure 6-36 Bus Stops at frontage road Level on Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018)
Stairs, ramps, escalators and elevators

With bus stops at the freeway level, stairs, ramps, escalators, elevators, or combinations of
these are needed for passenger access between the freeway/expressway and local highway
levels. Transit facilities must be accessible to and usable by people with disabilities. Elevators,
stairs, and ramps at transit stops should meet accessibility requirements and present an
inviting appearance. The provision of ample lighting, both day and night, is recommended. A
covering over the stairways, ramps, and platforms may also be desirable.
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Bus stop location on other urban highways
The proper location of bus stops is critical to the safety of passengers and motorists, and to
the proper operation of the transit system. Bus stops are generally located at intersections
where they maximize pedestrian accessibility from both sides of the street and provide
connection to intersecting bus routes. The first design determination in bus stop placement is
whether stops should be near side (before the intersection), far side (after the intersection), or
mid-block. Very frequently, bus turning movement and the location of major generators
dictate the placement of stops at or near an intersection.
Bus stop types can be categorized by their relationship or location to the travel intersection:
1. Near side – immediately prior to passing through an intersection.
2. Far side – immediately after passing through an intersection.
3. Mid-block – between two intersections.
In the following figures the geometry of the above bus stop types for a single bus are provided.
Figure 6-37 Mid-Block Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006)
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Figure 6-38 Far side Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006)
Figure 6-39 Nearside Bus Stop Geometry (Sunline Transit Agency, 2006)
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The Far Side may be better where:
• Buses regularly execute many left turns at intersections. The far side stop provides a
more convenient service point after such turns.
• Dedicated, high-volume right run lanes are present.
• Easier bus re-entry into traffic compensates for gaps created by traffic signals.
• Complex intersections occur with multi-phased signals, dual turn lanes, etc. far side
stops remove buses from complicated maneuvers and circulation activities in and
around intersections.
The Near Side may be better where:
• Transit users can board or alight from buses closer to crosswalks and intersections,
thereby often minimizing walking distance to connecting transit service.
• There may not be sufficient room for an accumulation of multiple buses at the far side.
Then, to avoid buses spilling over into the intersection area, the near side becomes
preferable.
Mid-Block may be better where:
• It is simply the safest location to stop.
• A less congested location away from the intersection is preferred.
• The bus makes a relatively sharp right turn and can’t maneuver into a far-side stop.
• Long stretches of road offer no suitable intersecting streets or traffic stops.
Special Circumstances may override these general rules where:
• Transfer activity between two routes exhibits a strong directional pairing (i.e., heavy
volumes from eastbound to northbound). Then, placing one bus stop nearside and one
far side can minimize pedestrian activity through the intersection.
• If a single trip generator/attractor (school, office, shopping center, etc.) weighs heavily
on an intersection, and then the bus stop should be located closest to that generator,
whether near or far side.
6.6.7.3. Rail transit

Several metropolitan areas have incorporated, or plan to incorporate, rail transit into
freeway/expressway rights-of-way. Figure 6-40 illustrates various arrangements of the joint
freeway/expressway-transit use of a right-of-way.
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Figure 6-40 Joint Freeway / Expressway-Transit Right-of-Way (AASHTO, 2018)
Rail transit facilities are characterized by highly specialized design issues and parameters. The
most common arrangement is to place the rail transit line within the median of a depressed
or ground-level freeway/expressway, as shown in the upper image on Figure 6-40. When a rail
transit line is placed within the Right of Way of a highway an separation island should be
provided between the two direction rail lines separating pedestrian movements from the
freeway/expressway traffic. The lower image on Figure 6-40 illustrates an arrangement where
a topographic feature, such as the river on the right, presents a natural deterrent to
development on one side. The transit line is situated to provide easier access to the community
on the left.
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6.7. Complete Streets Concept
6.7.1. Introduction
It has already been recognized that people and industries are rethinking their transportation
needs, preferences, and habits. To accomplish the needed shift in transportation planning to
consider all modes within an integrated transportation system, a suite of planning concepts
should be considered. The consideration of the Complete Streets movement in transportation
planning has defined a set of tools and priorities that impact how streets are designed. Similar
movements for Vision Zero, Road Diets and Traffic Calming have consistent and compatible
goals of providing increased support for other modes of travel and promoting street safety.
With similar goals, they also share a set of common treatments for streets, sidewalks, and
Intersections. Taken together the Complete Streets movement and its associated movements
contribute a more multimodal and livability-oriented approach to street design.
6.7.2. Complete Streets Concepts

Historically, a city would adopt standard cross-sections for each street functional category.
While it was recognized that the cross Sections were “typical” and each street had unique
context and constraints, the general purpose was to define consistent characteristics for
streets. In practice, this has led to streets being optimized for the automobile mode over other
transportation modes, and automobile throughput has been the controlling priority.
Pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit riders are theoretically able to use the streets, but those
modes are seen as incidental and are not prioritized or supported. The unintended
consequences of these over- optimized streets is that they can limit transportation choices by
making walking, bicycling, and using transit inconvenient, unattractive, or dangerous. These
types of streets can be called “incomplete streets” in that they do not accommodate all
transportation modes. To remedy this, a movement has emerged to encourage a new way of
designing roadways called Complete Streets
The concept of Complete Streets gives pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit modes the same
priorities in street design that automobiles traditionally had, so that the street can routinely
support safe and convenient uses for all modes of transportation within an integrated
multimodal system.
Elements of Complete Streets treatments are designed to make the street more supportive of
all modes. Operating within an integrated multimodal system, the specific mix of modes that
are appropriate to a street and the treatments used to make it a complete street vary with the
function of the street, its Functional Category, and characteristics such as right-of-way, lane
width, speed, and topography.
6.7.3. Benefits of Complete Streets Network

There are many advantages to developing a Complete Streets network, including:
• Mobility: Improved mobility for all users, including non-drivers, youth, older citizens,
and the mobility challenged.
• Safety: Improved safety for all users, including those currently walking, biking, driving,
or riding public transit. Studies have shown that sidewalks greatly reduce the risk of
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pedestrian crashes, and that cities designed for bicycling improve safety for all road
users. The safety of vulnerable populations, such as school children and senior citizens,
are often the highest priority for local governments adopting Complete Streets policies.
• Equity: Mobility and access to opportunity should not depend on owning an
automobile.
• Health: There are a host of health benefits related to increased walking and biking.
Complete Streets enable all users, from families with young children to senior citizens,
to stay active. The Center for Disease Control supports Complete Streets as a means of
preventing obesity.
• Quality of Life: Complete Streets support livable, walkable communities. When people
rely less on their automobile to get around, there are more opportunities for residents
to interact. The desire to provide community amenities was often one of the top
motivating factors for adopting Complete Streets policies.
• Economic Vitality: Complete Streets create the types of places where many people
and businesses now seek to locate themselves. This helps communities attract
entrepreneurs, active retirees, young professionals, and the businesses and services
that cater to them. Improved streetscapes can help revitalize business districts,
generate more foot traffic, and attract customers. Lower transportation costs are
another economic benefit. Complete Streets provide users with choices, allowing
autotrips to be replaced by the inexpensive options of walking, biking, or public transit.
• Environmental: By reducing automobile use, Complete Streets benefits include
cleaner air and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Depending on the context,
Complete Streets may also reduce the roadway width or improve landscaping and
streetscape, providing opportunities to reduce impervious cover, reduce stormwater
runoff, and improve water quality.
6.7.4. Overview of Complete Street Principles and Components

Present section contains guidance on a wide range of street design treatments and provides
flexibility for the designer to adapt to the diverse contexts. Complete streets come in many
shapes and forms, but adhere to the following overarching complete streets principles:
• Design to accommodate all users: Complete streets provide appropriate space for all
street users to coexist. Street design should accommodate pedestrians, bicyclists,
transit users, automobiles, and commercial vehicles.
• Design for safety: The safety of all street users, especially the most vulnerable users
(children, the elderly, and disabled) and modes (pedestrians and bicyclists) should be
paramount in any street design. The safety of streets can be dramatically improved
through appropriate geometric design and operations.
• Prioritize pedestrian movement: Complete streets are built to pedestrian scale and
privilege pedestrian movements, recognizing the critical role pedestrians play in urban
vitality and because all trips include a pedestrian component (e.g., walking to/from
parking, transit).
• Complement surrounding land uses, environment, and community: Complete
streets respect the surrounding built and natural environment.
Based on the above basic principles, seven conceptual complete street “components” are
provided that make up the public right-of-way:
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• Pedestrian
• Building & Furnishing
• Bicycle
• Curbside Management
• Vehicle
• Urban Design and
• Intersections & Crossings
Figure 6-41 illustrates an example where the approximate locations within the right-of-way
that are addressed by each of these components. These components are used to ease
identification of design treatments that are appropriate for different types of projects and
different street types.
Figure 6-41 Overview of Complete Street Components (City of Philadelphia, 2017)
6.7.5. Plan and Design Complete Streets

Planning and designing complete streets require a fundamentally different design approach
and philosophy. It requires both an understanding of the existing and future land use and
transportation contexts, and an understanding of how different design treatments affect
people’s ability to use the street safely and comfortably, whether on foot, bike, or by transit.
Designing streets requires that those concepts be considered integral to the design from the
beginning, rather than as “additional” or “special” design elements simply added onto a more
traditional highway design. This context-based approach recognizes and ensures the most
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efficient, inclusive, and appropriate application of complete streets designs on a wide variety
of streets.
The present section discusses the quality of service levels by various modes of travel. Quality
of service emphasizes that street designs affect the functionality of the street for each mode,
including those other than the automobile. Designing complete streets requires moving away
from a highway-oriented emphasis to balancing motorist level of service with the quality of
service for other users.
The design of a practical, functioning street depends on a clear understanding of the
application of the context-based approach in designing complete streets in a particular setting.
Once the context for an area is understood, the function of each street can be established and
design parameters can be selected to achieve a balance between land use and street design.
This relationship between land use and street design also affects the character of the street.
Character is reflected not only in the travel lane but also in the overall dimensions and design
treatments from building face to building face along the street. Character is also reflected in
the space between a building’s edge, a street tree, or a parked car. This aspect of character is
influenced by the location and quality of street elements. Also, character can be defined by its
surface qualities. The way the elements are applied to streets creates its formal character and
consists of qualities such as the shape, material, colors, textures, pattern, and compilation of
the street elements.
Typical street elements may include street furniture, medians, lighting, landscaping, street
trees, signage, parking, pavement markings, and paving material. These elements not only
provide function but contribute to the character of the street.
6.7.5.1. Area types

Generally, three broad categories of land use types exist:
• urban
• suburban and
• rural.
While the current land use context may be readily apparent, land use and transportation plans
and policies for the area must be reviewed to determine anticipated changes over time. This
review is a collaborative process that incorporates local areas’ land use information in the
project development process. In the review of these plans, one should consider whether the
area is transitioning from a rural area to a suburban one or from a suburban area to an urban
one. The urban, suburban, and town contexts represent the greatest need for street designs
to be treated distinctly different from highway designs.
Urban Area Types

Urban areas usually represent a heavy mix of commercial, residential, and civic activity for a
region. Development is typically most intense in terms of the density and the mix of uses.
Within urban areas, the intensity of land use often decreases with the distance from the urban
core. Open areas exist but are generally limited to parks, school playgrounds, or large lawns
or wooded areas associated with institutional sites. Common elements include a high level of
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pedestrian interaction, as many buildings front directly onto a sidewalk. There is transit
availability, bicycle activity, and grid or modified grid street patterns. In general, urban areas
are experiencing renewed growth in residential and mixed-use activities, thus requiring greater
attention to accommodating all modes of transportation.
Suburban Area Types

Suburban areas are usually found at the periphery of an urbanized area and are characterized
by pockets of development that are often disconnected and contain structures that are
generally consistent in height and aesthetics. Suburban areas can vary widely in character,
appearing more rural in areas further removed from the metropolitan core and more urban in
areas with denser populations and development. Suburban areas offer different challenges
than urban areas, but also present opportunities and the need for providing more streets and
street networks, as well as more complete street designs.
Rural Area Types

Rural areas are characterized by natural areas, agricultural uses, and limited development,
except in towns, villages, or crossroads. Rural areas are distinguished from other area types by
their separation from other developed areas and by an intent or desire of residents to retain
the natural or rural character of the area in the future.
6.7.5.2. Quality of service

Quality of service is based on street design elements that make using a facility safe and
comfortable for bicyclists, pedestrians, and transit users, thereby improving streets’
functionality for all users. Quality of service also considering the ways where buildings,
circulation, parking, and landscaping are arranged on an adjacent site and the effect that site
has on where a street contextually falls in the continuum of street networks. Streets should
strive to provide high quality of service for bicyclists, pedestrians, and transit users.
Quality of service emphasizes the safety and accessibility of travel, rather than a quantifiable
measure of throughput of travel. For walking, biking, and transit to be attractive travel options,
the experience of using non-motorized transportation must be convenient, comfortable and
safe. Quality of service applies to the design elements provided along streets but can also be
assessed within the context of the street network. Street, transit, rail, bicycle, and pedestrian
facility planning lays the vision for street improvements with consideration of multimodal
facilities and connections to the surrounding street network. This vision is developed through
collaborative dialog with local jurisdictions and reflects the community’s land use vision and
context. Transportation projects will often have tradeoffs among design elements that provide
higher quality of service for different users. But in every instance, the solution must strive
toward connectivity of a complete streets network, and the design input team should strive to
improve quality of service for all users when designing new or modified streets. The following
section describes the types of facilities that contribute to quality of service for bicyclists,
pedestrians, and transit users.
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6.7.5.2.1. Bicycle quality of service
Providing for bicycle quality of service may vary based on context. The surrounding land use,
the speed of cars on the street, and the directness of the route connecting destinations are all
important factors in identifying the appropriate elements for bicycle facilities. In addition, there
are different types of bicyclists with varying levels of expertise. While bicyclists have the legal
right to use the traffic lanes, some cyclists will be more comfortable than others riding in mixed
traffic. Creating viable transportation options means that a variety of types of facilities should
be provided to create a bicycling network. Creating bicycling networks is often an incremental
process, and facilities should be provided where appropriate. Critical elements for improved
bicycle quality of service are:
• Bicycle lanes: Dedicated bicycle lanes are the preferred option to provide for the
greatest variety of cyclists on streets, particularly those streets with higher volumes and
speeds.
• Shared lanes: In streets where bicycle lanes cannot be accommodated, shared lanes
provide an alternative to bicycle lanes.
• Multi-use path: On streets where physical separation of bicycle traffic from motoring
traffic is appropriate (such as on very low-access, high-speed facilities like parkways
and potentially rural roads), multi-use paths should be considered.
• Paved shoulders: In many rural areas, 1.5 m wide paved shoulders are the typical
treatment for accommodating bicyclists.
• Signage (horizontal and vertical): Bicycle signage is an important element that alerts
motorists to the presence of bicycle traffic while providing information to bicyclists.
6.7.5.2.2. Pedestrian quality of service

Safety of the pedestrian and separation from high-speed traffic is of the utmost importance in
planning for pedestrian quality of service. Complete streets need to provide for a range of
passive and active uses including, but not limited to walking, waiting for transit, and crossing
the street. While specific treatments or dimensions may vary by context, the goal in any
environment is to have a continuous pedestrian network that provides dedicated space for
pedestrians and separation from vehicles. In urban areas, this network exists or can be created.
However, in rural areas, the pedestrian network may not be continuous or may utilize shoulders
of high-traffic roads. Pedestrian facilities should be encouraged in all environments, with the
specific treatment based on the context and the street type. Critical elements for improved
pedestrian quality of service are:
• Sidewalks: Sidewalks are the primary mode of pedestrian travel and are a crucial
element in any pedestrian network. Sidewalks should be part of a continuous network,
connected with crosswalks and separated from traffic with a buffer.
• Buffer: Providing a buffer between pedestrians and traffic is important for providing
good quality of service. A buffer is a strip of land that separates vehicular traffic from
the sidewalk or other pedestrian facility.
• Pedestrian crossings: Pedestrian crossings and/or crosswalks are another crucial
element in any pedestrian network. Designing complete streets means understanding
that pedestrians must be able to cross the street safely.
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• Signage: Signage helps to improve pedestrian safety by alerting motorists that
pedestrians may be present. Signage can also improve the visibility of pedestrian
facilities at pedestrian crossings, such as a marked crosswalk.
• Multi-use path: A multi-use path separates pedestrian and bicycle traffic from
vehicular traffic on streets with less frequent access or higher speeds, such as parkways
or some rural roads.
• Shoulders: In rural areas, shoulders may be the only pedestrian facility. Wide shoulders
on rural roads allow pedestrians to travel along a paved surface in a separate space
from traffic.
• Lightning: To allow for pedestrian quality of service during evening hours, lighting
should be provided near transit stops, commercial areas, or other locations where
night-time pedestrian activity is likely.
• PwD(s) requirements: Pedestrian quality of service is especially important for persons
with limited mobility. Persons with disabilities (PwD(s)), requires certain elements like
curb ramps and minimum clearance widths to make the pedestrian network accessible
to all users.
6.7.5.2.3. Transit quality of service

Transit modes may include commuter, light rail, streetcars, or buses. Transit can take many
forms, including operating in vehicle travel lanes or within dedicated lanes. Some transit, such
as light rail, can operate outside of the street right-of-way and merge with the street for
needed connections. Pedestrian access is an essential component in the success of transit
networks. Proper circulation of pedestrians and bicyclists adjacent to transit stations and
transit stops is important to ensure safe and convenient access.
Streets that are well-designed for transit can encourage more people to get out of their cars
and onto the bus. Such streets provide accessible bus stops and assist buses in moving through
traffic. Transit systems have realized that bicycling and transit go well together. Complete
street concepts and initiatives ensure safe and convenient access to public transit for all users.
Creating safe and comfortable bus stops and smooth, predictable transit trips help make
transit an attractive option. Critical elements for improved transit quality of service are:
• Transit service: The frequency of transit service greatly affects the perceived quality of
service. A transit system with a reliable, accurate schedule has the potential to attract
additional choice riders and increase demand for more frequent service.
• Bus shelter: Bus shelters provide a place protected from the elements for transit users
to wait for a transit vehicle. Bus shelters should include seating, lighting, and bus
information. In places where there is not enough demand or usage to justify a complete
bus shelter, seating alone can improve the experience of waiting for a bus.
• Adequate connections to transit: Transit stops are only one element in a
transportation network, and every transit user is also a pedestrian or cyclist at the
beginning or end of their trip. For that reason, connections to transit stops are an
essential element in a complete transportation network.
• Lightning: Lighting enhances the visibility and safety of a transit stop. Lighting also
improves the readability of transit features such as schedules. Lighting should be
provided at bus stops that are served by routes in the evening and early morning.
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• Signage: A bus stop post is a basic element of transit quality of service. This post can
identify the route serving a stop and provide any additional information on the route
and schedule.
6.7.5.3. Land use context

As mentioned before, the type of area the street is adjacent to will have a primary effect on
the design of the street. For each area it is important to understand the range of issues that
should be considered in each area, as well as the importance of considering the future land
use expectations of the community.
Urban Areas
Urban areas have the most intense street use by the widest range of users. These streets may
have to accommodate various modes with dedicated facilities, separate bike lanes for
bicyclists, on-street parking to serve local businesses, and transit areas, with either dedicated
travel lanes or dedicated loading and multi-modal connection areas. The transition areas
between the different uses require special attention. For instance, planting strips and other
buffers that separate the curb from the sidewalk should safely accommodate passenger access
in areas where on-street parking or a transit stop is provided. In these types of areas, a
hardscaped amenity zone may provide the better treatment.
Suburban Areas
Suburban areas are located at the periphery of more urban areas or may be transitioning to
urban areas. These areas may have a limited street network and be less intensively developed,
creating challenges for providing pedestrian connections and accommodations for bicyclists
as well as transit users. Bicycle lanes are the preferred treatment for accommodating bicyclists
on higher volume and higher speed suburban streets. Along auto-oriented commercial strip
areas, driveways can sometimes account for more than half of the sidewalk length within a
block, creating potential bicycle/pedestrian-auto conflicts. Suburban areas are often expected
to transition through time into more urban conditions. Therefore, they represent the greatest
opportunities and needs for establishing better street networks (by providing more streets),
lower target speeds, and better street designs to serve current and future users, who will be
driving, walking, bicycling, and using transit. Additional streets and better networks should be
provided as these areas develop to help achieve these objectives.
Rural Areas
While recognizing that most streets (and complete streets) are in cities and towns, it is also
important to consider how appropriate facilities can be provided in more rural environments.
Rural areas may have the least network connectivity and, therefore, might have the most
demand on single facilities. Travel lanes often need to accommodate motor vehicles, bicyclists,
and transit with pedestrian access provided on shoulders or off-street. While rural areas can
provide challenges to accommodating a full range of users, many times the provision of paved
shoulders, multi-use paths or other facilities can safely and comfortably address user needs
and provide complete streets. Different design treatments will be appropriate for different
contexts and constraints.
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6.7.5.4. Street types
To develop complete street networks, a variety of street types have been defined and will be
applied as complete streets. They represent a spectrum ranging from very pedestrian-oriented
to very auto-oriented, but each can and should include ways to provide for the safe and
comfortable travel of motorists, bicyclists, pedestrians, and transit users. Street design
decisions and land use decisions should complement one another and achieve a pleasant
balance between land use and street design. As illustrated in Figure 6-42, the following street
types have been identified for the application of complete streets:
• Main Street.
• Avenue.
• Boulevard.
• Parkway.
• Rural Road.
• Local/Subdivision Street.
Where:
• Avenue is a wide road with trees or tall buildings on both sides.
• A boulevard is a street or avenue, especially one that's very wide and lined with trees.
Many boulevards have a median strip of grass and sometimes trees.
• A Parkway is a wide road, usually divided, with an area of grass and trees on both sides
and in the middle leading to or passing through a park.
• Main or Local street in this concept is any street other than residential, collector or
arterial with a variety of adjacent land uses (high intensity residential, commercial or
industrial).
• Subdivision Street is any residential or access street.
• Rural Road in this context is any highway in a rural area that passes through
settlements.
Each street type’s relative location on Figure 6-42 indicates the general function of the street
within the complete street network. Therefore, the main street is the most pedestrian-oriented
of these streets, and the parkway is the most auto/truck oriented. It should be noted that even
a parkway provides design elements that improve safety and operation for bicyclists,
pedestrians, and transit. While all of the street types should be designed to provide
functionality for all users, the modal emphasis shifts. Rural roads serve as the primary
connection and access to numerous towns and communities. Therefore, they serve all types of
road users, including bicyclists, pedestrians, and, in some places, rural transit.
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Figure 6-42 Arrow Showing Complete Street Types (NCDOT, 2012)
Freeway/Expressway
Freeways and expressways are not considered part of the complete street types previously
described. Planning and design of these facilities will focus on the capacity and safety
requirements of motor vehicle traffic. However, streets at interchanges and grade separations
should incorporate complete streets elements, and interchanges, expressway intersections
with surface streets, and their bridges and underpasses will be designed to accommodate
bicyclists, pedestrians, and transit users safely and comfortably.
6.7.5.5. Functional Criteria

Once the appropriate street type has been initially identified, the more detailed functional
criteria should be identified. These functional criteria include classification, target speed, traffic
volume, and access density, all of which assist in defining the ultimate cross-section.
Functional Classification
Functional classification considered for complete streets concept, consists of arterials,
collectors, and local streets as already described in Chapter 2 of the present Volume. An arterial
is typically a higher volume facility serving longer regional trips (as well as local trips), may
have high truck volumes, and connects to local collector routes. Local streets typically carry
lower traffic volumes and primarily provide access to adjacent land uses, while collectors
connect these two functional types. Therefore, the traditional functional classifications
described in this section represent one type of useful design parameter to be considered in
planning and designing complete streets.
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Target Speed
Target speed refers to the preferred travel speed on the street. Speed is a critical component
in improving motorist, bicycle, and pedestrian safety on a street and the target speeds for
streets are typically lower than would be applied in most applications of traditional highway
design. Preferred target speed should be limited to the values provided in Table 6-29.
Table 6-29 Target Speeds for Complete Streets
Target Speed (km/h)

Street Type
Urban / Suburban Context Rural Context
Subdivision Street 20 - 30 -
Main / Local Street 30 - 40 -
Avenue 30 - 50 -
Boulevard 40 - 50 -
Parkway 40 - 50 50 - 60
Rural Road - 40 - 50 (60)
Traffic Volume
Traffic volume represents the amount of motor vehicle traffic on a street, with ranges for low,
moderate, and high. These ranges for traffic volumes overlap to allow flexibility in the number
of lanes required based on area type, land use, and street type. Two-lane streets carry low to
moderate traffic volumes. The general range for application is:
• Low: Less than 8,000 vehicles per day.
• Moderate: Between 8,000 and 20,000 vehicles per day and
• High: More than 20,000 vehicles per day.
Access Density
Access density provides a relative measure of the amount of development and interaction
along a street. Generally, more dense spacing of access is a reflection of the need for lower
speeds in a corridor. However, there can be exceptions on roads with heavy access
management. Denser access spacing also generally provides more network flexibility for
pedestrians, bicyclists, transit users, and motorists. There are two measures can be used for
access density:
1. Traffic Signal Spacing:
• Low: Up to 1 signal per kilometer
• Moderate: 1 to 2 signals per kilometer and
• High: More than 2 signals per kilometer.
2. Access Point Spacing:
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• Low: greater than 300 m spacing between access points (approximately 0 - 6 access
points per kilometer).
• Moderate: 100 to 300 m spacing between access points (approximately 6 - 20 access
points per kilometer) and
• High: less than 100 m spacing between access points (greater than 20 access points
per kilometer).
Access points include street intersections and commercial access points. Access points should
be counted on both sides of the street when determining the number of access points.
6.7.5.6. Street cross-sections

The following figures illustrate street cross-sections for each street type, while in the following
tables typical dimensions are provided. The purpose of the illustrations is to provide a general
understanding of the intended spatial relationships of the various street components for each
street type.
Figure 6-43 Typical Cross-section of Urban/Suburban Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)
Table 6-30 Typical Dimensions of Urban/Suburban Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)
Typical Dimensions for Urban/Suburban Main Street (m)
Area Type Parking / Motor Vehicle /

Sidewalk Green Bicycle
Transit Shared Vehicle
Zone Zone Zone
Zone Zone (Lane Width)
Central Business
3.0~3.6 1.8~2.4 2.4~3.0 3.0~3.9 1.5~1.8
District
Urban Center /
2.4~3.6 1.8~2.4 2.4~3.0 3.0~3.9 1.5~1.8
Suburban Center
Suburban Corridor /
Urban Residential / 2.4~3.0 1.8~2.4 2.4~3.0 3.0~3.9 1.5~1.8
Suburban Residential
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NOTES:
• Sidewalk zone should typically extend to the front of buildings. Sidewalks are the most important element
on a main street because pedestrians are the priority. Therefore, the sidewalk width should typically be at
least 3.0 m, unobstructed.
• Green zone may include hardscaping, landscaping, street trees, lighting, and related
pedestrian/bicycle/transit amenities. Hardscaping (with street trees in appropriately designed planters) is
typical for access to on-street parking and transit.
• Parking is expected on main streets. Parking zone dimension may vary depending upon type of parking
provided.
• Shared lanes are the preferred treatment, due to the low speeds. In this case, travel lanes should be at least
3.90 m to allow for maneuvering and opening car doors. If bicycle lane is provided, it should be at least 1.80
m wide, and motor vehicle lane should be narrowed to 3.00 m.
Figure 6-44 Typical Cross-section of Rural Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)
Table 6-31 Typical Dimensions of Rural Main Street (NCDOT, 2012)
Typical Dimensions for Rural Main Street (m)
Area Type Parking / Motor Vehicle /

Sidewalk Green Bicycle
Transit Shared Vehicle
Zone Zone Zone
Zone Zone (Lane Width)
Rural Village 3.0~3.6 1.8~2.4 2.4~3.0 3.0~3.9 1.2~1.8
Rural Developed 2.4~3.0 1.8~2.4 2.4~3.0 3.0~3.9 1.2~1.8
NOTES:
• Sidewalk zone should typically extend to the front of buildings. Sidewalks are the most important
element on a main street because pedestrians are the priority. Therefore, the sidewalk width should
typically be at least 3.0 m, unobstructed.
• Green zone may include hardscaping, landscaping, street trees, lighting, and related
pedestrian/bicycle/transit amenities. Hardscaping (with street trees in appropriately designed planters)
is typical for access to on-street parking and transit.
• Parking is expected on main streets. Parking zone dimension may vary depending upon type of parking
provided.
• Shared lanes are the preferred treatment, due to the low speeds. In this case, travel lanes should be at
least 3.90 m to allow for maneuvering and opening car doors. If bicycle lane is provided, it should be
at least 1.80 m wide, and motor vehicle lane should be narrowed to 3.00 m.
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Figure 6-45 Typical Cross-section of Local Street with Residential Use (NCDOT, 2012)
Table 6-32 Typical Dimensions of Local Street with Residential Use (NCDOT, 2012)
Area Type
Minimum Sidewalk Green Parking
Lane Width Shoulder
Travelway Zone Zone Zone
Local /
Very low 2.7
Traditional 5.40 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 1.2~1.8
demand no parking
Neighborhood
Local
Low
Low Parking 7.20 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 3.0 1.2~1.8
demand
Demand
Local 2.7 with parking

2.5 on one
Parking 7.80 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 3.9 without 1.2~1.8
side
On 1 Side parking
Local
2.5 on
Parking 10.20 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 3.0~3.9 1.2~1.8
both sides
On 2 Sides
NOTES:
• Minimum traveled way measured from Face of Curb (FOC) to FOC.
• Median typically not provided on local streets unless for aesthetic reasons. If provided, lane widths will be
increased by 0.6 ~1.50 m.
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Figure 6-46 Typical Cross-section of Local Street with Office, Commercial and Industrial Use (NCDOT, 2012)
Table 6-33 Typical Dimensions of Local Street with Office, Commercial and Industrial Use (NCDOT, 2012)

Area Type
Minimum Sidewalk Green Parking
Lane Width
Travelway Zone Zone Zone
Local Office / 2.5 on 2.7 with parking

Commercial 7.80 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 one 3.6 without
Parking On 1 Side side parking
Local Office / 2.5 on
3.6 with parking
Commercial 12.00 1.8~2.4 1.2~2.4 both
on both sides
Parking On 2 Sides sides
2.5 on
Local Industrial Streets 3.60 with
10.20 1.5~1.8 1.2~2.4 one
Parking On 1 Side markings
side
NOTES:
• Minimum travelway measured from Face of Curb (FOC) to FOC.
• Median typically not provided on local streets unless for aesthetic reasons. If provided, lane widths will
be increased by 0.6 ~1.50 m.
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6.8. Traffic Calming Engineering Measures
This section presents requirements for selecting and designing appropriate traffic calming
measures to address speeding problems in highway sections or broader areas.
The following groups of traffic calming measures are considered in the present section:
• street width reduction - road diet.
• vertical deflection measures.
• horizontal deflection measures.
• textured pavement and rumble strips.
• use of traffic control devices for traffic calming.
6.8.1. Street Width Reduction - Road Diet

6.8.1.1. Overview
A Road Diet is a highway reconfiguration for urban highways and streets that involves
narrowing or eliminating traffic lanes to slow down motorized traffic and increase safety of all
roadway users. Road Diets remove vehicle lanes from a roadway and reallocate the extra space
for other uses or traveling modes, such as parking, sidewalks, bicycle lanes, transit use, turn
lanes, curb extensions, or pedestrian refuge islands. Implementing Road Diets improves
mobility and accessibility for all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, and public transit riders.
Driveway density, transit routes, the number and design of Intersections along the corridor, as
well as operational characteristics are some considerations to be evaluated before deciding to
implement a Road Diet.
Road Diet Conversions shall not be implemented in urban freeways and urban principal
arterials (expressways). For the implementation in urban minor arterials and urban collector
highways, a traffic impact assessment study shall be performed, in order to verify adequate
traffic operation.
6.8.1.2. Geometric design

The geometric design of a Road Diet should take into consideration the following:
• The functional classification of the road (see SHC 201 (Planning Process)), which
serves as a basis for establishing design criteria for a Road Diet project.
• The land use contexts, which encourage design criteria that are consistent with
broader project surroundings and area characteristics.
• The largest design vehicle that is likely to use the highway with considerable
frequency or a design vehicle with special characteristics appropriate to a particular
location in determining the design of such critical features, such as radii at Intersections
and radii of turning roadways.
• Driver capabilities and limitations. The Road Diet design should be laid out to meet
driver expectations.
• Non-motorized users. Road Diets should generate benefits to users of all modes of
transportation. Road Diets also provide the opportunity to add bicycle lanes to roads
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on which bicyclists previously shared lanes with motor vehicles or navigated between
travel lanes and the edge of pavement.
• Speed. Road Diets have the potential to reduce operating speed differentials but tend
to have a modest effect on the average operating speed of the highway corridor (i.e.,
about 5 to 8 km/h). Geometric designers should seek to achieve speed harmony, a
condition that results when:
o The designated design speed is within a specified range (i.e., ± 8 km/h) of the
observed 85th percentile operating speed.
o The 85th percentile operating speed is within a specified range (i.e., ± 8 km/h)
of the posted speed limit.
o The inferred design speed is equal to or greater than the designated design
speed.
o The posted speed is less than or equal to the designated design speed.
6.8.1.2.1. Elements of geometric design

The principal elements of geometric design should include:
• Sight distance. Stopping sight distance should be available at all points on the road.
Decision sight distance should be provided at complex locations where drivers make
instantaneous decisions, where information is difficult to perceive, or where
unexpected maneuvers are needed. Changes in vehicle position due to the cross-
section changes may have some impact on horizontal sight distance (i.e., available sight
distance while traversing a horizontal curve, limited by sight obstructions on the inside
of the curve). Critical sight distance analysis for Road Diet conversions will include
pedestrian crossings, transit stops, and locations where on-street parked cars serve as
possible sight obstructions.
• Access Management. Given the operational change that will occur through a lane
reduction in each direction of travel, access management should be analyzed during
the Road Diet conversion. The re-analysis should consider:
o Operations and efficiency of the intersecting roadway.
o Ensuring high-volume driveways are not offset in the “wrong direction”.
o Access to property.
o Sight distance between vehicles and pedestrians.
o How driveways are used (e.g., backing out vs. forward-out-only).
o Sidewalk continuity for pedestrians.
o Accessibility requirements.
o Accommodating bicycle lanes.
o Potential conflicts with bus stop locations.
6.8.1.2.2. Cross sectional elements

The following requirements apply for cross Sectional elements of Road Diets (FHWA, 2014):
Lane widths: Widths of 3.00 to 3.65 m should generally be used in practice. Auxiliary lanes
(i.e., turn lanes) at Intersections should have the same width as through lanes, and not less
than 3 m. The width of the two-way left-turn lane provided as part of a lane width conversion
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typically should be 3.00 to 4.85 m. The width for a bus lane along these roadways should be
3.30 to 4.55 m.
Median: Design width depends upon the type of roadway and its location. When a flush
median is used, crossing and turning movements in and around the median should be
expected.
Pedestrian Refuge Island: It should be a minimum of 1.8 m wide, in the direction of
pedestrian travel, with 2.45 to 3.00 m preferred. The island should include detectable warning
tiles where it meets the roadway.
Superelevation: Generally, the crown or highpoint of the converted cross-section is located
in the center, with the slope of the pavement the same as the adjacent through lanes. Typical
cross slopes are 2.0 percent and may be as high as 2.5 percent in areas of intense rainfall.
Shoulders: In most Road Diet applications, curb-to curb widths and the desire to allocate the
space to traffic, bicycle lanes and parking, limit ability to provide shoulders. Painted buffers
are sometimes provided between the traveled way and bicycle lanes, and those buffers offer
some similar advantages as shoulders.
Bicycle Facilities: Design requirements for bicycle facilities are provided in Chapter 6.
On-street Parking: Road Diets provide the opportunity for parallel or diagonal on-street
parking. Design requirements for on-street parking facilities are provided in SHC 303 (Highway
Facilities and Utilities Design – Rest Areas, Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage
Facilities).
Bus Turnouts: The paved width available with the installation of a Road Diet provides space
for potential accommodations for bus operations (e.g., stopping, loading, unloading) away
from the traveled way by using a turnout. Bus stop locations should provide about 15 m in
length for each bus. In some cases, there may be room to provide deceleration and entry
tapers using a combination of pavement markings. A taper of about 5:1, longitudinal to
transverse, is a desirable minimum. When the stop is on the near or far side of an Intersection,
the width of the cross street is generally adequate for merging back into traffic or diverging
to the bus stop, respectively.
Bus stops located at the near side or far side of Intersections provide pedestrian access from
both sides of the street and connections to intersecting bus routes. The presence of curb
extensions also facilitates passenger access.
Cross-Section Transitions: The starting point and ending point of a Road Diet conversion
may require a transition from or to a different cross-section. The design of these locations is
typically a function of the width of the lane to be dropped and the posted or design speed at
the lane drop locations. Taper ratios for lane additions should be around 15:1, longitudinal to
transverse.
Another important decision with respect to the cross-section transitions that are part of the
Road Diet is the location of the transitions. The objective when selecting a transition point
location is to minimize the complexity of the transition area and the number of decisions or
potential conflicts that could occur while a driver is merging or diverging. For this reason,
transitions should not occur at or near Intersections or major driveways (within their influence
area).
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It is also important to look at the roadway cross-sections near the end of the “project limits”
for a Road Diet conversion. The overall objective is to minimize the number of transitions
within a short distance. In other words, it may sometimes be more appropriate to extend the
“project limits” to avoid this situation. Through traffic lanes should also not be dropped as a
turn lane at an Intersection, as this type of lane drop violates driver expectations and may lead
to inappropriate driver maneuvers.
6.8.1.2.3. Intersection design

Basic principles of Intersection design shall also apply to Intersections bordering or within the
Road Diet area. Given however the cross-sectional change during Road Diet implementation,
the following requirements should also be considered (FHWA, 2014):
Alignment and Profile of Intersection Approaches: Intersecting roads should meet at or
nearly at right angles and the grades should be as flat as possible. These characteristics are
likely predetermined at locations experiencing a Road Diet conversion, but designers should
be aware of their negative effects on capacity, sight distance, and safety and look for
opportunities to implement possible countermeasures.
Intersection Sight Distance: Intersection sight distance shall be checked at each Intersection
bordering or within the Road Diet area. Drivers of approaching vehicles should have an
unobstructed view of the entire Intersection as well as sufficient lengths along the intersecting
road to allow the observance and avoidance of potential conflicts with other vehicles. Drivers
of stopped vehicles should also have a sufficient view of the intersecting highway to decide
when to enter (with a left or right turn) or cross it.
Right Turn Lanes: The delay impact of vehicles turning right should be evaluated and a
decision about whether an exclusive right-turn lane is needed should be made. Some cases
may require additional right-of-way or pavement width. The volume of turning vehicles and
the types of vehicles to be accommodated govern the widths of turning roadways. Always
consider pedestrian safety when deciding whether to add a right-turn lane at Intersections. If
the right-turn lane is free flow, yield controlled, or if right turn on red is allowed at the
Intersection, then pedestrians will be affected.
There are three types of designs for right-turning roadways at Intersections:
1. minimum edge of traveled way.
2. design with a corner triangular island.
3. free-flow design using a simple radius or compound radii.
The designer should analyze likely turning paths and encroachments when a larger vehicle
uses the Intersection and its effect on traffic operations and safety. Depending on truck
volumes, the typical size of trucks using the Intersection, and nearby truck traffic generators,
practitioners should consider larger radii to accommodate these road users.
Roundabouts: A single-lane roundabout may be a good fit geometrically as part of a Road
Diet installation. A roundabout will provide additional opportunities for improved safety by
eliminating most angle and head-on crash types, and by reducing Intersection operating
speeds. For design requirements for roundabouts see Chapter 10.
Bicycle Design Considerations: Where the Road Diet includes on-street bicycle lanes,
Intersection designs should be modified accordingly. The bicycle facility should be carried up
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to and through the Intersection. Where right- turn lanes are added, lane markings will be
needed to channelize and separate bicycles from right-turning vehicles. Additional
considerations include provisions for left-turn bicycle movements, use of bicycle boxes, and
bicycle-specific traffic signals.
Curb Ramp Design: Pedestrian facilities shall accommodate all users, including those with
mobility, vision, cognitive and other impairments. Curb ramps shall land within the width of
the pedestrian street crossing they serve, and wholly outside the parallel vehicle travel lane. A
distinct curb ramp shall be provided for each crossing direction. Where possible, aligning the
curb ramp with the direction of the crosswalk is preferred. Keeping the curb radius small,
including a buffer space between the sidewalk and the curb, and adding curb extensions are
all strategies that aid in being able to achieve two distinct ramps at a corner.
Curb Extensions: On roadways with on-street parking, curb extensions at Intersections may
be added to shorten pedestrian crossing distances and make the pedestrian waiting at the
corner more visible to drivers. Similarly, it gives the pedestrian a better view of oncoming traffic
without having to step into the roadway. Curb extensions should only be used where on-street
parking is permitted and should be slightly narrower than the parking lane, so that the
extension is not bumping out into the traveled way for either bicyclists or motor vehicles.
Curb Radii: Curb radii should be kept as low as practical in order to slow vehicle speeds as
they turn. The radius will also impact the pedestrian crossing distance, making it shorter as the
radii get smaller. The addition of on-street parking or bicycle lanes may enable a smaller curb
radius at Intersections as the effective radius of the vehicle path gets larger with the separation
from the curb that the parking and bike lanes provide.
6.8.1.3. Operational design

When a Road Diet conversion has been decided, the following factors regarding the
operational design shall be considered (FHWA, 2014). However, each implementation case will
have its own unique issues and needs, requiring engineering judgment and expertise.
6.8.1.3.1. Intersection control changes

When implementing a Road Diet, traffic signal phasing and timing at Intersections shall be re-
evaluated. An operational analysis should be performed to evaluate the acceptability of the
potential impacts of the existing and proposed cross-section and signalization on major and
minor street, vehicle and pedestrian delay and queue lengths. This evaluation should also
consider the potential impact of heavy vehicles. Usually, mainline traffic may need additional
green time due to the lane capacity reduction, especially during peak hours, to maintain
mainline level of service. This could increase side-street delays during those time periods.
The positioning of traffic signal heads at a Road Diet conversion shall be adjusted so that they
are aligned with the new lane configuration.
6.8.1.3.2. Pavement marking and signing

The signing and markings should follow the requirements of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices). Regarding Road Diet conversions, proper pavement markings and
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signing should be provided for, among other things, right-turn lanes, pedestrian crossings,
and refuge islands.
Pavement markings in Road Diets should properly position both stopped and turning vehicles
so that they can safely make turning maneuvers. The proper positioning (e.g., at a stop line)
and turning radius of the design vehicle should be considered. Edge lines and/or parking space
pavement markings may also be used in Road Diet conversions to position through traveling
vehicles. Finally, if a Road Diet conversion only involves the re-marking of lane lines along an
existing roadway cross Section, it is extremely important that the old pavement markings are
completely removed (FHWA, 2014).
6.8.1.3.3. Intersection design elements

In Road Diet conversions, the delay impact of vehicles turning right at Intersections and major
driveways shall be evaluated and, if needed, right-turn lanes should be added. In some cases,
additional right-of-way or pavement width may be required.
6.8.2. Vertical Deflection Measures

6.8.2.1. Overview
A vertical deflection creates a change in the height of the roadway that forces a motorist to
slow down in order to maintain an acceptable level of comfort.
In the following subsections, requirements for four types of vertical deflection measures are
defined:
• speed humps.
• speed tables.
• raised pedestrian crossings.
• raised Intersections.
6.8.2.2. Speed humps

Speed humps (or speed cushions) are the most common vertical deflection treatment. Speed
humps should not be confused with speed bumps, which are allowed only in private properties
(parking lots, garages, schools, malls, etc.) and enforcing a speed reduction at 4 - 15 km/h.
Speed bumps are not allowed on public highways. In order to approve the construction of
speed humps, a dedicated road safety study shall be performed to verify the benefits of the
treatment for the specific case. All the following prerequisites shall be required to allow
consideration of speed humps implementation:
• The road must be classified either as an urban local or residential street or as an urban
(minor) collector. The measure shall not be implemented in highways of higher
classification.
• Speed humps must not be located inside tunnels, and on bridges. Especially for bridges
they should be installed 25 m ahead of the start and 25 m after the end of bridge.
• The posted speed limit must not exceed 50 km/h (30 km/h is recommended).
• Operating speeds are exceeding the posted speed limit by more than 10 km/h.
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• AADT exceeds 1,000 veh/d in principle or rush hour volume exceeds 100 veh/h in the
case of local highways.
• If the street serves public transport speed humps must not be of continuous type and
should allow public transport vehicles to pass through hump breaks like those shown
in Figure 6-47. They should be developed as speed cushions or lumps.
• The street must not be a main route of emergency services (police, ambulance, fire
service, etc.).
• In case the highway or street is systematically used by bicyclists or micromobility
devices in general special designs are required that will allow for a corridor within the
hump at least 1.5 m wide unless the humps are of a sinusoid type, certified for use by
micromobility devices.
• If placed on a horizontal curve, the radius must exceed 70 m, otherwise speed humps
should be installed 20 m ahead of the beginning and 20 m after the end of the curve.
• The longitudinal grade of the street must not exceed 6 %.
Installation of humps is associated with the corresponding signing and a speed limit of 30
km/h.
Figure 6-47 Speed Humps (ITE, 2022)
A speed hump is designed as a cushion configuration, 3.70 m (for parabolic profile) or 4.30 m
(for sinusoidal profile) in length with a 75 mm height and a parabolic or sinusoidal profile (see
Figure 6-48 and Figure 6-49). For construction, tolerances between 70 mm minimum to 90 mm
maximum may be acceptable on streets with posted speed limits of 40 to 50 km/h. Tolerance
up to 100 mm in height may be considered for posted speeds at or below 30 km/h. Heights
greater than 75 mm should be used cautiously due to low vehicle clearance issues, impacts on
air quality and effect on vehicle damage.
Typical parabolic and sinusoidal speed hump profiles are shown in Figure 6-48 and Figure
6-49. The properly constructed parabolic approach design provides slopes of 3 to 7.5 percent
and a sinusoidal approach provides slopes of 3 to 5.5 percent additional to the grade of the
road.
The maximum size of a cushion is 1.8 m across. This allows larger emergency service vehicles
to straddle the cushion while normal passenger cars and light trucks shall traverse the cushion
as they have space between the inside of tires that is less than 1.5 m and commonly 1.4 m. The
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gap between cushions is recommended to be 0.6 m which may allow wheelchairs to mostly
pass through where sidewalks are not available. The number of cushions may vary from three
to four based upon the size of the roadway. In the three-cushion configuration, emergency
vehicles straddle the center cushion (this is not problematic for low volume, local streets).
Typically, uncurbed streets of 8.5 m and curbed streets of 9.7 m are the points of transition
between three and four cushions. However, designers may address the proper configuration
as appropriate maintaining minimum 1.8 m. Central cushion widths and minimum 0.6 m gap
widths. For narrow streets (such as 6 m), the outer two cushions of the three may be 1.2 to 1.5
m and the gutter gaps may be narrowed to 0.3 m. Where a double yellow line marking is
utilized with a four-cushion layout, the centerline gap may be increased up to 1.2 m in width,
space permitting. Use of two cushions is commonly not appropriate as emergency service
vehicles may be blocked from utilizing the gaps by (illegally) parked vehicles (ITE, 2022).
Figure 6-48 Typical Parabolic Speed Hump (ITE, 2022)
Figure 6-49 Typical Sinusoidal Speed Hump (ITE, 2022)
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Speed humps should extend across the entire paved surface of the roadway. If installed on
roadways with paved shoulders, speed humps should also extend across the width of the
shoulder to discourage vehicles from attempting to avoid the humps by using the shoulder
area. This may result in wider cushions in these shoulder areas.
Side tapers on the cushions to the gaps or edges (Figure 6-50) should be 150 to 300 mm at
the peak height of the cushions. Gutter gaps should be 0.3 to 0.6 m between the edge of
cushion and the face of curb to accommodate drainage. Larger gutter gaps should not be
provided (unless explicitly required for drainage) in order to minimize driver behavior called
“gutter running” (ITE, 2022).
Figure 6-50 Typical Speed Hump Edge Treatments (ITE, 2022)
Speed humps should not simply be placed on top of existing pavement as this may lead to
chipping of the leading edges with wear (which may also result in tripping hazards). More
durable speed hump construction is accomplished through “keying” into pavement by
grinding or saw cutting existing roadway. This allows for a smooth transition from the existing
pavement to the new speed hump. The recommended key area is 0.50 m wide, down at least
25 mm or to base rock around the perimeter of the cushions (ITE, 2022).
The distance between successive vertical deflections depends on the desired speed to be
achieved on the street and is presented in Table 6-34.
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Table 6-34 Distance Between Vertical Deflections (Riyadh Amanah, 2007)
Distance between
Desired Speed (km/h)
Vertical Deflections (m)
15 - 20 25 - 50
30 50 - 80
40 80 - 150
50 150 - 250
6.8.2.3. Speed tables

Speed tables are similar to speed humps, but they are longer and include a level surface
(plateau) at the top. They may be utilized in all cases where speed humps are appropriate, but
also on residential (major) collectors which have slightly higher speeds than local streets and
on streets with steeper grades. Similarly, to speed humps, in order to approve the construction
of speed tables, a dedicated road safety study shall be performed to verify the benefits of the
treatment for the specific case. All the following prerequisites shall be required to allow
consideration of speed tables implementation:
• The road must be classified either as an urban local or residential street, as an urban
minor collector or an urban major collector. The measure shall not be implemented in
highways of higher classification.
• Speed tables must not be located inside tunnels or on bridges.
• The posted speed limit must not exceed 60 km/h (40 km/h or less is recommended).
• The street must not serve considerable volumes of public transport.
service, etc.).
• If placed on a horizontal curve, the radius must exceed 100 m.
• The grade of the street must not exceed 8.0 %.
Speed tables (Figure 6-51) are recommended to be 6.70 to 7.00 m long including a 3.00 m
plateau and 1.80 to 2.00 m straight, sinusoidal, or parabolic approaches. A vertical height of
75 mm with a 70 mm minimum and 90 mm maximum is recommended for any speed table.
For speed limits of 30 to 40 km/h, maximum tolerance up to 100 mm is acceptable. The
approach slopes may be straight, parabolic, or sinusoidal (Figure 6-52), any of the three are
acceptable. When the speed table height is raised above 75 mm, the approach slopes should
be extended at roughly 4 to 5 percent grade. For a 100 mm speed table the approach slopes
would become 2.5 m each for a total length of 8.0 m (ITE, 2022).
The layout and details are similar to speed humps with slots that form cushions. However, the
length of the vertical deflection is longer and issues with emergency services, transit and
bicyclists are reduced with the speed table design approach.
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Figure 6-51 Speed Table (ITE, 2022)
Figure 6-52 Typical Speed Table Approach Slope Types (ITE, 2022)
6.8.2.4. Raised pedestrian crossings

Raised pedestrian crossings (Figure 6-53) are a vertical deflection geometric feature that span
the entire street, are combined with marked crosswalks and are used to emphasize the
pedestrian crossing.
In order to approve the construction of a raised pedestrian crossing, a dedicated road safety
study shall be performed to verify the benefits of the treatment for the specific case. All the
following prerequisites shall be required to allow consideration of raised pedestrian crossings
implementation:
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• Raised pedestrian crossings must not be located inside tunnels or on bridges.
• The street must not serve considerable volumes of public transport.
service, etc.).
• The grade of the street must not exceed 8 %.
As the raised pedestrian crossing is designed for pedestrians and Persons with Disabilities
(PwD(s)), the design should be level between the curb thresholds. The drainage difficulty which
is usually created due to the raised pedestrian crossings in the gutter area should be mitigated
by refined catch basin placement and/or steel plated crossings from the curb to the end of the
gutter area (typically about 0.50 m in a mini-culvert configuration). Design of these mini-
culverts requires consideration of drainage flow line slopes to avoid maintenance issues.
In general, some of the physical characteristics of design are similar to speed tables with 75
mm height and minimum 6.7 m length. The approach slope should be modified where the
height of the raised pedestrian crossing exceeds 75 mm. It should be noted that higher
crossings above 75 mm are not recommended for streets with speed limits above 40 km/h
(ITE, 2022).
Pedestrian crossing surfaces shall be firm, stable, slip-resistant without lips or sudden
unevenness. Transition from the sidewalk area to the crossing shall follow PwD(s) requirements
for curb ramps and tactile warning.
Crosswalk markings are required for these crossings. These may or may not have other traffic
control devices such as regulatory signs or traffic control signals (see SHC 602 (Volume of
Uniform Traffic Control Devices)).
Figure 6-53 Raised Pedestrian Crossing (ITE, 2022)
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6.8.2.5. Raised intersections
Raised Intersections provide vertical deflection spanning across the Intersection area and all
its approaches. In order to approve the construction of a raised Intersection, a dedicated road
safety study shall be performed to verify the benefits of the treatment for the specific case. All
the following prerequisites shall be required to allow consideration of raised pedestrian
crossings implementation:
• Both intersecting streets must be classified as an urban local or residential street, as an
urban minor collector or an urban major collector. The measure shall not be
implemented in highways of higher classification.
• Both intersecting streets must not serve considerable volumes of public transport.
• Both intersecting streets must not be main routes of emergency services (police,
ambulance, fire service, etc.).
Designs may vary in heights but shall adjust the approach slopes to heights of 75 mm with 1.8
m approach slopes or alternatively 150 mm with 3 m approach slopes. The hump portion is
transverse, spanning both directions of vehicle travel at the Intersection leg(s) transversely
across the leg of the Intersection. The approach slopes may be parabolic (when using the 1.8
m transitions) or straight (when using longer transitions). This application provides hump-like
benefits at Intersections and may be used at local streets in urban commercial/institutional or
urban/suburban centers where pedestrian crossings may be or are anticipated to be significant
(not frequently used in residential areas, primarily due to renovation cost). Because the entire
Intersection is raised, the issues of drainage may be addressed in the regrading and catch
basin placements (ITE, 2022).
Figure 6-54 Example of Raised Intersection (ITE, 2022)
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6.8.3. Horizontal Deflection Measures
6.8.3.1. Overview
Horizontal deflections hinder the ability of a motorist to drive in a straight line by creating a
horizontal shift in the roadway. This shift forces a motorist to slow the vehicle in order to
comfortably navigate through the measure (FHWA, 2022)
The following types of horizontal deflections are commonly used:
• lateral shifts and chicanes.
• modified Intersections.
• roundabouts (including small traffic circles).
6.8.3.2. Lateral shifts and chicanes

A lateral shift is a realignment of an otherwise straight street that causes travel lanes to shift
in one direction. The primary purpose of a lateral shift is to reduce motor vehicle speed along
the street. Commonly, a lateral shift separates opposing traffic through the shift with the aid
of a median island. Although the island is not mandatory, without it a motorist may cross the
centerline in order to drive the straightest path possible, thereby reducing the speed reduction
effectiveness of the lateral shift. A chicane is a variation of lateral shift that shifts street
alignment more than one time (FHWA, 2022).
The concept of lateral shift, with and without a median island, is shown in Figure 6-55.
Figure 6-55 Sketch Layout of Lateral Shifts/Deflections without and with a Median Island (FGSV, 2006)
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The decision to implement a lateral shift or chicane scheme shall be based on a dedicated road
safety study to verify the benefits of the treatment for the specific case. All the following
prerequisites shall be required to allow consideration of such an implementation:
• Traffic volume (AADT) must not exceed 3,500 veh/d.
• The street's horizontal alignment must be straight or curve of very large radius
(perceived as straight).
• The grade of the street must not exceed 6.0 %.
In order to further enhance the speed reduction effect, if needed, lateral shifts and chicanes
may be combined with vertical deflection measures (speed humps, speed tables and/or raised
pedestrian crossings), provided that the respective requirements are met (see also Section
6.8.2).
In order to have a considerable impact on speed, lateral shifts and chicanes should have a
deflection depth (i.e., the shift in lateral position of the travel lane) that is equal to or greater
than the width of the driving lane. For cars and trucks as design vehicles, the relation between
the deflection length lv, the deflection depth tv and the carriageway / lane width b shall be
defined according to the nomograph shown in Figure 6-56. For truck-trailer and semi-trailer
combinations to negotiate them, the deflection length shall be extended by 50 %.
Legend: b = pavement width, lv = deflection length, tv = deflection depth

Figure 6-56 Dimensions of Speed-Impacting Horizontal Shifts/Deflections (FGSV, 2006)
The speed at which buses can manage a horizontal deflection depends on the deflection depth
and length (Table 6-35).
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Table 6-35 Bus Speeds Possible in Horizontal Deflections with a Pavement Width b = 3.25 m (FGSV, 2006)
Depth tv
2.00 m 2.50 m 3.00 m 3.50 m
Length lv
16 m 30 km/h - - -
18 m 35 km/h 30 km/h 20 km/h -
20 m 40 km/h 35 km/h 30 km/h -
22 m 50 km/h 40 km/h 35 km/h 15 km/h
24 m - 50 km/h 40 km/h 25 km/h
26 m - - 50 km/h 30 km/h
28 m - - - 35 km/h
30 m - - - 40 km/h
32 m - - - 50 km/h
To enforce the right-before-left rule at at-grade Intersections, leftward (offside) horizontal

deflections shall be used (see Figure 6-57). This results in an odd number of horizontal
deflections on the stretches of road between Intersections.
Figure 6-57 Layout of Horizontal Deflections at Crossings and Intersections (FGSV, 2006)
6.8.3.3. Modified intersections

A modified Intersection involves the reconfiguration of a (minor) urban Intersection to have
curving travel paths through the Intersection (e.g., as illustrated in Figure 6-58), thus
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discouraging fast vehicle movements through the Intersection. The most common application
is the conversion of a typical three-legged Intersection with straight approaches into curving
streets meeting at right angles. The result is the removal of all straight paths through the
Intersection (FHWA, 2022).
Figure 6-58 Sketch of Modified Intersection (FHWA, 2022)
The decision to implement a modified intersection measure shall be based on a dedicated

road safety study to verify the benefits of the treatment for the specific case. Also, a traffic
impact assessment study shall be performed to determine the appropriate traffic controls for
the Intersection and determine the extent of queuing and delay changes, for vehicles and
pedestrians.
All the following prerequisites shall be required to allow consideration of such an
implementation:
• Both intersecting streets must be classified as an urban local or residential street, as an
urban minor collector or an urban major collector. The measure shall not be
implemented in highways of higher classification.
• The grade of both intersecting streets must not exceed 6.0 %.
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6.8.3.4. Geometrical forms of central islands with lane chicanes
Motorists approaching a locality must reduce their higher inter-urban speeds to the urban
speed limit, 50 km/h within the built-up area. The design of the transition from the open road
to the beginning of the built-up area must therefore indicate clearly to motorists where they
need to adjust their driving to urban conditions.
To impose an appropriate reduction in speed at the start of the built-up area, the following
geometrical measures are available:
• construction of central islands with a chicane on both sides.
• construction of a small roundabout in case there is available space.
The best effect is achieved by central islands with a chicane on both sides. The chicane depth
must be at least 1.75 m on each side, though it is better to design the chicane depth as one
lane width, considering the limit values for 50 km/h as presented in Figure 6-59. The islands at
the entry to the locality must therefore be at least 3.50 m wide.
Trees on central islands enhance recognition of the island and help in framing the street space.
In the case of islands at the approach to a locality, trees are possible towards the rear areas of
longer islands (≥ 20 m). The island should be introduced with a speed reduction in steps, where
appropriate.
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Figure 6-59 Basic Forms of Central Islands with Lane Chicanes for Traffic Calming (FGSV, 2006)
6.8.3.5. Roundabouts and small traffic circles

Requirements for the implementation requirements and design issues for roundabouts can be
found in Chapter 10.
6.8.4. Other Traffic Calming Measures

6.8.4.1. Textured pavement
Textured pavement is appropriate for application in residential areas, on streets with high
pedestrian traffic, where a mild speed reduction measure is required. The textured pavement
is usually constructed using cobblestones ("bricks") and it is particularly suitable for streets
near schools. The change in road surface (e.g., from asphalt to cobblestones) should be located
at least 10 m before the desired low speed zone. (Riyadh Amanah, 2007).
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All the following prerequisites shall be required for textured pavement implementation:
• The street must be classified as an urban local or residential street. The measure shall
not be implemented in highways of higher classification.
• The posted speed limit must not exceed 30 km/h.
6.8.4.2. Transverse rumble strips

Transverse rumble strips are raised or grooved patterns on the pavement surface, used to alert
drivers of a need to slow down or stop, or to other upcoming changes that may not be
anticipated by an inattentive driver. These rumble strips are placed in the travel lane
perpendicular to the direction of travel and they produce sound and vibration to attract
driver's attention.
Transverse rumble strips:
• must not be used inside residential areas, to avoid noise pollution.
• may be used on urban and rural collectors and minor arterials.
• may be used on interchange ramps or service roads departing from a high-speed
highway (e.g., approaching the crossroad at the end of an exit ramp of a diamond
interchange).
6.8.5. Use of Traffic Control Devices for Traffic Calming

Installing or upgrading signs and pavement markings on an affected roadway can be a cost-
effective measure to reduce speeding. Road safety studies may also consider the following
traffic calming countermeasures, in both urban and rural settings (FHWA, 2012):
• Advisory speed signs. They are installed with curve warning signs (either on the same
sign or as a supplemental plaque) to recommend a safe speed for traversing a
horizontal curve (the reader shall refer to SHC 602 (Volume of Uniform Traffic Control
Devices)).
• Pavement markings. A pavement speed limit marking displays the posted speed limit
on the pavement. It is used to emphasize the speed limit. A SLOW curve ahead
pavement marking warns the driver of a potentially hazardous curve. This pavement
marking is meant to supplement advisory signs. Because they are exposed to traffic
wear, both types of pavement markings require regular maintenance to ensure their
continued visibility.
• Speed activated signs. If the vehicle is exceeding the legal speed limit, then the
electronic sign is activated to display the legal speed limit. This may also be
accompanied by the word “SLOW” or other appropriate message.
• Electronic speed feedback signs. They display the speed at which vehicles are
traveling.
6.9. Transit Facilities

Wherever there is a demand for arterials to serve passenger car traffic, there is likewise a
potential demand for public transportation. With the increasing use of rail transit (TRAM) in
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urban streets and the increased use of buses, public transit is often an important consideration
in the design of arterials in urban areas. The transit vehicle is more efficient than the passenger
car with respect to street space occupied per passenger carried.
The need of public transit should be considered in the development of an urban highway
improvement program. The routings of transit vehicles (including turns and transfer points),
the number of transit vehicles needed, and passenger loading/unloading bays should be
considered in highway design. Design and operational features in urban streets that are
affected by these considerations include:
• Locations of bus stops (spacing and location with respect to Intersections and
pedestrian crosswalks).
• Design of bus stops and turnouts.
• Reservation of bus lanes.
• Special traffic control measures.
6.9.1. Location of Bus Stops

Stops should be positioned so that passengers can reach public transport comfortably, safely,
and within a short travel distance.
When laying out stops, particular attention should be paid to clear visibility, ensuring that all
road users can see and react to the stops in good time. The visibility for all road users must be
considered. Designers must ensure good visibility for bus drivers safely approaching and
leaving stops and supported where appropriate by technical or by traffic regulations. Stops
should be located on tangents wherever possible. If they should be located on curves, the
curve radius should be sufficient to allow wheelchair-access-friendly entry and exit.
Whether a stop is located before or after an Intersection can only be determined according to
each specific case. Key factors in deciding this include:
• Accessibility for passengers and the locations of crossing points.
• The location of and potential services using the bus interchange.
• The urban context.
• If using disabledaccess curbs, are drivers able to approach the stop precisely.
• Whether traffic light controls at adjacent Intersections can accommodate the platoons
of private and public transport.
• The amount of crossing traffic (including approaching passengers) but maintaining
priority for public transport.
• The capacity of the roads approaching the Intersection.
• The possibility of separating out individual services from a number of lines.
Where there is absolute prioritization of public transport at traffic lights, a stop after the
Intersection has the advantage that the crossing traffic can be given a green signal after the
vehicle has reached the stop, and that the crossing point is behind the stopped bus. This gives
pedestrians a better view of traffic flowing in the same direction.
At stops in front of signaled Intersections, the bus can be given a separate green light ahead
of other traffic (providing them with a “head-start”). This ensures that public transport
emerging from bus bays or lanes is filtered ahead of following vehicles. Locating stops on
Intersection approaches is also advantageous if:
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• the catchment area served by the stop is asymmetrical and most of the passengers
walk to the stop in the direction of travel,
• several services on a public transport lane on the side of the road are taken through a
bus gate,
• joint use of lightly used right-turn lanes, by stopping services, is possible.
The stops need to be as close as possible to Intersection to provide better accessibility and
ease of crossing the road. However, minimum distances may result from the requirements for
turning lanes as well as prevent too much congestion after the Intersections.
6.9.2. Reserved Bus Lanes

Continuous bus lanes may be installed in the middle or at the side of the road. Dedicated bus
lanes in the middle of the road offer the advantage that they are not blocked by illegally parked
motor vehicles (residents and delivery traffic). Traffic flow on such facilities should be
unimpeded, safe, and wherever possible, not disturbed by crossing traffic (motor vehicles,
bicyclists, pedestrians).
Permanent bus lanes at the nearside of the road can be used where there is no local traffic or
where loading and unloading can be relocated to special loading lanes, frontage lanes, or
courtyards; otherwise illegally parked motor vehicles (local access and delivery traffic) may
block the bus lanes.
Bus lanes operating at fixed times (separating modes by time) are used to bypass queues, such
as at Intersections, and can offer a good-value alternative to continuous bus lanes or tracks at
traffic volumes up to 1,500 vehicles per hour and with service frequencies up to 12 vehicles
per hour in the length of road concerned.
The design requirements for bus lanes can be derived from the basic dimensions of the buses
used. The width of the bus lane should be 3.65 m in normal cases, 3.30 m in restricted space
and 3.00 m in cases with very restricted space.
6.10.Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities

6.10.1. Bicycle Traffic
The requirements for bicycles depend on the importance and location of the street within the
local and inter-urban cycle network. The cyclist’s needs are primarily determined by the
importance of the link function, safety aspects (especially at Intersections) and the level of
performance intended (e.g., fast journey times or opportunities for overtaking).
The basic operating space of bicycle traffic is derived from the basic width and height of a
cyclist and the required movement clearances (Figure 6-60).
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Figure 6-60 Bicycle Operating Space Needed (AASHTO, 2012)
6.10.2. Pedestrian Traffic

For pedestrian traffic the need for social use (for residents, shop displays, working in the street
space, play) and elimination of barriers occur along all urban streets. The nature of those needs
varies widely depending on the adjoining uses and building types, on the location and the
importance of the street space within the pedestrian movement network. Basic dimensions
and safety clearances for pedestrian traffic are derived from the basic width and height of
pedestrians and the minimum necessary maneuvering space (Figure 6-61).
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Figure 6-61 Desired Dimensions for Pedestrian Movement
Basic dimensions for persons with restricted mobility include the space requirements of
persons using a stick or crutches, blind persons using a stick or accompanied by a guide dog
or other person or derived from the dimensions of wheelchairs and their maneuvering space
are provided in
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Table 6-36.
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Table 6-36 Overview of Width and Length Requirement for Persons with Restricted Mobility
Distance Width (m) Length (m)
Blind person with white cane 1.20 -
Blind person with accompanying person 1.30 -
Person with stick 0.85 -
Person with crutches 1.00 -
Person with wheelchair 1.10 -
Person with pram 1.00 2.00
Wheelchair with an accompanying person 1.00 2.50
Considering values provided in
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Table 6-36, a minimum space of 2.50 m should be available to allow two wheels-chairs to pass
each other in opposite directions.
Many disabilities are likely to impair mobility. People may also be restricted in their mobility
because of old age, or people of any age may be temporarily handicapped because of illness
or injury. The proportion of such persons among the general population will increase in view
of projected future demographic trends.
Freedom from barriers also relates to people pushing babies or small children in prams or
pushchairs. Their mobility may be impaired if they have difficulty in entering or exiting public
transport, or when pavements are blocked by parked vehicles.
In urban areas where pedestrian traffic is higher and there is a need for curb ramp construction
the following limited values should be considered. Curb ramps shall be provided wherever an
accessible pedestrian crossing corridor is provided. Common types of curb ramps are provided
in Figure 6-62.
The maximum grade of the curb ramp should not exceed 8.0 % (1:12). In flared sides of the
ramp (see Figure 6-63) the maximum grade could be increased to 10.0 % (1:10), only in cases
where dimension L is higher than 1.2 m. Otherwise maximum grade for flared sided should
not be greater than 8.0 % (1:12). The minimum width of the curb ramp shall be 1.0 m.
Figure 6-62 Curb Ramp Types (CDOT, 2019)
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Figure 6-63 Typical of Curb Ramps (CDOT, 2019)
6.11. Appurtenances for Urban Streets

In urban streets various appurtenances can be located in sidewalks outside the paved area.
These appurtenances could be, but not limited to:
• Hydraulic elements as described in SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –
• Vehicle Restrain Systems as described in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities
Devices).
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7. Controlled Access Highways
7.1. Introduction
The present chapter refers to the design of rural freeways and expressways with separate
carriageways divided by a central median, connected basically with interchanges outside built-
up areas.
Rural freeways refer to high-speed divided highways with full control of access, while
expressways refer to high-speed divided highways with limited points of access and in many
cases at grade crossings at major Intersections.
7.2. General Design Considerations

Freeways and expressways are high-traffic volume highways. They are operated exclusively for
high design and operating speeds from 80 to 130 (140) km/h and are designed to function
with both a high level of road safety and high-quality traffic flow.
The many and varied impacts of freeways/expressways mean that a variety of considerations
must be taken into account, i.e., not only objectives such as a safe and functional traffic flow,
but also the conservation of natural and man-made resources and the impact of
freeways/expressways construction on populated areas and the appearance of the region. By
evaluating the objectives or criteria, i.e.
• Road safety.
• Traffic flow quality.
• Spatial and land use planning, town planning, environment, and agricultural structures.
• Costs.

Design for new rural freeways and expressways as well as the reconfiguration/modification
and widening works, takes place in a progressive process runs through various design stages
(Concept Design, Preliminary Design, Final Design etc.).
Inputs for the geometric design of freeways and expressways generally include measurements,
The degree of detail and the scale of each study including contents and plans that are chosen
to satisfy the needs of each stage while making clearly visible the effects on the environment,
as well as the local depressions/bends in layout, longitudinal profile and cross-sections.
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At the Final Design stage, horizontal and vertical alignment of the preferred alignment are
further specified. The design speed, typical cross-section and the relevant applied parameters
should be finalized.
7.3.2. Categories and Design Speed

Freeways and expressways are the highest functional highway categories with mobility as their
unique traffic objective within a highway network. Mobility on the other hand may have
different operational characteristics. It may connect wide apart laying destinations with a
Kingdom-wide significance or may support mobility needs at a regional level between
destinations within a Kingdom’s region. Short-range mobility needs between destinations that
lie within a city’s metropolitan area or between neighboring towns or other high-trip-
generating sites carrying moderate to high traffic volumes cannot be assigned to a freeway. In
these cases, the function of the highway is best served by an expressway with mostly grade-
separated Intersections although in some exceptional cases at-grade Intersections can be
tolerated. Freeways are always fully accessed controlled.
Like other rural highways the above-mentioned functional categories are best described as for
the design of their alignment by their design speeds. Freeways are associated therefore with
a design speed from 90 to 130 (140) km/h, while expressways are accordingly associated with
a design speed of 80 to 120 km/h (see Section 2.4.3.2).
7.3.3. Design Traffic Volumes and Level of Service

Design traffic volumes and level of service for the freeways/expressways will be determined
according to the relevant information included in the volume SHC 201 (Planning Process).
7.4. Cross-Sections
The selection of cross-section components and the specification of dimensions for standard
freeway/expressway cross-sections are important qualities that affect:
• Road safety.
• Quality of traffic flow.
• Construction, operation, and maintenance requirements.
Typical cross-sections are determined by the forecast traffic volume and the desired quality of
traffic flow (see SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering)).
Once the typical cross-section has been selected, the design planning stage provides evidence
of the traffic flow quality (LoS) that can be achieved under the given highway and traffic
conditions based on the SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering). Changes may need to be made, e.g.,
the addition of lanes on ascending grades on certain sections of the freeway/expressway. In
particularly complex situations traffic flow simulations may be necessary.
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Finally, the compatibility of highway cross-sections in different consecutive operation sections,
improved sections, or new sections must also be checked to ensure that road characteristics
are as uniform as possible and transitions are safe and perceived by the drivers.
7.4.2. Freeway / Expressway Components

7.4.2.1. Traffic safety space
vehicle, the lateral and vertical motion instability space (instability areas), plus an additional
overhead safety space (above the boundaries of the instability area).
7.4.2.2. Clearance
The total clearance comprises the traffic space and the overhead and lateral safety spaces.
The lateral clearance (safety space) has a standard width of 1.00 m. If the
freeway/expressway has no paved shoulder, this width shall be increased to 1.25 m.
The vertical clearance for the design of overpasses (highways passing over the
freeway/expressway) should be at least 4.90 m.
The overhead (vertical) safety and instability space is the space available to a moving
vehicle to accommodate loading inaccuracies and vehicles bouncing on uneven road surfaces.
Overhead clearance is taken equal to 0.30 m.
Based on the above the overall vertical clearance on freeways/expressways should not be
less than 5.20 m. This dimension already comprises a buffer of 0.30 m to allow for the future
rehabilitation of the pavement using overlays. For this vertical clearance the value of 5.50 m
is mandatory in accordance with the statutory requirements applicable to all highways and
their related facilities on the highway network within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Total vertical clearances are measured vertical to the pavement at its highest point considering
the existence of a superelevation rate and must be applied within the lateral limits.
The design clearance space must be kept clear of obstacles. Protective devices and easily
deformable parts of highway furniture or equipment may protrude into the clearance and
come within 0.50 m of the traffic space. In cases where space is limited and there are no
alternative ways of installing the necessary protective devices, these can protrude into the
clearance and up to 0.25 m away from the traffic space. The central axis of vertical signing
posts (∅ < 76 mm) may be positioned at the boundary of the clearance. Curbs may protrude
into the clearance right up to the limit of the traffic space.
For special guidelines relating to tunnel sections, refer to SHC 310 (Bridges and Tunnels
Design).
7.4.2.3. Travel lanes

Travel (traffic) lanes that are predominantly used by heavy vehicles should preferably be 3.65
m wide to ensure even distribution on the carriageway. In case of freeways with four and six
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lanes, this corresponds to the outer right lane, while in the case of freeways with eight lanes,
this value should be applied to the two outer right lanes.
The inner left lanes, which are not used as frequently by heavy vehicles or are prohibited to be
used in case of three lanes or more per direction of travel, should be 3.30 m wide.
Generally, all lanes on expressways can be 3.30 m wide (to reduce construction costs and space
requirements) provided the design speeds mentioned above for this category of highways are
observed.
In accordance with Section 7.7.1, climbing lanes on ascending grades can be 3.30 m wide.
For instructions on the design of cross-sections for merging and diverging lanes at
Intersections, refer to the corresponding Chapters 10 and 11. Typical transitions from a two-
lane to a four-lane divided rural highway is provided in Chapter 12, according to Figure 12-1.
7.4.2.4. Hard shoulders

Hard shoulders, sometimes designated as Emergency or Breakdown Lanes should be provided
in all freeways and expressways. The width of the hard shoulder should be at least 3.00 m in
all cases, while in cases where the directional design-hour volume of heavy vehicles (DDHV)
exceeds 250 trucks per hour an increased paved shoulder width of 3.60 m should be
considered.
The inner edge strip or hard shoulder adjacent to the median should be normally between
1.20 to 2.40 m wide. This increases the sight distance at left-turn horizontal curves. It also
means that vehicle occupants can get out of the car at the central reserve in the case of
emergency stops.
7.4.2.5. Unpaved shoulders

Unpaved shoulders aim at providing the necessary space for the following equipment:
• Passive Safety Systems (Barriers and Passive Lighting Posts).
• Gantries supports.
• Signs and other traffic control devices.
• Space for performing operational and maintenance works.
They should be properly stabilized (refer to Section 4.3 of SHC 401 (Construction of Highways)).
Their minimum widths are 1.50 m wide.
7.4.2.6. Medians
Medians separate structurally the two opposing traffic directions. In medians the following
equipment and facilities can be installed:
• Pillars and supports of overhead structures (overpasses, bridges etc.).
• Passive safety equipment.
• Gantries supports and posts.
• Lighting posts.
• Signs.
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• Drainage facilities.
• Other facilities and equipment (fences, antiglare equipment etc.).
• Planting.
The absolute minimum width of medians could become 3.00 m by applying a two-sided central
barrier, while wider medians should be constructed as far as possible based on the Figure 7-1
by applying two separate one-sided barriers. In ideal cases, considering the clear zone widths
in accordance with the Safe System Concept where no barriers will be needed, the median
width should be 85 m wide for 120 km/h and 100 m wide for 130 km/h, as derived for 2.5 s
perception-reaction time according to AASHTO design policy. Details for the need and the
application of barriers are described in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –
Passive Safety Systems Design).
Figure 7-1 Typical Formations of Freeway / Expressway Medians (AASHTO, 2018)
7.4.2.7. Outer separation

Outer separation is defined as the area between the traveled ways of the freeway/expressway
and the frontage road. In rural areas, the outer separation should be a minimum of 12 m wide
from edge of traveled way to edge of traveled way.
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Figure 7-2 show the typical cross-sections depicting the essential elements for freeways and
expressways.
Legend: slopes in the figure denote vertical:horizontal dimension, CRZ=clear recovery zone,
ETW= edge of the traveled way, R/W: Right of way
Figure 7-2 Typical Cross-Sections for Freeways / Expressways with Separate Carriageways and All Paved or
Narrow Median (CALTRANS, 2019)
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Legend: slopes in the figure denote vertical:horizontal dimension, CRZ=clear recovery zone,
ETW= edge of the traveled way, R/W: Right of way
Figure 7-3 Typical Cross-Sections for Freeways / Expressways with Separate Carriageways and Wide Median
(CALTRANS, 2019)
7.5. Alignment
The dimensions of the design elements for the alignment of freeways/expressways should be
based on safety considerations and vehicle dynamics.
Elements for freeways/expressways shall be designed in such a way as to allow vehicles to
travel safely for the design speed in wet conditions.
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The horizontal and vertical alignments shall be coordinated, taking the principles of three-
dimensional alignment into account through specific road design software, especially for the
adequacy of the provided stopping sight distance.
7.5.2. Stopping Sight Distance

For reasons of road safety and traffic flow quality, it is essential that the stopping sight distance
be met through the entire length of a freeway/expressway. Due to the high speeds allowed in
freeway/expressway Sections visibility adequacy is a very critical issue that must be covered in
road design ensuring that drivers have enough time to gather information, respond and finally
stop before a hazard.
7.5.2.1. Required stopping sight distance

driver to stop the vehicle, while driving at the design speed (required stopping sight distance).
Figure 7-4 shows the required stopping sight distance in relation to the grade and the design
speed. In order to provide sufficient perception-reaction time to the driver, as well as sufficient
time to stop the vehicle, longer visibility lengths are generally required. Therefore, visibility
lengths should be at least 30 % longer than the required stopping sight distance.
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350
300
250
200
150
100
-5% -4% -3% -2% -1% 0% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
Figure 7-4 Required Stopping Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade

The available sight distance is calculated according to diagrams and formulas included in
Section 4.6.6.2 of the present Volume.
7.5.2.3. Checking of the required stopping sight distance

In order to have an increased provided road safety level, each point of the highway corridor
should be checked with respect to the required stopping sight distance at both directions. The
available visibility length must be higher than the required stopping sight distance along the
whole length the freeway or expressway. In certain difficult cases that the available visibility
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length is less than the required stopping sight distance and this disadvantage cannot be
corrected due to the conditions of the surrounding area, it must be checked whether it is
possible to reduce the allowed travel speed.
All obstructions to sight lines (e.g., by slopes planted with grass or shrubs, noise barriers, and
protective devices, especially around slip roads) must be avoided up to the height of the line
of sight in the field of vision that must be kept free along each carriageway.
For radii close to the minimum values, the minimum stopping sight distance on the inside lane
of the carriageway at left-hand turning curves can usually be met if there is no plant cover
(vegetation) in the central median close to the edge line and no vehicle restraint systems
(safety barriers) used with a height higher than 0.90 m. Otherwise, it will be necessary to revise
the horizontal alignment, widen the median and shift obstacles or, in the case of freeways and
expressways that are being reconstructed or improved, to introduce a speed limit for this
section (generally to be applied only under wet conditions).

7.5.3.1. Tangents
As already mentioned in Section 5.5.3.1 for rural highways, tangents are easily adapted on
plain terrain, as well as near to linear elements e.g., railway lines, wadis and on linear fences.
They are providing good visibility towards Intersections and interchanges. Long tangents,
especially those with a constant grade, have as disadvantages that:
• there is an increased difficulty to adapt to hilly and mountainous reliefs;
• make difficult the estimation of distances and speeds of vehicles ahead and following;
• encourage the driver to travel very fast;
• reduce road safety through monotony and the risk of fatigue.
For the above reasons, it is recommended that the length of tangents in cases of
freeways/expressways should be limited to 2,000 m. For better adaptation to the landscape or
due to other limitations, longer tangent lengths can be applied in certain cases. In order to
have an increased built-in road safety level, radii before and after tangents should be in
harmony (see Section 5.5.3.2).
Tangents between curves that are both right- or left-turn should have a minimum length of
400 m.
7.5.3.2. Circular curves

movement at the permitted speed as defined by the relevant freeway/expressway category.
Also, radii should harmonize with the topography of the terrain.
7-1. Higher value radii could be chosen if in this case the freeway/expressway alignment adapts
better to the terrain. For road users to perceive circular arcs as independent elements within
the curve, the minimum circular arc lengths in accordance with Table 7-1 should be provided.
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Design Speed for Freeways / Expressways

Minimum Arcs (m)
(km/h) Factor
Length (m)
6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 %
80 0.14 50 255 230 210
90 0.13 55 340 305 280
100 0.12 60 440 395 360
110 0.11 65 565 505 455
120 0.10 70 710 630 570
130 0.09 75 890 785 705
140 0.08 80 1,105 965 860
7.5.3.3. Transition curves

(Complex Curves). The purpose of transition curves is:
• to allow for superelevation change between tangent and curve.
• to provide the possibility of progressive rotation of the steering wheel by the driver in
the required direction.
• to ensure a continual change in the centrifugal acceleration that occurs when driving
in a curve.
• to create a swift and optically satisfactory alignment by gradually changing the
curvature.
Transition curves are mathematically defined as spirals (see Section Spiral Geometry). The
values of minimum spiral parameter and length that should be applied on each horizontal
curve is summarized on Table 7-2, while recommended values are presented in Table 7-3.
Transition curves should be used in horizontal curves with radii equal or less than the upper
radius limit shown on the same tables (minimum and recommended values respectively).
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80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479
100 145 56 592
110 170 61 716
120 200 67 852
130 230 72 1,000
140 260 78 1,160

80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900
100 205 115 2,100
110 240 125 2,300
120 280 135 2,600
130 320 145 3,000
140 375 160 4,000
Transition curves should be used in all horizontal curves on freeways and expressways with
radii equal or less than those shown in Table 7-2.

7.5.4.1. Grades
As described also in Section 5.5.4.1, lower grades:
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• Improve the provided road safety level (exception: areas of adjustment of grades with
superelevation change).
• Improve the quality of traffic flow and the provided level of service.
• Reduce operating costs, as well as costs for road users.
• Reduce emissions.
Under conditions, higher grades allow:
• The best adaptation to the natural landscape.
• Reduced interventions in the environment.
• Lower construction costs.
For traffic operation issues and for an upgraded provided road safety level, the maximum
grades should not exceed the values of Table 7-4.
Table 7-4 Recommended (Desirable and Allowed) Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Freeways /
Expressways
Design Speed Desirable Maximum allowed

(km/h) Grades s (%) Grades s (%)
80 4.0 5.0
90 3.5 5.0
100 3.0 5.0
110 2.5 4.5
120 2.5 4.0
130 2.0 3.5
140 2.0 3.0
In exceptional cases, the maximum grades of Table 7-4 could be exceeded, but the maximum
compound slopes according to Section 4.6.6.1 should be applied.
In tunnels longer than 400 m, the grade must not exceed 3.0 %.
In areas where Intersections are formed in expressways, smaller grades (G ≤ 4.0 %) should be
chosen.
To avoid areas with poor drainage, in areas where there is pavement rotation, grades should
be higher than 1.0 % (1.5 % is preferred). In certain difficult cases where the above limit is not
possible to achieved, the minimum grade should be limited to 0.7 %. For freeway/expressway
sections that are drained using gutters, a minimum grade of 0.7 % is also recommended to
ensure that drainage is functioning.
In long bridges (≥ 100 m) and in tunnels, a minimum grade 0.7 % should be provided for
drainage purposes.
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7.5.4.2. Crest and sag curves
As described also in Section 5.5.4.2, changes in grades in the freeway/expressway profile are
rounded. The radii of crest and sag curves should be chosen in such a way that:
• In combination with the horizontal alignment elements, a balanced three dimensions
corridor is produced.
• to provide the required visibility length for stopping.
• to adapt to the terrain.
• to protect the environment.
The rounding of crest and sag curves is made with a circular arc. Calculated approximately as
a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves).
considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object height is equal to 0.60 m for stopping
sight distance (SSD) according to AASHTO and Section 4.6.4.3.
Table 7-5 Recommended Values of Parameter K for Crest and Sag Curves with Respect to the Design Speed
Design Speed Minimum K value for Minimum K value for Minimum Curve
(km/h) Crest Curve (m/%) Sag Curve (m/%) Length (m)
80 26 29 48
90 39 38 54
100 52 45 60
110 74 54 66
120 95 63 72
130 123 73 78
140 161 84 84
The minimum K values for crests curves ensures that the required stopping sight distances is
available for the drivers, in case where the horizontal alignment is in tangent. In case where
the horizontal alignment is in curve and in cases where values used are below the minimum
provided in Table 7-5, spatial evidence shall be provided that the stopping sight distance is
met.
The minimum K values for sag curves ensures that the stopping sight distance is met, even
under engineering structures (overpasses etc.). In the interest of harmonious road alignment,
they should not, where possible, be less than half of the radius of the preceding crest curve.
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Three-dimensional alignment of a freeway/expressway section should be checked in
combination of the layout and the longitudinal profile, by taking into consideration methods
described in Section 5.5.5. Especially for freeways/expressways due to the central median
applied for the separation of two carriageways, particular care should be given to the areas
where the horizontal and crest vertical curves coexist, to ensure the required stopping sight
distance for vehicles traveling in the left (fast) traffic lane. This visibility check should be carried
out through specific road design software that has the ability of 3-D supervision and 3-D
visibility check of the adequacy of the stopping sight distance.
In a crest curve, it may be necessary to shift the start of the horizontal curve ahead of the start
of the crest curve, to warrant the perception of the horizontal curve. The necessary shift values
are shown in Table 7-6.
It is noted that the visual hidden area resulted due to a crest curve or a backslope according
to Figure 5-7 also applies to freeways and should be considered.
Table 7-6 Required Displacement of the Start of Crest Vertical Curve Before the Start of the Horizontal Curve
(Tangent – Spiral – Circular Arc) - (FGSV, 2008)
Crest Curve Spiral Parameter As [m]
Parameter Radius
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
K (m/%) Hk (m)
30 3,000 25 45 65 85 100 120 135 155
40 4,000 35 55 75 95 115 130 150
50 5,000 25 50 70 90 110 125 145
60 6,000 40 60 85 105 120 140
70 7,000 30 55 75 95 115 135
80 8,000 20 45 70 90 110 130
90 9,000 40 65 85 105 125
100 10,000 no shift required 30 55 80 100 120
110 11,000 20 45 70 95 115
120 12,000 40 65 90 110
130 13,000 30 55 80 105
140 14,000 20 50 75 100
150 15,000 40 70 95
160 16,000 30 60 90
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7.5.6.1. Superelevation in tangent
On tangents, carriageways are designed with a one-sided superelevation of at least 2.0 % and
preferably 2.5 % to the outside of the curve. Also, additional lanes, merging and diverging
lanes, and hard shoulders should have the same superelevation as the through pavement.
Unpaved shoulders are constructed with a superelevation equal to 12.0 % in internal sides
accumulating drainage, while otherwise a superelevation of 6.0 % is applied.
7.5.6.2. Superelevation in circular arcs

In circular arcs, for reasons of dynamics and for their better identification, the superelevation
rate is applied towards the inside of the circular arc. The maximum superelevation applied in
freeways/expressways should be 10.0 %, while the minimum superelevation slope is limited to
2.0 %. Figure 7-5 shows the superelevation required with respect to the horizontal curve radius
for all design speed. Values taken are recommended to be rounded up by 0.5 %.
10%
8%
6%
0.13
4% 0.12
0.11
0.1
2% 0.09
0.08
0%
20
-2% 30
100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 40
60
Figure 7-5 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (max e = 10.0
%)
Curve radii in bridges should be higher than 1,500 m for all freeways and expressways, to
reduce the superelevation rate applied to a maximum of 5.0 %.
reverse slope equal to - 2.0 % can be applied (towards to the external edge of the circular arc
as shown in Figure 4-13), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can be avoided.
SHC 301 301

Design Speed

Design Speed Implementation of Adverse Superelevation (m)
(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e= - 2.50 %
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
100 ≥ 790 ≥ 830
110 ≥ 1,060 ≥ 1,125
120 ≥ 1,420 ≥ 1,515
130 ≥ 1,905 ≥ 2,050
140 ≥ 2,575 ≥ 2,810
To prevent vehicles from skidding under adverse weather conditions on mountainous areas,
the maximum compound slope (composition of grade and superelevation), should be limited
to a maximum limit of 12.0 %. Formula for the compound slope are provided in Section 4.5.5.
7.5.6.3. Superelevation rotation area

The rotation of the superelevation is basically made within the transition curve (spiral),
regardless of which reference point the road surface rotates. In cases where spirals are not
applied (see Section 7.5.3.3), then the pavement rotates 2/3 on the tangent and 1/3 inside the
curve. In certain difficult cases, the rotation of the pavement could be carried out in tangent
(at the beginning or at the end). Pavement rotation in bridges should be avoided.
Over the length of this section, the edges of the carriageway are superelevated and the
pavement is rotated about a certain ‘axis of rotation’. On freeways/expressways, the crossfall
is generally changed by rotating the pavement around the axes of the carriageways (Figure
7-6, case 1).
In exceptional cases – e.g., in tunnels, and in cases where visibility is reduced at central medians
or in bridges to avoid a sawtooth effect, carriageways can be rotated around the edges of the
carriageway at the central median or around the road centerline (Figure 7-6, cases 2 and 3).
SHC 301
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Figure 7-6 Axes of Rotation of the Carriageway on Superelevation Development Sections (FGSV, 2008)
7.5.6.4. Grade of pavement edges with respect to grade of the axis

The length of the superelevation runoff shall be enough, so the runoff slope meets the limiting
values shown in Table 7-8. The runoff slope r is defined as the difference in grade between the
axis of the road and the grade of boundary lines of the pavement. The minimum length of the
superelevation runoff can be calculated using the following equation:
𝟓𝟎∙𝒆∙𝒘
𝑳= Equation 7-1
𝒓
where:
e = the superelevation rate of the curve (%)
w = the width of traveled way (m)
r = the percent of runoff slope as shown in Table 7-8 (%).
For freeways and expressways, the minimum length of superelevation runoff shall be 50 m.
To avoid steep superelevations, the maximum value of runoff slope should not exceed the
values of Table 7-8. For long transition curves, where the runoff slope is less than 0.30 %, the
attainment of superelevation runoff should be modified as follows (see Figure 7-7):
• In section between points A and C the runoff slope should be 0. 30 % and
• In section between points C and E the runoff slope should be less than 0.30 %.
SHC 301 303

Table 7-8 Superelevation Runoff Slope in Freeways / Expressways [%] (MoC, 1992)
Design Speed Runoff Slope r

(Km/h) (%)
80 0.50
90 0.47
100 0.44
110 0.41
120 0.38
130 0.36
140 0.34
Basic forms for the pavement rotation in transition areas for separate carriageways cross-
sections are shown in Figure 7-7.
7.5.6.5. Superelevation on broken back curves

Broken back horizontal alignment occurs when two adjacent curves in the same direction are
connected by a short tangent. Broken back alignment should be avoided, but when its use is
necessary, special attention must be given to the superelevation between the curves.
The control distance is the combined length of the two superelevation runoff lengths for the
two circular curves of the broken back combination. For the superelevation design there are
three options:
• In case where the distance between circular curves is less than 1.5 times the control
distance, continuous superelevation should be carried from the first curve to the
second. If the radii of the two curves are different, the superelevation rates will be
different.
• In case where the distance between circular curves is between 1.5 and 2.5 times the
control distance, a relatively flat superelevation rate should be used between the
curves.
• In case where the distance between curves is greater than 2.5 times the control
distance, continues superelevation should not be used between the curves. A normal
crown section should be attained between the curves, with each curve superelevated
independently.
SHC 301
304 SHC 304
301
Figure 7-7 Basic forms for the Pavement Rotation in Transition Areas (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301 305

On freeways and expressways, the minimum value that can be applied to horizontal curves is
limited to 200 m. For these radii values it is not necessary to apply any widening on the
horizontal curves.
7.5.7.2. Widening for added or removed traffic lanes

Widening of the traveled way with tapering of the edges of the carriageway will be necessary
when:
• changing the cross-section of the carriageway (e.g., ahead of bridges or tunnels).
• constructing an additional lane.
• when constructing a diverging or a merging lane.
7.5.7.3. Median width transition

Whenever two abutting highway sections have different median widths, a smooth transition
shall adjust the difference. On horizontal curve, the median can be uniformly narrowed or
widened to adjust the difference. On tangent section, the transition should be applied about
the centerline or the edge of the median. For good appearance, the transition length should
be as long as possible and should occur within a horizontal curve.
7.5.7.4. Temporary connections

Very often a new project will have slightly wider travel lane and/or shoulder widths than the
existing freeway/expressway section. To provide a smooth transition from the existing to a
new section of highway, the length of the transition area in meters shall be at least 2.25 times
higher than the design speed in km/h.
7.6. Special Design Features in Areas of Bridges and Tunnels

Bridges should be adapted to the layout of the highway. In areas that a bridge construction is
required, such as crossings with other roads or railway corridors, or even in areas of passing
rivers or streams, the road layout should ensure as much perpendicular crossing as possible,
in order to reduce the required structure length and also a reduced intervention in the
environment could be achieved. For this reason, a crossing angle of 72 degrees to 108 degrees
is recommended.
For bridges proposed in a circular arc, a sufficiently large radius should be chosen so that the
superelevation rate could be limited to a maximum value of 5.0 % (see Section 7.5.6.2).
Transition parts (spirals) should be avoided in bridges, while superelevation changes are not
desirable. In bridges, a constant grade should be chosen as a rule.
In case of using as a construction method gradual advancement in bridges, constant curvature
should be applied in horizontal and vertical alignment.
SHC 301
306 SHC 306
301
For the satisfactory drainage of rainwater, a minimum grade equal to 0.7 % should be applied
in long bridges. Low or high elevation points (grade at this specific point is equal to 0 %)
should be avoided as much as possible since they cause problems in the rainwater runoff.
The geometric design in tunnels should be carried out in horizontal and vertical alignment
with sufficient design data. The grade should be limited to 3.0 %. In cases of higher length
tunnels (over 500 m), grade should not be greater than 2.5 %. Exceptions to this rule are tunnel
Sections of short length (L ≤ 200 m), for which the maximum grade of 6.0 % shall be observed
(e.g., on slip road carriageways).
More information about bridge and tunnel design can be found on SHC 310 (Bridges and
Tunnels Design).
7.7. Special Technical Design and Operation Considerations

7.7.1. Climbing Lanes
7.7.1.1. General remarks
Freeways/expressways sections with steep grades have a considerable influence on the quality
of the traffic flow and therefore on road safety. The introduction of climbing lanes on such
ascending grades
• separates fast and slow-moving traffic.
• improves the quality of the traffic flow.
• improves the provided road safety level and reduces crash number.
Climbing lanes are lanes that are added to carriageways on ascending grades for separation
of the fast and slow-moving traffic.
7.7.1.2. Criteria for use

The following parameters are significant to the design of climbing lanes:
• traffic volumes.
• traffic composition.
• typical cross-section.
• progression of the grades (on long section).
• targeted level of service.
Climbing lanes may be necessary in situations where the grade, is greater than 2.0 %. They are
necessary when the level of service on the ascending grade falls below level D according to
Appendix B of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
Moreover, the introduction of climbing lanes must be considered if one or more of the
following conditions are met:
• The level of service on the ascending grade is worse than level C.
• The level of service on the ascending grade is more than one level worse than the
previous freeway/expressway Section.
• The economic benefits outweigh the additional costs.
SHC 301 307

7.7.1.3. Designing climbing lanes
On freeways/expressways, the length of a climbing lane should not be less than 1,500 m. If
necessary, they should be extended before or after the ascending grade.
If the distance separating consecutive climbing lanes falls below 2,500 m, the climbing lanes
should be combined for reasons of road safety. Climbing lanes on ascending grades should
not end at interchanges.
The widening of the carriageway in climbing lanes on new projects or on reconstructing or
improving existing freeways/expressways, is designed according to Figure 7-8.
The tapered right-hand edge of the carriageway should be at least 200 m long. In exceptional
cases where an entry is situated on an ascending grade, the climbing lane can be introduced
as a direct extension of the acceleration lane.
The width of the climbing lane shall be at least 3.30 m.
Climbing lanes can also be inserted on the ascending grades of three-lane carriageways.
Climbing lanes should end on the inside of the through carriageway of the freeway/expressway
where a clear view ahead is adequate.
In new projects, the tapering of climbing lanes is indicated by hatching markings over a
tapering length of 120 m.
7.7.2. Lane Reductions

When improving a freeway/expressway section and increasing the number of lanes at the same
time, changes in the cross-section are necessary in the transition from the improved section
to the old section. Such changes in cross-section can be integrated either in the form of the
acceleration or deceleration lanes (see Chapter 11) or in the form of lane reductions.
In areas characterized by high traffic volumes, greater than 30,000 vehicles per 24h per
direction, lane reductions can result in a reduction of the provided road safety level. For this
reason, they should only be implemented in cases where they are unavoidable. Lane reductions
should be applied on the open road section and not in or before bridges and tunnels. Also,
lane reductions in interchanges should be avoided.
Where possible, lane reductions should be implemented on freeway/expressway Sections
offering a clear view ahead (i.e., in tangents, in flat grade etc.).
SHC 301
308 SHC 308
301
Figure 7-8 Typical Climbing Lane Design for Freeways (FGSV, 2008)
SHC 301 309

7.7.3. Central Median Openings
Median openings are areas where the traffic can be transferred across the central median
during construction periods. Specific movable safety barriers (Median Barrier Gates) could be
applied in these areas. Openings can be created for future use when constructing a new
freeway/expressway or reconstructing an existing freeway/expressway or they can be created
as the need arises on sections of freeway/expressway that are in use. In addition, openings are
needed for temporary use for maintenance or reconstruction issues.
It is recommended that openings should be located ahead of:
• Freeway/expressway interchanges.
• Freeway/expressway bridges over valleys (with a length greater than 100 m).
• Sections with a significantly different vertical alignment for both carriageways.
• Freeway/expressway tunnels.
In the case of tunnels, openings should be established before the entrance of the tunnel to
allow operation or emergency vehicles to change from one directional carriageway to the
other.
In exceptional cases, for example on sections characterized by high traffic volumes, it may be
expedient to locate central median openings ahead interchanges or at regular distances
(greater than 5 km) on the open highway section.
Central median openings should be avoided on or under structures and in the vicinity of
interchanges and rest areas.
Median openings should only be located in places where the difference between the
superelevation of the carriageway and the paved median does not exceed 9.0 %.
In cases where a central median opening is located in a circular curve and where one of the
carriageways has a cross slope towards the inside of the curve special hydraulic facilities may
be necessary.
7.8. Appurtenances for Controlled Access Highways

In rural freeways/expressways various appurtenances may be located on the non-paved
shoulders outside the paved area and in the central median. These appurtenances could be,
but not limited to:
• Public utilities and road lightning as described in SHC 306 (Highway Facilities and
Devices).
SHC 301
310 SHC 310
301
8. Low Volume and Access Highway Design
8.1. Introduction
The present chapter refers to the design of low volume and access highways and streets in
rural, urban, suburban, recreational, industrial and agricultural areas, with AADT of less than
2,000 veh/d, including access highways and streets with AADT of less than 400 veh/d,
connected with at-grade Intersections inside build-up areas or outside the urban range, with
design speed up to 70 km/h for paved highway surfaces and from 20 up to 50 km/h for
unpaved highway surfaces.

As already mentioned in Chapter 5, the design for of new rural highways (including the low
volume rural highways), as well as the reconstruction, rehabilitation and widening works, takes
place in a progressive process runs through various design stages (Concept Design,
Preliminary Design, Final Design etc.). Special design features associated with rural and urban
highway rehabilitation (3R) and reconstruction (4R) are presented in Chapter 12.
Inputs for the geometric design of low-volume and access highways can include
measurements, topographical surveys, reconnaissance reports from site visits, site
investigation, laboratory test results, recommendations on minimum values of geometric
features, findings of traffic counts, traffic analysis & modeling, H & H studies, geotechnical
study, etc. Outputs generally include reports, designs and drawings, recommendations, bills of
quantities, proposals for alternative or additional schemes, and possibly other outputs on a
case-by-case basis.
The degree of detail and the scale of each study including contents, plans and drawings should
be commensurate with the needs of each stage while making clearly understood the effects
on the highway context, as well as the local design exceptions and necessary adjustments in
layout, profile and cross-sections.
Low-volume and access highways make it imperative to use another geometric design
approach than normally used for main highways such as Rural Highways provided in Chapter
5, Urban Highways provided in Chapter 6 and Freeways/Expressways provided in Chapter 7, in
order for the design of low-volume and access highways to become cost-effective. The present
chapter therefore enables designers to apply design limited values and criteria for low and
very-low volume highways, that are less restricted than those generally used on higher volume
highways. Safety considerations and risk assessment show that less restrictive design criteria
can be applied on low-volume highways without substantial effects on crash frequency and
severity. The content of this chapter applies both to new construction or reconstruction of
highways and to construction projects on existing highways.
The intent of this chapter is mainly to assist the knowledgeable designer by referencing a
recommended range of values for critical dimensions. Flexibility in use of the content of this
chapter is encouraged so that independent designs tailored to particular situations and local
conditions can be developed.
SHC 301 311

8.2.2. Highway Categories
To warrant high road safety levels and an increased quality of traffic flow, low-volume rural
highways must comply with the functional categories described in Section 2.3. Minor collectors
(with AADT less than 2,000 veh/day) and local highways are mainly belonged to low volume
highways. There are two major categories for low volume highways:
• Very Low-volume highways where the design AADT in the base year is fewer than 400
veh/day.
• Low-volume highways where the AADT in the base year is higher than 400 veh/day but
less than 2,000 veh/day.
As design AADT is defined as the maximum AADT projected for the design life of the low-
volume highway. Assuming a continuous growth and a 20-year design life, this will normally
occur on the 20th year (base year) after construction.
The limited values for the design parameters for very low volume rural highways (AADT less
than 400 veh/day), as described in the following paragraphs, may be further adjusted to local
conditions if necessary.
In principle the low-volume and access highways are associated with the following special
functional categories for both the rural and the urban environment:
• Rural major access highway
They provide access to abutting properties and through or connecting services between other
local highways or higher type facilities. They may operate at relatively high speeds. They are
usually paved but they may be also unpaved.
• Rural minor access highway
They provide exclusively access to adjacent property. Many of them are cul de sacs or loop
highways without through continuity. Speeds are generally low. Sometimes they might be
developed as one lane highways either paved or unpaved. They have to be accessible to school
buses, fire trucks and other emergency vehicles.
• Rural industrial or commercial access highway
They serve developments that may generate a significant proportion of truck or other heavy
vehicle traffic. They are very short and generally do not serve through traffic. They may be
paved or unpaved.
• Rural agricultural access highway
They provide access to fields and farming operations to agricultural vehicles (wider than a
typical 2.6 m wide truck). They are usually unpaved.
• Rural recreational access highway
They serve specialized land uses like parks, tourist attractions campsites, boat-launch ramps
etc. They may carry highly seasonal traffic volumes composed of motor homes, campers and
passenger cars pulling boats and other trailers. They may accommodate a wide range of
speeds and trips may be very long. They may be paved or unpaved.
• Rural resource recovery sites access highway
SHC 301
312 SHC 312
301
They are local highways serving mining, oilfields and other resources operations. In some cases
traffic operation on these highways is carried through radio communication between drivers
and as such they may be designed as single-lane highways. They are mostly unpaved.
• Urban major access street
They provide access to adjacent property or through services between other local streets or
higher type facilities. They approach the status of a minor collector. Specific operating roles of
pedestrian and other modes should be considered in the design.
• Urban residential access street
They provide access to single- or multiple-family residences in built-up areas. Although rarely
used by heavy vehicles, use of school buses, and emergency or maintenance vehicles should
be considered in their design.
• Urban industrial or commercial access street
Their main function is to provide access of heavy vehicles from an industrial or commercial site
to the local or regional highway network. They are short and may be developed as paved or
unpaved.
• Other urban facilities access street
In this category are included urban agricultural, recreational and resource recovery access
highways. Although urban they should be designed as their rural counterparts.
In the following paragraphs the general and special highway design features of the above
mentioned low-volume or very low-volume and access highways categories are explicitly
specified.
8.2.3. Highway Design Features

8.2.3.1. Low volume highway main functions
As already mentioned there are two main functions considering for the geometric design of
low volume and access highways:
Access function
These are relatively low volume and access highways designed to provide access to the various
land uses and activities associated with access, such as turning, stopping, parking, pedestrian
safety and associated low-speed movements (the activity/access function). The provision of
access allows both vehicles and pedestrians entry to and from adjacent land. As such, care
must be taken to keep speeds low for the safety of slow-moving pedestrians and turning traffic
whenever present.
Mobility function
These highways may be designed to move traffic over relatively long distances quickly,
effectively and efficiently. They are therefore higher speed through routes on which movement
is dominant, and access and pedestrian crossings are limited to defined and clearly
demarcated positions at widely spaced intervals.
SHC 301 313

8.2.3.2. Pavement surfacing type
For low volume and access highways, paved surface (i.e. flexible or rigid) typical cross-sections
and unpaved surface type (e.g. gravel) can be applied. The friction factors for paved and
unpaved highways are significantly different, and this affects the distance required to stop
safely and the safe speed for negotiating curves. Thus, the geometric standards differ
according to the type of surface.
8.2.3.3. Construction works and cost

Due to low traffic served by low volume and access highways, the construction cost should be
kept as low as possible. In this context design speed and geometric design characteristics shall
be selected, especially in hilly and mountainous areas, to minimize the needed construction
works considering that:
• Maximum height of cuts and fills must be small enough and therefore the produced
earthworks will be limited.
• Mass balancing should be achieved for earthworks needed in the highway
construction.
• Grades should follow as possible the natural terrain grades.
• Horizontal and vertical alignments may be designed in order to be adopted to the
terrain as much as possible.
Design standards in hilly and mountainous terrain are always lower than in plain terrain, but
this reduction is mainly needed for earthworks limitation. Following the contour lines more
closely will make the road longer, but grades and earthworks will be less severe. Every effort
should be made to preserve the same standards in the particular terrain encountered.
8.2.4. Design Speeds

The goal when designing rural or urban highways of a specific category is to define a design
speed that serves the safe operation of this highway. Based on this design speed, the limiting
values of the design parameters are determined, while driving dynamics are also considered.
Low volume and access highways are associated therefore with a design speed:
• from 40 up to 70 km/h for paved surfaced applied.
• from 30 up to 50 km/h for unpaved surfaced applied.
while access highways and streets with AADT of less than 400 veh/day are associated therefore
with a design speed:
• from 30 up to 50 km/h for paved surfaced applied.
• from 20 up to 40 km/h for unpaved surfaced applied.
8.3. Cross-Sections
For low-volume rural highways the selection of cross-section components and the
specification of dimensions of each element should be smaller than those used in two-lane
SHC 301
314 SHC 314
301
rural highways described in Chapter 5. Consistency in consecutive sections with different cross-
section applied should be also checked to provide a relative uniformity between them.
Transition points should be made identifiable and designed accordingly to provide high safety
levels.

Main design elements for the evaluation of the typical cross-section used for low-volume rural
highways are:
• Lane width should be limited from 2.50 to 3.00 m in low-volume highways, while 2.00
up to 2.50 m could be used for very low-volume highways.
• Shoulder width (paved or gravel) should be limited to 0.5 m in low-volume highways,
while no shoulder is needed for very low-volume highways.
• Cuts and embankments applied should be kept as lower as possible in order to keep
the construction cost as lower as possible. Considering this main principle,
embankments and cuts with very low height should have a side-slope limited to 2H:1V.
For higher embankments steeper slope could be used (3H:2V), while for higher cuts
geotechnical analysis should be carried out due to different in-situ material (soil, semi-
rock, rock etc.).
• In cut areas a V-shape unlined ditch should be minimum provided with a minimum
depth of 0.6 m. Different hydraulic side formation such as lined orthogonal or
trapezoidal ditch could be applied according to the volume SHC 302 (Highway Facilities
Safety barriers could be used for low-volume roads designed for higher speed according to
volume SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design).
Required pavement structure will be defined according to the volume SHC 308 (Pavement
Design).

The total clearance in low-volume rural highways should be no less than 4.50 m. In case of
very-low volume rural highways where an alternative route is available, satisfying the above
value, the total clearance could be limited to 3.00 m. However higher vertical clearances could
be selected, whenever possible. Typically, in the Saudi Highway Code a total vertical clearance
of 5.50 m is mandatory. Horizontal/lateral clearance for low volume rural highways could be
kept as low as possible, even zero, but preferable not less than 0.5 m from the edge line.

Typical tangent and superelevated cross-section for low-volume rural highways is provided in
Figure 8-1.
SHC 301 315

Figure 8-1 Typical Cross-Section for Low-Volume Rural Highways (Source: State of Tennessee Standard Drawings
– Department of Transportation)
For urban low-volume streets the Table 8-1 applies:
Table 8-1 Guidelines for Total Roadway Width for New Construction of Two-Lane Urban Residential Streets
Total Roadway Width (m)

Development Dwelling Units Number of with parking on
Density per Gross Acre * Channels **
Both Sides One Side Only
Low ≤ 2.0 2 6.1 ~ 6.7 5.5
Medium 2.0 to 6.0 3 7.9 ~ 8.5 7.3
High 6.0 to 10.0 4 9.2 ~ 9.8 8.5
Very high ≥ 10.0 4 10.4 ~ 11.6 9.8
NOTES:
* Gross acreage includes land used for the roadway, alleys pedestrian and bicycle paths, easements, parks,
schools, or other neighborhood facilities; use average density for both sides of the street.
** Number of channels represents the number of through and parking lanes; for low and medium density
development both the likelihood of parked vehicles and the traffic volume are low and the occasional
parked vehicles may park in a lane designated for through traffic, as needed.
SHC 301
316 SHC 316
301
It is noted that specific low-volume highways may be wider or narrower based on
considerations of site-specific factors.
On bridges, one-lane bridges may be provided on single-lane highways and on two-lane
highways with design volumes less than 100 veh/d. The minimum width of a one-lane bridge
is 4.5 m. Wider than 5.0 m one-lane bridges should be avoided since drivers may confuse them
as being two-lane bridges.
8.4. Alignment
The geometric design of low-volume rural highways regarding the layout, profile and
superelevation is carried out based on safety considerations and mainly on vehicle dynamics
for higher design and operating speeds. In addition, design vehicle characteristics are
considered for lower operating speeds (up to 30 km/h) and especially in hairpin curves, in
mountainous and steep terrain.
With respect to safety considerations for low-volume highways two main criteria apply:
• Significant differences in construction and maintenance costs, and
• Estimated impacts on traffic crash frequency or severity.
Other factors than the above two, like LoS, travel time savings are not considered of sufficient
importance.
With respect to very low-volume highways the following risk assessment applies (AASHTO low-
volume):
• For urban or generally low-speed facilities a design that results in no more than one
additional traffic crash per kilometer of highway every 6 to 10 years is an acceptable
risk.
• For rural or generally high-speed facilities a design that results in no more than one
additional traffic crash per kilometer of highway every 10 to 15 years is an acceptable
risk.
Having the above thresholds in mind the designer is expected to exercise engineering
judgement in selecting any design value for low-volume or very low-volume highways,
whether this value is a limiting one or not.
8.4.2. Sight Distance

Sufficient sight distance (SSD and PSD) is also on low-volume highways a particularly
important factor that must be ensured along the alignment. Stopping sight distance must be
ensured along the entire alignment, while passing sight distance should be adequate in a part
of the alignment, usually at a rate of 20 % of the total length in mountainous terrain and up
to 50 % in plain terrain.
SHC 301 317

distance). For unpaved surfaces, the friction is usually considerably less than on paved. This
reduction has been assumed equal to 80 % of the value for paved surfaces but this is
dependent on a tightly knit and dry surface of good quality gravel with no loose stones. Figure
8-2 shows the required stopping sight distance in relation to the grade and the design speed
for paved low-volume rural highways, while Figure 8-3 should be used for unpaved.
150
100
50
20km/h
0
-16% -12% -8% -4% 0% 4% 8% 12% 16%
Figure 8-2 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Paved
Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
SHC 301
318 SHC 318
301
Required Stopping Sight Distance (m) 100
50
0
-16% -12% -8% -4% 0% 4% 8% 12% 16%
Figure 8-3 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Unpaved
Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways

the pavement.

the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. For low-volume and access
highways the required passing sight distance according to Methods 1 and 2 (see Section
4.6.2.3), is provided in Table 8-2.
SHC 301 319

Table 8-2 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in
Low-Volume Rural Highways (Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
20 130 100
30 200 120
40 270 140
50 345 160
60 410 180
70 485 210

For low-volume rural highways and for higher design and operating speed it is necessary to
calculate horizontal and vertical alignment limiting values in terms of driving behavior, while
in lower speeds critical issued with respect to the design vehicle should be considered. On the
other hand, two different pavement types could be applied (paved and unpaved surfaces) and
therefore circular arc radii limits calculated based on side friction factor will be different in both
cases.
For unpaved surfaces, the friction is usually considerably less than on paved. This reduction
has been assumed equal to 80 % of the value for paved surfaces but this is dependent on a
tightly knit and dry surface of good quality gravel with no loose stones. A poorly bound surface
with many loose particles has a very low value of friction and this should be considered in the
design.
Another critical element for vehicle dynamics is the maximum superelevation rate applied, that
on paved surfaces should be limited to 12 %, while in unpaved surfaces should be reduced to
8 %.
The side friction values and minimum circular curve radii and length for paved surfaces is
presented in Table 8-3, while the same element for unpaved surfaces is presented in Table 8-4.
SHC 301
320 SHC 320
301
Design Speed for Paved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways

Design Side Minimum
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00 %
20 0.35 15 10 10 10 10 10
30 0.28 20 25 25 20 20 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45 40 40
50 0.19 30 90 80 75 70 65
60 0.17 35 135 125 115 105 100
70 0.15 40 205 185 170 155 145
Design Speed for Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways

Design Side Minimum Arcs (m)
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 %
20 0.28 15 10 10 10
30 0.22 20 30 30 25
40 0.18 25 60 55 50
50 0.15 30 105 95 90
For design speed up to 30 km/h, transition (spiral) curves are not necessary. In case where
spiral curves are provided between tangents and circular arcs the minimum values for spiral
parameter and spiral length are summarized on Table 8-5, while the recommended values are
presented in Table 8-6. In the same tables the upper radius limit for the necessity of spiral
application is provided (minimum and recommended values respectively). Transition curves
are mathematically defined according to Section Spiral Geometry
SHC 301 321

Design Speed for Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
(km/h) Parameter, As (m) of Spiral, Ls (m) Spiral Applications, R (m)
20 15 11 24
30 20 17 53
40 30 22 95
50 45 28 148
60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290

20 15 15 100
30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000

exceed the values on Table 8-7. Considering that the slopes selected for low-volume highways
in lower design speeds may have a significant effect on heavy vehicle operational performance,
special effort should be made to reduce their values as much as possible (if possible, up to 8.0
%). In unpaved surfaces the desirable and the maximum allowed grade should be limited to
75 ~ 80 % of paved ones.
SHC 301
322 SHC 322
301
Table 8-7 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Paved Surface in Low-Volume Rural
Highways
Design Speed Desirable Maximum allowed

(km/h) Grades G (%) Grades G (%)
20 10.0 16.0
30 9.0 14.0
40 8.0 12.0
50 7.0 10.0
60 6.0 8.0
70 5.0 6.0
In certain difficult cases and only for small parts of low-volume rural highways, the maximum
Changes in grades in low-volume rural highways profile need to be curved. The rounding of
crest and sag curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are
achieve 1.00 % change in grade) for paved and unpaved surfaces for crest and sag curves and
the minimum values of curve lengths, considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object
height is equal to 0.60 for stopping sight distance (SSD) and 1.08 m for passing sight distance
(PSD), according to AASHTO. For unpaved surfaces, stopping sight distance (SSD) is increased
(see Section 8.4.5) due to limited longitudinal friction applied and therefore the recommended
values of K parameter for crest and sag curves are also increased.
Paved and Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
Minimum Sag
Minimum Crest Curve
Curve K value
K value (m/%)
Design (m/%) Minimum
Speed Curve
(km/h) SSD Adequacy PSD Adequacy Length (m)
Method Paved Unpaved

Paved Unpaved Method 2
1
20 1 1 20 12 2 2 12
30 2 2 46 17 5 5 18
40 4 5 84 23 8 10 24
SHC 301 323

Minimum Sag
Minimum Crest Curve
Curve K value
K value (m/%)
Design (m/%) Minimum
Speed Curve
(km/h) SSD Adequacy PSD Adequacy Length (m)
Method Paved Unpaved

Paved Unpaved Method 2
1
50 6 9 138 30 12 15 30
60 11 14 195 38 17 20 36
70 17 22 272 51 23 27 42
On very low-volume highways, smaller vertical radii could be selected.

provided road safety level, especially for alignments designed for higher speed. The three-
dimensional alignment is generally satisfactory, when the curvatures in horizontal and vertical
alignment of the highway are approximately made at the same point and the number of
turning points in layout and profile are harmonized. Visibility check should be carried out
through specific road design software that has the ability of 3-D supervision and 3-D visibility
check of the adequacy of the stopping sight distance.
in order to improve the design in terms of three-dimensional alignment the information of
Section 5.5.4 should be considered.
In tangents the applied cross-slope rate should be 2.0 % and preferably 2.5 % (normal crown)
for paved surfaces while on unpaved surfaces should be increased to 4.0 % (normal crown). In
horizontal curves, maximum cross-slope rate could be limited to 12.0 % towards the inside
edge of the circular arc for paved surfaces and 8.0 % for unpaved surfaces. The minimum cross-
slope could be limited to 2.0 % towards the inside edge of the circular arc for paved surfaces
and 4.0 % for unpaved surfaces. Figure 8-4 shows the superelevation rates required with
respect to the horizontal curve radius for all design speed range for paved surfaces, while for
unpaved surfaces Figure 8-5 could be used. Values taken from both figures are recommended
to be rounded to the nearest 0.5.
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12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
5 50 500
%) for Paved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
5 50 500
%) for Unpaved Surfaces in Low-Volume Rural Highways
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reverse slope equal to - 2.0 % (or - 2.5 %) can be applied for paved surfaces and - 4.0 % for
unpaved (towards to the external edge of the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), in case
where with this solution an area with poor drainage can be avoided.
Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the Implementation of

Adverse Superelevation (m)
Design Speed
(km/h) Paved Surface Unpaved Surface
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 % e = - 4.00 %
20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10 ≥ 15
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30 ≥ 40
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65 ≥ 80
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120 ≥ 155
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200 ≥ 240
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310 ≥ 390

Lane widening in low-volume rural highways is typically not needed for climbing or passing
lane application and for left and right turns in at-grade intersections. In case where the design
of climbing or passing lane application is needed for the improvement of road safety level,
geometric characteristics will be defined according to Sections 7.7.1 and 5.4.6 accordingly.
Information for left turn and right turn lanes is provided in Section 10.
On the other hand, lane widening in curves is very common in low-volume rural highways,
especially in cases with lower design speed alignments where the horizontal curve radius
applied is very small. To define the needed curve widening, the design vehicle should be
selected. After the definition of the design vehicle equations provided in Section 4.6.6.3 should
be followed. Special care should be taken on hairpin curves, according to the information
mentioned in the following section.
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8.4.8. Hairpin Curves
In mountainous terrain where very steep slopes are encountered it is sometimes unavoidable
to use hairpin bends. A hairpin curve is a bend in a highway with a very acute inner angle,
making it necessary for an oncoming vehicle to turn more than 180 °. Figure 8-6 illustrates the
geometry of a hairpin curve.
Figure 8-6 Typical Hairpin Curve Layout in Mountainous Terrain with Steep Slope
For the horizontal alignment design of hairpin bends elements such as radius of the main curve
and reverse curves and length of the tangent are initially selected based on the site conditions,
comfortably with the required geometric standards.
There could be a series of hairpin bends in one highway alignment. The distance between the
ends of the reverse curves of two adjacent hairpin bends should be as large as possible. Two
adjacent bends is recommended to be spaced by at least 200 m. This appears to be too high
for the types of the rugged hilly terrain of the region, where spacing between two adjacent
bends could be reduced, but no lower than 60 m.
Design parameters before and after the hairpin curve follow the design values provided for
low-volume highways presented above in the present chapter. Within the hairpin bend the
design values differs and the recommended values are provided in Table 8-10.
Table 8-10 Recommended Design Parameters of Main Curve of a Hair Pin Bend
Parameter Limited Value
Design Speed 20 km/h
For passenger cars = 5.0 m

Minimum internal radius
For trucks / buses = 8.0 m
For passenger cars = 12.0 m

Minimum external radius
For trucks / buses = 20.0 m
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Parameter Limited Value
Maximum grade within bend 4.0 %
Maximum superelevation on curve 6.0 %
Widening of carriageway Depending on the design vehicle
In the area of the main curve, the needed widening of the carriageway is the most critical
design parameter. The widening should be calculated according to the design vehicle, while
swept path analysis should be made by using specific CAD-based simulation software.
Considering the basic two-axle vehicle parameters, the following methodology and equations
could be used for determination of the needed carriageway width within the main curve of the
hairpin curve.
Table 8-11 Equations for Preliminary Hairpin Bends Dimensioning in Case of the Simultaneous Passing Between
Two Opposite Traveled Two-Axle Vehicles (SN 640 198a-Courbes, Lacets; VSS, 2019)
Steps According to Swiss Guidelines SNV 640 198a
𝐿
1 𝑅𝑖1 = √𝑅 2 − 𝐸 2 −
2
2 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐻 = √(𝑅𝑖1 + 𝐿)2 + 𝐸 2
3 𝑅𝑒 = √(𝑅𝑖1 + 𝐿)2 + (𝐸 + 𝑃𝑎 )2
4 𝑅𝑖2 = 𝑅𝑒 + 𝑚 (m=0.54 m)
𝐿2 2
5 𝑅2 = √(𝑅𝑖2 + ) + 𝐸22
2
6 𝑅𝑒2 = 𝑅𝑎 = √(𝑅𝑖2 + 𝐿2 )2 + (𝐸2 + 𝑃𝑎2 )2
Drawing of connecting geometrical elements (curves and/or straights) between

7
hairpin bend’s crown and entry/exit straights.
SPA simulations and eventual “m” safety clearance value adjustment. Steps 4-8 are
8
repeated in this case
9 End
NOTES:
SPA = Swept Path Analysis
D = Distance between the entry/exit paths followed by the front axle center point of the inner vehicle
m = Safety clearance
L = bus width
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Steps According to Swiss Guidelines SNV 640 198a
L2 = car width
E = wheelbase
Pa = front extension
Re = external radius
Ri = internal radius
Figure 8-7 shows the planimetric layout, while the corresponding equations used by Swiss
standard for preliminary hairpin bends dimensioning in case of the simultaneous passing
between two opposite traveled two-axle vehicles are provided in Table 8-11. Swept path
analysis (SPA) should be made to confirm the outcomes from these equations.
Figure 8-7 Bend Insertion Two Opposite Traveled Two-Axle Vehicles (SN 640 198a-Courbes, Lacets; VSS, 2019)
Dimensions for two-axle vehicles could be taken from the figures provided in Section
Minimum Turning Paths of the present Volume.
8.5. Intersections
At-grade intersections with priority control signs are basically used in low-volume rural
highways. Additional left turn lanes (or right turn lanes) are not usually needed in low-volume
rural highways, due to the low traffic volumes served and the low operation speeds. In case
where the design of left turn lane (or right turn lane) application is needed for the improvement
of road safety level, geometric characteristics will be defined according to Chapter 10.
8.6. Safety Considerations

Due to low design and operating speed applied in low-volume rural highways, the safety issues
are limited with respect to the other highway categories. The evaluation of the provided level
of road safety is done in accordance with the provisions of volume SHC 603 (Road Safety).
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Expenditures for highway improvements are discouraged however at sites where these
improvements more likely will have little effect on crash frequency and/or severity.
Highway safety management and crash prediction methods in low and very low volume and
access highways could be used. Noted that these methods used worldwide confirms that on
these highways fewer crashes are expected in respect with highways where AADT is higher
than 2,000. However, the crash reduction on low-volume highways by using these methods
are limited and should be focused basically on highways with AADT higher than 2,000. Further
refer to Section 8.4.1 for the safety design approach of low-volume highways.
8.7. Low Volume Highway Appurtenances

In low-volume rural highways various appurtenances may be located on the non-paved
shoulders outside the paved or unpaved area. These appurtenances could be, but not limited
to:
• Road Restraint Systems as described in SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design
– Passive Safety Systems Design).
Devices).
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9. Heavy Vehicle and Industrial Highway Design
9.1. General Considerations
An industrial highway is a special-purpose highway that provides access to a specific industrial
area within the arterial or distributor highway system. Industrial collectors will provide direct
frontage to industrial lots and connections to industrial access highways. Industrial highways
represent a separate category of highways that serve solely industrial facilities, with a high
truck composition. The present chapter refers to the design of industrial highways with high
volume of heavy vehicles (Trucks higher than 15 % and up to 80.0 % or more), in urban or rural
areas, or inside industrial zones. In some cases, this may lead, for example, to consider truck
routes at a composition of trucks equal to 25 % when AADT is about 100,000 veh/d or simply
when trucks amount to 5,000 trucks/day as an absolute number. The design speed ranges
from 20 to 50 km/h inside urban areas or inside industrial zones, while in rural areas design
speed of up to 90 km/h could be applied.

The design of new industrial highways, as well as the reconstruction, rehabilitation and
widening works, takes place in a progressive process runs through various design stages
(Concept Design, Preliminary Design, Final Design etc.). Special design features associated with
rural and urban highway rehabilitation (3R) and reconstruction (4R) projects are presented in
Chapter 12.
Inputs for the geometric design of industrial highways can include measurements,
Truck route designs (approaching industrial facilities) should evaluate, in one case, the
adoption of truck-only lanes on limited or fully controlled access facilities that include freeways
and expressways or non-controlled access facilities. The second case is to design special-
purpose truck highway facilities.
To ensure that an industrial highway is properly designed and supports the development of
associated industries the following objectives are set:
• No hurdles to commercial transport of any kind.
• Staff can reach their workplace conveniently and safely by any selected mode.
• Geometric design parameters selected meet any special and or particular needs of the
development defined.
• Proper provision is made for emergency services.
• Proper landscaping and the retention of the existing one is incorporated into the
design.
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More specifically regarding road safety, the design of the industrial highway must carefully
consider the amount of traffic on the highway generated by the number, size and nature of
the industrial units to be served off the highway. Whenever possible direct vehicular or
pedestrian access from individual industrial units or commercial land uses adjacent to special
truck highway facilities should be prohibited.
The present chapter provides information or the implementation of the planning stages, as a
subsequent stage, according to SHC 201 (Planning Process) and SHC 203 (Preliminary Studies).
This information enables designers to apply design limited values and criteria for industrial
highways, which are usually designed using lower geometric parameter values than the other
highways, while in specific cased (radii on intersections, cul-de-sac areas) should be designed
considering the design vehicle characteristics.
9.2.2. Industrial Highway Categories

To warrant high road safety levels and increased quality of traffic flow, industrial highways
must comply with the functional categories described in Section 2.3. Industrial highways could
be urban or rural highways with traffic volume of heavy vehicles exceeding 15 % and belonging
to one of the following functional categories:
• Urban Locals (including highways inside industrial zones).
• Urban Collectors.
• Urban Arterials.
• Rural low-volume and access highways.
• Rural other highways.
The design AADT is defined as the maximum AADT projected for the design life of the
industrial highway. Assuming continuous growth and a 20-year design life, this will normally
occur on the 20th year after construction (base year). AADT is usually similar to collector
highways.
9.2.3. Design Speeds

The goal when designing industrial highways of a specific category is to define a design speed
that serves the safe operation of this specific rural or urban highway. Based on this design
speed, the limiting values of the design parameters are determined, while driving dynamics
are also considered. Industrial highways are associated therefore with a design speed:
• from 20 up to 50 km/h in urban areas and inside industrial zones.
• from 40 up to 90 km/h in rural areas.
9.3. Heavy Vehicle Design Aspects

Industrial highways in urban environments should be designed to provide for truck mobility,
access, and circulation, while rural environments should provide mainly truck mobility. Due to
truck width being about 3.0 m wide (including side mirrors), it is important to provide adequate
lane width to allow travel without encroaching on an adjacent lane where another vehicle
could be struck or forced to take evasive action.
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Lane width is a key consideration for truck operations in industrial highways. Trucks require
traffic lanes that are wide enough for them to safely navigate through district areas. Highways
of higher classification generally provide truck mobility, access to the regional
freeway/expressway system, and have higher volumes of traffic and less interaction with
adjacent land uses. Lower highway classifications usually have lower traffic volumes but
typically include greater access to adjacent land uses.
Determining lane widths depends on several factors including whether the lane in question is
an inside travel lane or an outside travel lane. In urban environment, outside travel lanes (those
nearest the curb) can be parking lanes, bus lanes, bicycle lanes, or a combination of each.
Inside travel lanes are closest to the median of a street, and may include turn lanes, through
lanes, or a combination of both. Outside travel lanes are the preferred location for truck and
bus traffic because these vehicles tend to accelerate slower, travel more slowly, and have large
blind spots to the right side of the vehicle.
Intersection design and radii and width requirements should be designed in accordance with
the design vehicle considering the information provided in Chapter 10 of the present Volume.
Specific software should be used for swept path analysis for design vehicles in these areas.
While procedural guidelines can be developed to provide general direction for design of
Intersections for trucks, the final configuration and best overall design of an Intersection must
still be completed by experienced designers. Basic geometric considerations such as the angle
at which the roads intersect, the presence of buildings abutting the right of way, and use of
right-turn lanes will vary from Intersection to Intersection. The surrounding land use, existing
development patterns, and other factors could also influence specific decisions about
Intersection design.
9.4. Cross Section Design

For industrial highways the selection of cross-section components and the specification of
dimensions of each element should be higher than those used in urban and rural highways,
depending to the design vehicle and the percentage of heavy vehicles out of AADT.
Compatibility between cross-sections with different consecutive sections should also be
checked to provide relative uniformity between them. Transition points should be made
identifiable and designed accordingly to provide high safety levels.
For limited or controlled access facilities three design options apply (FDOT, 2014).
• Option 1: Dedicated two-way truck lanes within the median area or inside portion of
the highway with mixed flow traffic along the outside traffic lanes in each direction.
• Option 2: Two-way mixed flow traffic lanes within the median or inside portion of the
highway with dedicated truck lanes along the outside in each direction.
• Option 3: Grade separating dedicated truck lanes from mixed flow traffic lanes with a
continuous elevated structure.
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Main design elements for the evaluation of the typical cross-section used for industrial
highways consists of traffic lanes, edge strips, eventually a central median and unpaved
shoulders.
Traffic lanes, acceleration-deceleration lanes and left-right turning lanes should be at least 3.65
m wide. The guidance paved width (paved shoulder) outside travel lanes should be limited
between 0.50 and 0.75 m to keep the travel speed as low as possible. In case of raised central
median or central median with safety barrier application, the total paved width on each
carriageway should not be less than 6.00 m.
Raised curbs and sidewalks should be avoided in rural areas, while in urban areas and industrial
zones should be at least 2.00 m wide. Where vehicle restraint systems are used (see SHC 304
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design)), their height is limited
to 0.07 m.
The central island should be traversable (only markings). In case of raised median application,
median width should not be less than 2.50 m wide, usually without vegetation. Raised medians
may include vehicle restraint systems, traffic signage and anti-glare devices. Wider than 2.50
m medians are also recommended for maintenance reasons.
Non-paved shoulders placed outside of the paved area of the industrial highway, supports the
placement of various appurtenances (traffic control devices, lighting posts, vehicle restraint
systems, etc.). To provide an increased road safety level and to accommodate run-off vehicles
and at the same time to provide room for maintenance operations on the roadside, shoulders
should have sufficient soil stability and should not be less than 2.00 m wide. In cut areas a
relevant drainage system should be applied (see SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities
Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design)).
Safety barriers should be used for industrial highways designed for higher speed according to
SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Passive Safety Systems Design).
Required pavement layer will be defined according to SHC 308 (Pavement Design).

9.4.3.1. Design vehicle dimensions
Especially in industrial zones the design vehicle should be selected commensurately with the
transport needs of the the current and future developments, to define if a larger design vehicle
should be selected. The basic vehicle dimensions are presented in Section 3.4.3 of the present
Volume.
9.4.3.2. Basic dimensions for the traffic operation

vehicle, the lateral and vertical safety space (instability areas), plus an additional overhead
safety space (above the boundaries of the instability area).
The lateral safety space has a standard width of 0.75 m, while for higher design speed applied
(more than 70 km/h), lateral safety space shall be increased to 1.25 m.
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The overhead safety space should be 0.30 m high, while the total clearance should be strictly
no less than 5.20 m as provided in Figure 9-1. This dimension already comprises a buffer of
0.20 m to allow for the future rehabilitation of the pavement using overlays. However higher
vertical clearances can be selected. Typically, in the KSA a total vertical clearance of 5.50 m is
mandatory in accordance with the statutory requirements applicable to all highways and their
related facilities on the highway network within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.Special
consideration should be given in specific industrial areas where higher heavy vehicles should
be circulated.
Figure 9-1 Basic Dimensions for Traffic Clearance (For Industrial Highways FGSV, 2012)
The cross-Section clearance (laterally and vertically) should be kept clear of obstructions.
Vertical signing is allowed to be on the limit of the cross-section clearance. Protective elements
and easily deformable objects are allowed to be inside the cross-section clearance (not less
than 0.50 m away from the traffic passage area).
9.5. Typical Cross-Sections

Typical tangent and superelevated cross-section for industrial highways in urban and rural
environment is provided in Figure 9-2 and Figure 9-3 respectively.
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Figure 9-2 Typical Cross-Section for Industrial Highways in Urban Environment.
Figure 9-3 Typical Cross-Section for Industrial Highways in Rural Environment (Source: State of Tennessee
Standard drawings – Department of Transportation).
For the case of limited or fully controlled access facilities, Figure 9-4 demonstrate typical cross-
sections with median separation Option 1 of Section 9.4.1.
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Figure 9-4 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes within the Median without Median Separation (FDOT, 2014)
For the case of limited or fully controlled access facilities Figure 9-5 and Figure 9-6
demonstrate typical cross-sections for Option 2 of Section 9.4.1.
Figure 9-5 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes Outside with Structural Separation (FDOT, 2014)
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Figure 9-6 Typical Cross-Section for Truck Only Lanes Outside with Outer Physical Separation (FDOT, 2014)
For grade separated truck only lanes Figure 9-7 demonstrates a typical cross-section.
Figure 9-7 Typical Cross-Section for Grade Separated Truck Only Lanes on Single Column (FDOT, 2014)
9.6. Alignment
On industrial areas, where the traffic volume of heavy vehicles is increased, the design is based
on vehicle characteristics and on vehicle dynamics on curves. Circular arc radii and the side
friction factor for their estimation for industrial highways for design speed between 20 km/h
and 90 km/h should be limited in values presented in Table 9-1. For road users to perceive
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circular arcs as independent design elements within the curve, the minimum circular arc
lengths in accordance with Table 9-1 should be provided.
Design Speed for Industrial Highways
Minimum Curve Radius for Circular Arcs

Design Side Minimum (m)
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 %
20 0.35 15 10 10 10
30 0.28 20 25 25 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45
50 0.19 30 90 80 75
60 0.17 35 135 125 115
70 0.15 40 205 185 170
80 0.14 45 280 255 230
90 0.13 50 380 340 305
recommended values are presented in Table 9-3. In the same tables the minimum and the
recommended radius limit for the necessity of spiral application is provided (minimum and
recommended values respectively). Transition curves are mathematically defined according to
Section Spiral Geometry.
20 15 11 24
30 20 17 53
40 30 22 95
50 45 28 148
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60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479

20 15 15 100
30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000
80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900

For traffic operation purposes, especially in case of industrial highways where the traffic
volume of heavy vehicles is high, the maximum grades should not exceed the values on Table
9-4. Considering that the slopes selected for industrial highways may have a significant effect
on heavy vehicle operational performance, special effort should be made to reduce their values
Table 9-4 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial Highways
Design Speed Max Desirable Max Allowable

20 5.0 8.0
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Design Speed Max Desirable Max Allowable
30 5.0 8.0
40 4.0 7.0
50 3.0 6.0
60 3.0 6.0
70 3.0 5.0
80 2.0 5.0
90 2.0 4.0
In certain difficult cases and only for small parts of the industrial highways, the maximum
Changes in grades in industrial highways profile need to be curved. The rounding of crest and
sag curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are
achieve 1.00 % change in grade) for crest and sag curves and the minimum values of curve
lengths, considering drivers eye on 1.08 m height, while object height is equal to 0.60 m for
stopping sight distance (SSD) and 1.08 m for passing sight distance (PSD), according to
AASHTO.
Industrial Highways
Minimum Crest Curve

SSD PSD Adequacy
(km/h) (m/%) (m)
20 1 20 12 2 12
30 2 46 17 5 18
40 4 84 23 8 24
50 6 138 30 12 30
60 11 195 38 17 36
70 17 272 51 23 42
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Minimum Crest Curve
SSD PSD Adequacy
(km/h) (m/%) (m)
80 26 338 69 29 48
90 39 438 91 38 54

provided road safety level, especially for alignments designed for higher speed. The three-
dimensional alignment is generally satisfactory, when the curvatures in horizontal and vertical
alignment of the highway are approximately made at the same point and the number of
turning points in layout and profile are harmonized. Visibility check should be carried out
through specific road design software that has the ability of 3-D supervision and 3-D visibility
check of the adequacy of the stopping sight distance.
To improve the design of industrial highways in terms of three-dimensional alignment the
information of Section 5.5.5 should be considered.
9.6.4. Stopping Sight Distance

the design speed for industrial highways.
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200
150
100
50
20km/h
0
-8% -6% -4% -2% 0% 2% 4% 6% 8%
Figure 9-8 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Industrial
Highways
SHC 301 343

the pavement.

the speed of the opposite vehicle traveling at the design speed. For industrial highways the
required passing sight distance according to Methods 1 and 2 (see Section 4.6.2.3), is provided
in Table 9-6.
Table 9-6 Required Passing Sight Distance with Respect to the Design Speed for Industrial Highways (Source:
Method 1: AASHTO, 2018; Method 2: TxDOT, 2022)

Design Speed
(km/h)
Method 1 Method 2
20 130 100
30 200 120
40 270 140
50 345 160
60 410 180
70 485 210
80 540 245
90 615 280
edge of the circular arc, while the minimum superelevation rate is limited to 2.0 %. Figure 6-12
shows the superelevation rates required with respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius for all
design speed. Values taken from Figure 9-9 are recommended to be rounded to the nearest
0.5 %. Although recommended maximum superelevation used on urban streets is limited to
4.0 %, higher rates of 6.0 % could be used in certain cases.
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8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
5 50 500 1,000
Figure 9-9 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve (Max e = 8.0
%) for Industrial Highways
Adverse Superelevation rate equal to - 2.0 % (or - 2.5 %) can be applied (towards to the
external edge of the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13). This solution addresses areas with
poor drainage as well.
Table 9-7 Minimum Horizontal Curve Radius for the Application of Adverse Superelevation with Respect to the

Design Speed Implementation of Adverse Superelevation (m)
(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
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Information about curve widening is provided in Section 4.6.6.3.

For the widening needed for a separate right or left turning lane in Intersections, the relevant
information is provided in Section 10.
9.7. Intersection Design

9.7.1. At-Grade Intersections with Priority Control Signs
At-grade intersections with priority control signs are basically used in rural areas, in crossings
of collectors and local highways and inside industrial zones, while at-grade Intersections with
light signaling are basically used in connection of higher design speed highways, especially
between arterials with collectors. On the other hand, at-grade Intersections that are serving an
increased traffic flow, the application of light signaling should be considered according to
information provided in Section 2.2. of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering) and in Section 5.55 of
SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices), especially when the following conditions
are met:
• Allowed speed increased to 50 km/h or higher.
Figure 9-8.
In case that at-grade intersections with priority control signs are applied in industrial highways,
left turn movements should be considered only in cases where the traffic flow is limited up to
3,000 veh/d. In case that left turn movements need to be maintained for cases with increased
traffic volumes, a separate left turn lane with the simultaneous installation of light signaling
should be considered. More specific information regarding the need of application of
signalized intersections (signal use criteria – warrants) is provided in Section 5.55 of SHC 602
9.7.2. At-Grade Intersections with Traffic Lights

At-grade intersections with traffic lights could be used in industrial highways in urban areas
when the traffic flow is increased. The number and length of queuing lanes for motor vehicles
is derived from the traffic signaling assessment according to see Section 2.2. of SHC 601 (Traffic
Engineering) as well as the safety considerations. Also, traffic control devices can be used
according to Section 5.5. of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices). Usually, the
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queuing zone should be designed long enough, or the signal program should be modified, so
that vehicles approaching in one cycle can be accommodated.
9.8. Special Design Considerations

While truck circulation is an important design principle, industrial highways should also safely
and conveniently accommodate and balance the needs of pedestrians, bicyclists, and buses.
There are no standard solutions for resolving truck conflicts with other modes. Each situation
needs to be evaluated separately on a case-by-case basis.
9.8.1. Pedestrian Services

Sidewalks, crosswalks, median refuge islands, and curb extensions are several design elements
that assist pedestrians in urban environments. In industrial highways, these design elements
can impede truck movements. With wider Intersections for truck turning movements,
pedestrians may have longer crosswalks to negotiate at Intersections and curb extensions may
not be possible. Longer crossing times may be needed for pedestrians. On wider roadways,
pedestrian median refuges may need to be designed with mountable curbs and pedestrians
need to be aware of large vehicles turning into the highway they intend to cross.
9.8.2. Bicycle Services

Bicycles in industrial highways are also require special consideration at Intersections. Trucks
can encroach on the bicycle lane in right-turn movements and dedicated right-turn lanes for
trucks should be considered as they allow for the bicycle lane to transition to the left of the
right-turn lane and minimizes potential truck/bicycle conflicts. Designers must recognize that
a truck driver’s vision is limited when making right turns at Intersections. This is a particularly
important consideration wherever trucks turn right across bicycle lanes.
9.8.3. Transit Services

From an operational perspective, transit circulation in industrial highways is generally
compatible to truck circulation. Similar to trucks, buses require wider lanes and more gentle
curb radii for right-turn movements. However, potential conflicts with trucks need to be
considered where passengers access bus stops and at pedestrian crosswalk locations.
Easy and convenient pedestrian access needs to be considered wherever a bus stop is located
and where truck operations are being addressed. In industrial highways, transit stops should
be located within a short walking distance from major employment centers and other areas
that can generate a high number of potential transit riders. Transit stops should be located to
balance good passenger access with pedestrian safety. Stop locations should minimize the
potential for jaywalking, minimize passenger walking distance and avoiding unnecessary
crosswalk movements.
Adjacent land uses must also be considered when balancing the needs between truck
movements and those of pedestrians, bicyclists, transit vehicles and passengers. It is preferable
to locate pedestrian and bicycle routes closest to the land uses with the highest intensity of
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employees and cyclists. Where feasible, transit stops should be located by the main entrances
of industrial and commercial complexes and business centers.
9.8.4. Special Purpose Truck Highway Facilities

Information about truck rest areas, truck inspection stations and truck parking highway
facilities is provided in volume SHC 303 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Rest Areas,
Truck Inspection Stations, Parking and Garage Facilities).
9.9. Industrial Highways Appurtenances

In industrial highways various appurtenances may be located in sidewalks outside the paved
area. These appurtenances could be, but not limited to:
• Hydraulic elements as described in SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –
Devices).
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10.At-Grade Intersections
10.1.General
This chapter describes the geometric design requirements for at-grade intersections, while
Chapter 11 describes the geometric requirements for interchanges including entrance and exit
ramps. Information regarding the geometric design of at-grade intersections presented in the
present chapter, cover both rural and urban at-grade intersection cases, either signalized or
unsignalized. Information regarding the need of application of signalized intersections (signal
use criteria – warrants) is provided in Section 5.2 of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices), while information regarding the traffic signal phasing and timing of
signalized intersections has been included in Appendix A of SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
10.1.1. Characteristics of Intersections

An at-grade intersection includes the areas needed for all transportation modes using this area
such as:
• Motorcycles.
• Passenger cars and small vehicles.
• Bicycles.
• Pedestrians.
• Heavy vehicles.
• Transit.
Thus, the Intersection design addresses not only the highway pavement, but the adjacent
sidewalks, pedestrian ramps, bicycle facilities, auxiliary lanes, medians, and refuge islands.
Intersections are a key feature of highway design in the following respects:
1. Focus of Land Use Activity: The land near intersections often contains a concentration
of travel destinations that are accessed by multiple modes.
2. Conflict Points: Pedestrians, bicyclists and motor vehicles often cross paths at
intersections where through and turning movements conflict. These crossings are
referred to as “conflict points,” and can be further categorized by movement type and
corresponding severity.
3. Traffic Control: Movement of users may be assigned through use of traffic control
devices such as yield signs, stop signs, and traffic signals.
4. Capacity: Traffic control at intersections often limits the number of users that can be
accommodated within a given time period on the intersecting highways. Relevant
information is included in SHC 201 (Planning Process).
5. Design Speed: At-grade intersections should be provided in cases where the design
speed of the major highway is not exceeding 100 km/h (110 km/h in exceptional cases).
For design speed higher than 100 km/h a design of an interchange according to
Chapter 11 should be considered.
6. Design Vehicles: Intersections should be accommodating all kinds of vehicles that are
expected to pass.
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10.1.2. Intersection Functional Area
An Intersection is defined by both its functional and physical areas, as illustrated in Figure 10-1.
The functional area of an Intersection extends both upstream and downstream from the
physical intersection area and includes any auxiliary lanes and their associated channelization.
Figure 10-1 Physical and Functional Area of an Intersection (AASHTO, 2018)
10.1.3. Design Objectives

The need of any intersection design, regardless of type or location, should be to implement
the following principles:
• Reduce vehicle speeds through the Intersections, as appropriate.
• Provide the appropriate number of lanes and lane assignment to achieve adequate
capacity, lane volume, and lane continuity.
• Provide channelization to the intended lanes.
• Provide adequate accommodation for the design vehicles.
• Meet the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists.
• Provide appropriate sight distance and visibility.
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Each element described above influences the operational efficiency and potential for crashes
at intersections.
10.1.4. Intersection Types
The basic types of intersections are three-leg (T), four-leg (cross), multileg, and roundabouts.
Further classification of the basic Intersection types includes such variations as unchannelized,
flared, and channelized Intersections as shown in Figure 10-2.
At each particular location, the Intersection type is determined primarily by:
• the number of intersecting legs.
• the topography.
• right-of-way constraints.
• the needs of all users.
• the characteristics of the intersecting roadways.
• the traffic volumes, patterns, and speeds.
• the desired type of operation.
Intersection design needs a balanced approach to accommodate the transportation modes
that are anticipated while considering the context and community in which the project is
located.
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Figure 10-2 General Types of At-Grade Intersections (AASHTO, 2018)
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10.2.Three and Four-Leg Type Intersections
10.2.1. Establishing Intersection Control
The functional classification of each intersecting roadway (arterial, collector, local highway
etc.), shall be considered when designing channelization and establishing the intersection type
(channelized, unchannelized or signalized). The following principles should be considered:
1. The intersection between two arterial highways should be considered to be signalized
and channelized when AADT is greater than 5,000 in both.
2. The intersection between an arterial and a collector highway should be channelized
and signalized at higher volumes or have stop control on the collector highway for
lower traffic volumes.
3. The intersection between an arterial and a local highway may be channelized
depending upon speed and traffic volumes with stop control on the local highway. This
type of Intersection should be avoided, whenever possible.
4. The intersection between two collector highways may have channelization and
signalization at higher volumes or be controlled by stop signs on the lower volume
collector.
5. The intersection of the collector with a local highway shall have stop control on the
local highway.
6. The intersection of two locals shall have stop control on the lower volume local or stop
control on all Intersection legs.
More specific information regarding the need of application of signalized intersections (signal
use criteria – warrants) is provided in Section 5.2 of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices).
10.2.2. Data for Intersection Design

The design of each intersection should achieve an appropriate balance among the competing
needs of pedestrians, bicyclists, motor vehicles, and transit with respect to safety, operational
efficiency, convenience, ease, and comfort. Four basic elements should be considered in
intersection design:
1. Human Factors such as driving habits, user expectancy, decision and reaction time,
pedestrian and bicyclist behavior etc.
2. Traffic Considerations such as design and actual capacities for all transportation modes,
size and operating characteristics of vehicles and modes, vehicle speeds, transit usage
and stop locations etc.
3. Physical Elements such as pedestrian, bicyclist and transit facilities, vertical and
horizontal alignments at the intersection, angle of the Intersection, auxiliary lanes,
traffic control devices, lighting equipment, crosswalks (marked and unmarked) etc.
4. Economic Factors such as cost of improvements and expected benefits, cost and
effectiveness of controlling access points to abutting residential or commercial
properties, energy consumption etc.
The design controls associated with the human-based, traffic development, facility needs and
economic feasibility of an intersection that affect geometric design are provided in the
following sections.
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10.2.3. Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts
Merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving are maneuvers that can occur within an Intersection.
Conflicts at intersections occur when a vehicle makes a maneuver and its path either diverges,
merges, or crosses that of another vehicle or pedestrian. The safety and operation of
intersections shall be improved by minimizing the number of conflicts using channelization
and signalization. Figure 10-3 shows the number and type of motor-vehicle conflict points at
typical four-leg, three-leg, and roundabout intersections. Conflict points should also be
considered when locating driveways along a highway.
Figure 10-3 Conflict Points at Various Intersection Types (AASHTO, 2018)
10.2.4. Design Vehicle and Turning Radii

The turning radii and other dimensions shall be large enough to meet the turning
requirements of vehicles using the intersection. Turning radii dimensions should be checked
through swept path analysis made for the design vehicle, either by using turning paths
provided in Section Minimum Turning Paths, or with specific CAD-platform software.
Intersections shall be designed to accommodate at least a single unit truck turning paths and
radius. The designer and the RGA will determine another design vehicle based on traffic data
if necessary.
As a basis for the selection of Design Vehicle at intersection the following table could be used.
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Table 10-1 Selection of The Largest Design Vehicle at Intersections
For Turn Made Design Vehicle

From To (Largest)
Freeway/Expressway Other Facilities WB-20

Rural/Urban Arterial WB-20
Rural/Urban Collector WB-15
Rural/Urban Arterial Rural Local WB-15
Urban Local (Residential) SU-12
Industrial Highway WB-20
Rural/Urban Collector Rural Local WB-15
Urban Local (Residential) SU-12/SU-9
Rural/Urban Local Rural Local WB-15
Urban Local (Residential) SU-9/P
Industrial Highway Rural Local SU-12
Urban Local (Residential) SU-9
10.2.5. Intersection Design Elements

Intersection design elements includes:
• crossing and stopping sight distance.
• vertical alignment.
• Intersection angles and radii.
• turning lanes.
• channelization.
• median openings.
• roadside development.
• superelevation.
All these elements shall be coordinated to assure that the driver can easily comprehend and
negotiate the intersection, that the number of potential conflicts is minimized, that all vehicular
and pedestrian movements are provided for, and that provisions are made for drainage and
placement of traffic control devices.
Spacing criteria between consecutive intersections, and distances regarding driveways are
provided in Section 4.5.4.
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10.2.6. Intersection Sight Distance
10.2.6.1. General considerations
Stopping sight distance is provided continuously along each roadway so that drivers have a
view of the roadway ahead that is sufficient to allow drivers to stop. The provision of stopping
sight distance at all locations along each highway, including intersection approaches, is
fundamental to intersection operation.
The driver of a vehicle approaching an Intersection should have an unobstructed view of the
entire intersection. At uncontrolled or minor approach stop controlled Intersections, sight
distance along the intersecting roadway should be sufficient to permit the driver on the minor
highway to anticipate and avoid potential collisions. If the available sight distance for an
entering or crossing vehicle is at least equal to the appropriate stopping sight distance for the
major highway, then drivers have sufficient sight distance to anticipate and avoid collisions.
Less sight distance may be needed at roundabouts, signalized intersections, or all-way stop
controlled intersections. The sight distance needed under various assumptions of physical
conditions and driver behavior is directly related to the type of traffic control, to the maneuvers
allowed, to the vehicle speeds, and to the resultant distances traversed during perception–
reaction time and braking.
10.2.6.2. Approach sight triangles

Each quadrant of an intersection should contain a triangular area free of obstructions that
might block an approaching driver’s view of potentially conflicting vehicles. Figure 10-4 shows
typical clear sight triangles to the left and to the right for a vehicle approaching an
uncontrolled or yield-controlled intersection. The distance from the major highway, along the
minor highway, is illustrated by the distance a1 to the left and a2 to the right as shown in Figure
10-4. Distance a2 is equal to distance a2a1 plus the width of the lane(s) departing from the
intersection on the major highway to the right. Distance a2 should also include the width of
any median present on the major highway unless the median is wide enough to permit a
vehicle to stop before entering or crossing the roadway beyond the median.
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Figure 10-4 Approach Sight Triangles – Uncontrolled or Yield-Controlled (Source: AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018)
10.2.6.3. Departure sight triangles

A second type of clear sight triangle provides sight distance sufficient for a stopped driver on
a minor highway approach to depart from the intersection and enter or cross the major
highway. Figure 10-5 shows typical departure sight triangles to the left and to the right of the
location of a stopped vehicle on the minor highway.
Figure 10-5 Departure Sight Triangles – Stop-Controlled (Source: AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018)
10.2.6.4. Dimensions of sight triangles

The recommended dimensions of the sight triangles vary with the type of traffic control used
at an intersection because different types of control impose different legal constraints on
drivers and, therefore, result in different driver behavior. Procedures to determine sight
distances at intersections are presented below according to different types of traffic control,
as follows:
SHC 301 357

• Case A—Intersections with no control.
• Case B—Intersections with stop control on the minor highway.
o Case B1—Left turn from the minor highway.
o Case B2—Right turn from the minor highway.
o Case B3—Crossing maneuver from the minor highway approach.
• Case C—Intersections with yield control on the minor highway.
o Case C1—Crossing maneuver from the minor highway.
o Case C2—Left or right turn from the minor highway.
• Case D—Intersections with traffic signal control.
• Case E—Intersections with all-way stop control.
• Case F—Left turns from the major highway.
• Case G—Roundabouts.
Case A - Intersections with no control

For intersections not controlled by yield signs, stop signs, or traffic signals, the driver of a
vehicle approaching an intersection should be able to see potentially conflicting vehicles in
sufficient time to stop before reaching the intersection. The location of the decision point
(driver’s eye) of the sight triangles on each approach is determined from a model that is
analogous to the stopping sight distance model, with slightly different assumptions. The
length of sight triangle for this case is provided in Table 10-1. Where the grade in intersection
area exceeds 3.0 %, the leg of the clear sight triangle should be adjusted by multiplying the
appropriate sight distance from Table 10-2 by the appropriate adjustment factor from Table
10-3. No departure sight triangle like that shown in Figure 10-5 is needed at an uncontrolled
intersection because such Intersections typically have very low traffic volumes.
Case B - Intersections with Stop Control on the Minor Highway

For Intersection with stop control on the minor highway, sight triangles should be considered
for three situations:
• Case B1 - Left turns from the minor highway.
• Case B2 - Right turns from the minor highway.
• Case B3 - Crossing the major highway from a minor highway approach.
Intersection sight distance criteria for stop-controlled intersections are longer than stopping
sight distance to allow the intersection to operate smoothly. Minor highway vehicle operators
can wait until they can proceed safely without forcing a major highway vehicle to stop.
Case B1 - Left Turn from the Minor Highway

Departure sight triangles for traffic approaching from either the right or the left, like those
shown in Figure 10-5, should be provided for left turns from the minor highway into the major
highway for all stop-controlled approaches. The length of the leg of the departure sight
triangle along the major highway in both directions, shown as distance b in Figure 10-5, that
is the recommended intersection sight distance for this case. The vertex (decision point) of the
departure sight triangle on the minor highway should be 4.5 m from the edge of the major
highway traveled way.
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The intersection sight distance in each direction should be equal to the distance traveled at
the design speed of the major highway during a time period equal to the applicable time gap
shown in Table 10-4. Time gaps are for a stopped vehicle to turn left onto a two-lane highway
with no median and with minor highway approach grades of 3.0 % or less. The time gaps are
applicable to determining sight distance to the right in left-turn maneuvers. The values
presented in Table 10-4 should be adjusted as follows:
• For multilane highways or medians
o For left turns into two-way highways with more than two lanes, including turn
lanes, add 0.5 sec for passenger cars or 0.7 sec for trucks for each additional
lane, from the left, more than one, to be crossed by the turning vehicle.
o Median widths should be converted to an equivalent number of lanes in
applying the 0.5 sec and 0.7 sec criteria presented above. For example, a 5.5 m
median is equivalent to one and a half lanes and would require an additional
0.75 sec for a passenger to cross and an additional 1.05 sec for a truck to cross.
• For minor highway approach grades
o If the approach grade is an upgrade that exceeds 3.0 %, add 0.2 sec for each
percent by which the approach grade exceeds zero percent. For example, if the
minor highway approach to such an intersection is located on a 4.0 % upgrade,
then the time gap selected for intersection sight distance design for left turns
should be increased by 0.8 sec.
The intersection sight distance along the major highway (distance b in Figure 10-5) is
determined by the following equation:
𝐈𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 ∙ 𝒕𝒈 Equation 10-1
where:
ISD = Intersection sight distance (m)
Vmajor= The design speed of major highway (km/hhr)
tg= The time gap for minor highway vehicle to enter the major highway (sec).
The design values of intersection sight distance for Case B1 are provided in Table 10-2.
Case B2 - Right Turn from the Minor Highway

A departure sight triangle for vehicle approaching from the left like that shown in Figure 10-5
should be provided for right turns from the minor highway into the major highway. The
intersection sight distance for right turns is determined in the same manner as for Case B1,
except that the time gaps (tg) should be adjusted and reduced by 1.0 sec. The applicable time
gap for Case B2 is shown in Table 10-4. The values presented in Table 10-4 should be adjusted
as follows:
• For minor highway approach grades
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o If the approach grade is an upgrade that exceeds 3.0 %, add 0.1 sec for each
percent by which the approach grade exceeds zero percent. For example, if the
minor highway approach to such an intersection is located on a 4.0 % upgrade,
then the time gap selected for intersection sight distance design for left turns
should be increased by 0.4 sec.
Case B3 - Crossing Maneuver from the Minor Highway

In most cases, the departure sight triangles for left and right turns into the major highway, as
described for Cases B1 and B2, will also provide adequate sight distance for minor highway
vehicles to cross the major highway. However, in the following situations, it is advisable to
check the availability of sight distance for crossing maneuvers:
• where left or right turns or both are not permitted from a particular approach and the
crossing maneuver is the only legal maneuver
• where the crossing vehicle would cross the equivalent width of more than six lanes or
• where substantial volumes of heavy vehicles cross the highway and steep grades that
might slow the vehicle while its back portion is still in the intersection are present on
the departure highway on the far side of the intersection.
The Equation 10-1 used for intersection sight distance in Case B1 is also used in Case B3 for
the crossing maneuver with the difference that time gaps (tg) are the same as those for the
Case B2. At divided highway intersections, depending on the relative magnitudes of the
median width and the length of the design vehicle, intersection sight distance may need to be
considered for crossing both carriageways of the divided highways or for crossing only the
near carriageway and stopping in the median before proceeding. The application of
adjustment factors for median width and grades are taken as described in Case B1.
The time gaps for use in determining Intersection sight distance for crossing maneuvers are
shown in Table 10-4.
Table 10-2 Design Intersection Sight Distance in Cases A, B and F (m) - (Source: AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, Seventh Edition. Washington, 2018)
Design Design Intersection Sight Distance (m)

Speed
(km/h) Case A Case B1 Cases B2 and B3 Case F
20 20 45 40 35
30 25 65 55 50
40 35 85 75 65
50 45 105 95 80
60 55 130 110 95
70 65 150 130 110
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Design Design Intersection Sight Distance (m)
Speed
(km/h) Case A Case B1 Cases B2 and B3 Case F
80 75 170 145 125
90 90 190 165 140
100 105 210 185 155
110 120 230 200 170
NOTE:
Intersection sight distance shown is for ideal conditions (slopes less than 3.0 %, no median applied on
major highway etc.). For other conditions, the time gap should be adjusted and the sight distance
recalculated.
Table 10-3 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance for Cases A and C - (AASHTO, 2018)
Design Speed (km/h)

Approach
Grade (%)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
- 6.0 % 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
- 5.0 % 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
- 4.0 % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
- 3.0 % to + 3.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
%
4.0 % 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
5.0 % 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
6.0 % 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Table 10-4 Time Gap for Cases B1, B2, B3, C2 and F - (AASHTO, 2018)
Time Gap (tg) at Design Speed of Major Highway (s)

Design Vehicle
Case B1 Cases B2 and B3 Case C2 Case F
Passenger Car (P) 7.5 6.5 8.0 5.5

Single Unit Truck
9.5 8.5 10.0 6.5
(SU)
Combination Truck 11.5 10.5 12.0 7.5
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Case C - Intersections with Yield Control on the Minor Highway
For intersection with yield control on the minor highway, sight triangles should be considered
for two situations:
• Case C1 – Crossing Maneuver from the Minor Highway.
• Case C2 – Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers.
Case C1 - Crossing Maneuver from the Minor Highway

The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor highway to accommodate
the crossing maneuver from a yield-controlled approach (distance a1 in Figure 10-4) is given
in Table 10-5. The distances in Table 10-5 are based on the same assumptions as those for
Case A except that, based on field observations, minor highway vehicles that do not stop are
assumed to decelerate to 60 % of the minor highway design speed rather than 50 %.
Sufficient travel time for the major highway vehicle should be provided to allow the minor
highway vehicle:
• to travel from the decision point to the Intersection, while decelerating at the rate of
1.5 m/sec2 to 60 % of the minor- highway design speed and then
• to cross and clear the Intersection at that same speed.
The intersection sight distance along the major highway to accommodate the crossing
maneuver (distance b in Figure 10-4) should be computed with the following equations:
𝒘+𝑳
𝒕𝒈 = 𝒕𝒂 + 𝟎.𝟏𝟔𝟕∙𝑽 𝒂 Equation 10-2
𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓
𝐛 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 ∙ 𝒕𝒈 Equation 10-3
where:
b = The length of leg of sight triangle along the major highway (m)
Vmajor= The design speed of major highway (km/h)
Vminor= The design speed of minor highway (km/h)
tg= Travel time to reach and clear the major highway (s)
ta= The travel time to reach the major highway from the decision point for a vehicle that does
not stop provided by Table 10-5 (s)
La= The length of design vehicle (m)
w= The width of the Intersection to be crossed (m).
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Travel time values for minor highway approach and for major highway are provided in Table
10-4, while the length of the leg of the sight triangle along the major highway is provided in
Table 10-5. Values shown in these tables are for a passenger car crossing a two-lane highway
with no median and with minor highway approach grades of 3.0 % or less. In other conditions,
these values should be adjusted as follows:
For minor highway approach grades that exceed 3.0 %, multiply the distance or the time in
this table by the appropriate adjustment factor from Table 10-3.
Table 10-5 Crossing Maneuvers for Yield-Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor Highway Leg (m) and Travel
Time (s) - (AASHTO, 2018)
Design Minor Highway Approach Major Highway

Speed
Travel Time Travel Time
(km/h) Length of Leg (m)
ta (sec) tg (sec)
20 20 3.2 7.1
30 30 3.6 6.5
40 40 4.0 6.5
50 55 4.4 6.5
60 65 4.8 6.5
70 80 5.1 6.5
80 100 5.5 6.5
90 115 5.9 6.8
100 135 6.3 7.1
110 155 6.7 7.4
NOTES:
1. Travel time ta applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the Intersection
but does not stop.
2. Travel time tg should be equal or exceed the appropriate time gap for crossing
the major highway from a stop-controlled approach, as shown in Equation 10-2
Table 10-4.
Case C2 - Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers
The length of the leg of the approach sight triangle along the minor highway to accommodate
right turns without stopping (distance a1 in Figure 10-4) should be 25 m. This distance assumes
that drivers making left and right turns without stopping will slow to a turning speed of 16
km/h. Distance a2 for left turns is longer than distance a1 for right turns as defined in Section
10.2.6.2.
SHC 301 363

The leg of the approach sight triangle along the major highway (distance b in Figure 10-4) is
similar to the major highway leg of the departure sight triangle for a stop-controlled
intersection in Cases B1 and B2. However, the time gaps in should be increased by 0.5 s and
provided in Table 10-4. The appropriate lengths of the sight triangle leg are shown in Table
10-6 for passenger cars.
Departure sight triangles like those provided for stop-controlled approaches (see Cases B1,
B2, and B3 above) should also be provided for yield-controlled approaches to accommodate
minor highway vehicles that stop at the yield sign to avoid conflicts with major highway
vehicles. However, since approach sight triangles for turning maneuvers at yield-controlled
approaches are larger than the departure sight triangles used at stop-controlled intersections,
no specific check of departure sight triangles at yield-controlled intersections should be
needed.
Table 10-6 Design Intersection Sight Distance in Cases C1 and C2 (m) - (AASHTO, 2018)
Case C1
Major Length of Sight Triangle Leg along Major Highway (m) Case C2
Highway
Minor Highway Design Speed (km/h) Length of
Design Speed
Leg (m)
(km/h)
20 30 - 80 90 100 110
20 40 40 40 40 45 45
30 60 55 60 60 65 70
40 80 75 80 80 85 90
50 100 95 95 100 105 115
60 120 110 115 120 125 135
70 140 130 135 140 145 160
80 160 145 155 160 165 180
90 180 165 175 180 190 205
100 200 185 190 200 210 225
110 220 200 210 220 230 245
Case D - Intersections with Traffic Signal Control
At signalized intersections, the first vehicle stopped on one approach should be visible to the
driver of the first vehicle stopped on each of the other approaches. Left-turning vehicles should
have sufficient sight distance to select gaps in oncoming traffic and complete left turns. Apart
from these sight conditions, there are generally no other approach or departure sight triangles
needed for signalized intersections. Signalization may be an appropriate crash
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countermeasure for higher volume intersections with restricted sight distance that have
experienced a pattern of sight-distance related crashes.
However, if the traffic signal is to be placed on two-way flashing operation under off-peak or
nighttime conditions, then the appropriate departure sight triangles for Case B, both to the
left and to the right, should be provided for the minor highway approaches.
Case E - Intersections with All-Way Stop Control
At intersections with all-way stop control, the first stopped vehicle on one approach should be
visible to the drivers of the first stopped vehicles on each of the other approaches. There are
no other sight distance criteria applicable to intersections with all-way stop control and,
indeed, all-way stop control may be the best option at a limited number of intersections where
sight distance for other control types cannot be attained. However, if the projected traffic
volumes indicate that the intersection may need to be signalized within a few years, then
consideration should be given to providing sight distances for Case D. The Case D sight
distances do not differ markedly from the Case E sight distances except where provision is
made to accommodate two-way flashing operation at the future signal.
Case F - Left Turns from the Major Highway
All locations along a major highway where vehicles are permitted to turn left across opposing
traffic, including intersections and driveways, should have sufficient sight distance to
accommodate the left-turn maneuver. Left-turning drivers need sufficient sight distance to
decide when to turn left across the lane(s) used by opposing traffic. Sight distance design
should be based on a left turn by a stopped vehicle, since a vehicle that turns left without
stopping would need less sight distance. The time gap for left turn from the major highway is
provided in Table 10-4, while the intersection sight distance along the major highway to
accommodate left turns for passenger cars is given in Table 10-2.

The grade of a minor crossing highway shall match the cross slope of the main highway. Proper
treatment of minor highway grades is shown in Figure 10-6 and Figure 10-7. Specifically:
• In plain and rolling terrain a section with grade between - 0.5 and - 2.0 % should be
considered for the vertical profile design of the intersecting highway, for at least 10m
uphill and 20 m downhill.
• In mountainous and steep terrain, a section with grade between - 0.5 and - 2.0 %
should be considered for the vertical profile design of the intersecting highway, for at
least 20 m downhill, while a section with longitudinal grade between + 0.5 and + 2.0
% should be considered, for at least 10 m uphill.
The minor highway grades shall be checked to ensure that adequate crossing sight distance is
provided. For the major highway a maximum grade of 5.0 % is suggested, while higher grades
could be used in difficult terrain cases. Shoulder edge profiles shall also be checked to insure
there are no flat spots where the road surface will not drain.
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Figure 10-6 Cross Street Grade Adjustment
Figure 10-7 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignments at Intersections
10.2.6.6. Intersection angles

Intersection angles for three-leg (T) and four-leg (cross) intersections shall be from 80 to 100
degrees (preferable 90 degrees) as shown in Figure 10-8. Where an existing highway or a new
highway crosses a major highway at a sharper angle, the alignment of the minor highway shall
be adjusted as shown in the same figure.
SHC 301
366 SHC 366
301
Figure 10-8 Realignment of Intersections
SHC 301 367

10.2.7. Intersection Radii
Left and right radii for the design on Intersection corners shall be large enough to
accommodate the design vehicle turning movements. Turning radii dimensions should be
checked through swept path analysis made for the design vehicle, either by using turning
paths provided in Section Minimum Turning Paths, or with specific CAD-platform software.
Left Turn / Median Openings

Figure 10-9 shows the median opening length for left turns, while
Table 10-7 provides the minimum radii and median opening length (L) for semicircle and bullet
nose median end treatments for different median width (W) values. Bullet nose medians
require smaller openings than medians with a semicircle end treatment.
Figure 10-9 Median Opening Length for Left Turns
Table 10-7 Minimum Median Opening Length L (m) - (MoC, 1992)
Median Vehicles (P) and (SU) Vehicles WB-12 and WB-15

Width M (m) Semi-Circle Bullet Nose Semi-Circle Bullet Nose
1 29.0 29.0 44.0 36.5
2 28.5 23.0 43.5 34.5
3 27.0 18.5 42.0 31.5
4 26.0 16.0 41.0 29.5
SHC 301
368 SHC 368
301
Vehicles (P) and (SU) Vehicles WB-12 and WB-15
Median
Width M (m) Semi-Circle Bullet Nose Semi-Circle Bullet Nose
5 25.0 15.0 40.0 28.0
6 24.0 13.5 39.0 25.5
8 22.5 12.0 37.0 22.0
10 20.5 12.0 35.0 20.0
12 18.0 12.0 30.0 17.0
15 15.0 12.0 28.5 12.0
20 12.0 12.0 25.0 12.0
30 12.0 12.0 15.0 12.0
Right Turns
Figure 10-10 shows the right turn at the edge of traveled way providing a single curve or a
combination of taper and single curve. In urban areas a simple curve radius of 4.5 m is
commonly used for the intersection of a residential street with another residential street,
collector, or arterial, while a simple curve radius of 7.5 m is commonly used for the intersection
of arterial highways or at locations that are truck or bus routes. At intersections of two one-
way streets, very sharp radius from 0.5 up to 1.5 m could be used on corners where turns are
prohibited.
Table 10-8 provides the minimum edge of traveled way radius required so that vehicles making
right turns will not encroach into adjacent lanes. For turning angles less than 60 degrees, a
simple curve is preferable to be used. For turning angles greater than 60 degrees, a
combination taper and simple curve is preferable to be used since it approximates the design
vehicle turning path and requires less right-of-way than a large radius simple curve.
Note: Δ= Turn Angle,R = Radius, h= Offset,R+h=Sum of two parameters

Figure 10-10 Minimum Right-turn Radii at Edge of Traveled Way
SHC 301 369

Table 10-8 Minimum Geometric Elements for Right-Turns At Intersections
Simple Combination Taper and Simple Curve

Turn Angle Design
Curve
Δ (degrees) Vehicle
R (m) Radius R (m) Offset h (m) Taper Ratio
SU 30.0 - - -
30 WB-12 45.0 - - -
WB-15 60.0 - - -
SU 18.0 - - -
60 WB-12 27.0 - - -
WB-15 - 30.0 1.0 15:1
SU 15.0 12.0 0.6 10:1
90 WB-12 - 13.5 1.2 10:1
WB-15 - 18.0 1.2 15:1
SU - 9.0 1.0 10:1
120 WB-12 - 10.5 1.5 8:1
WB-15 - 13.5 1.2 15:1
SU - 9.0 1.2 8:1
150 WB-12 - 9.0 1.8 8:1
WB-15 - 10.5 2.1 6:1
Channelized Right-Turn Roadway

A channelized right-turn roadway is a separate roadway for right-turn movements as shown
in Figure 10-10. The radius may be the same as for right-corner turns, or greater.
U-Turns at Intersections
If U-turns are allowed at intersections and if the approach legs are multilane highways, the
combination of the median plus the opposing traveled way width shall be wide enough so a
design vehicle can make the U-turn from the left turn-lane without making any backing
maneuvers (3-point turn). If adequate width cannot be obtained, signs prohibiting U-turns
shall be installed.
10.2.8. Auxiliary Turn Lanes

Intersection capacity analysis according to volume SHC 201 (Planning Process), shall be applied
to determine the number of right and left turning lanes and the number of through lanes.
SHC 301
370 SHC 370
301
Acceleration and deceleration lanes should be utilized with these turning lanes to increase
capacity and reduce crashes at the Intersection.
Figure 10-11, Figure 10-12 and Figure 10-13 are providing examples of turning lanes on
multilane highways, while Figure 10-14 and Figure 10-15 are shown examples of providing
exclusive left-turning lanes and providing the needed space to accommodate left-turn
movements from a crossroad into a two-lane, two-way highway. In rural areas, raised median
curbs shall not be used unless the highway is multilane divided and the design speed is less
than 80 km/h.
Turning lanes shall be at least 3.00 m and desirably 3.50 m wide. When a raised curb has been
applied near the turning lane, these widths should be increased by at least 0.50 m. The
minimum median width is 5.00 m.
The length of turning lanes shall depend upon the length required for speed change and the
number of vehicles to be stored. The storage length is based upon the number of vehicles that
are likely to accumulate in 2 minutes, as determined from the capacity analysis provided in
volume SHC 201 (Planning Process).
The length of deceleration lanes, D, is shown in the below figures. The length varies according
to the approach speed and type of intersection. Through traffic movement lanes may have to
be shifted laterally to accommodate turning lanes at Intersections. Taper transitions lengths as
shown in Table 10-9 shall be used to minimize abrupt changes in lane alignment within the
intersection.
Lanes shall not be dropped within an Intersection but shall be carried through the intersection,
as shown in Figure 10-14 and Figure 10-15. Lane drops shall begin a minimum 30 m past the
center of the Intersection.
Table 10-9 Minimum Taper Length
Minimum Taper
Design Speed (km/h)
Length (m)
50 75
60 90
70 105
80 120
90 130
100 140
110 150
SHC 301 371

Figure 10-11 Turning Lanes on Multilane Divided Highway
Figure 10-12 Introduced Median and Turning Lanes on Multilane Undivided Highway
SHC 301
372 SHC 372
301
Figure 10-13 Introduced Median and Left-Turn Lane on Multilane Undivided Highway
Figure 10-14 Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway
SHC 301 373

Figure 10-15 Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane “T” Intersection
Notes for Figure 10-11, Figure 10-12, Figure 10-13, Figure 10-14 and Figure 10-15:
*If storage length calculated in accordance with SHC 201 (Planning Process) is longer than the values
mentioned in Figure 10-11, Figure 10-12 and Figure 10-13 the longer length governs. For Figure 10-14
and Figure 10-15, storage length is calculated in accordance with SHC 201 (Planning Process).
** Curbs Permitted only If the design speed is less or equal than 80 km/h.
10.2.9. Channelization
Channelization separates traffic into definite paths of travel using pavement markings or raised
islands. Channelization facilitates the safe and orderly movement of both vehicles and
pedestrians. Channelization can be used to improve existing intersections. Figure 10-22
illustrates the following types of improvements:
• Separate conflicts.
• Control angles of potential conflict.
• Reduce excessively large pavement areas.
• Regulate traffic flow and indicate proper use of intersection.
• Favor predominant turning movements.
• Protect pedestrians.
• Protect turning and crossing vehicles.
• Provide proper and safe location for traffic control devices.
• Provide reference points.
• Discourage prohibited movements.
• Control speed.
• Protect bicyclists.
• Control or restrict access.
• Restrict through traffic.
Directional islands and divisional islands are the two types of intersection channelization. These
are illustrated in Figure 10-16.
SHC 301
374 SHC 374
301
Figure 10-16 Types of Island Channelization
1. Directional islands are triangular in shape and are used to direct turning movements.
2. Divisional islands are used to separate opposing traffic, to provide protection for left-
turn lanes, and to channel traffic into right-angled approach paths at skewed
Intersections.
SHC 301 375

Channelization islands may be constructed using raised curbs or traffic markings consisting of
raised pavement markers and striping. These may be used individually or in combination.
However, raised curbs shall not be used when the design speed is greater than 80 km/h.
Islands shall be large enough to attract the attention of drivers. Raised curbed islands shall be
at least 8 m in size while painted islands should be at least 5 m in size. Divisional islands shall
be at least 1.5 m wide with lengths varying between 6 m for urban areas to 30 m for rural
areas. When an island is situated on a vertical crest curve or a horizontal curve, the approach
end of the island shall be extended to be visible to approaching drivers.
Figure 10-17 and Figure 10-18 are providing proper geometric illustration for directional
islands. Figure 10-19 provides special treatment for left-turn lanes in wide median areas, to
improve the sight distance for drivers making left turns.
When designing directional islands for channelized right-turn roadways, the pavement width
shall be wide enough to accommodate the design vehicle. This width varies with the turning
radius of the inner edge of the turning roadway. Table 10-10 provides the required width for
three cases:
• one-lane operation.
• one-lane operation with provision to pass a stalled vehicle.
• two-lane operation.
The pavement width should meet the requirements at least of Case II (preferred) and shall not
be less than Case I (minimum).
The basic concepts for channelization also apply to intersections at interchange ramp termini.
Channelization and other techniques shall be included to discourage wrong turn movements
into ramps. Figure 10-25 gives a typical layout for a simple diamond interchange. To
discourage wrong way left turns, median islands shall be extended to a point that would
provide too short of a radius for the vehicles to make the wrong turn. Short radii shall be used
to discourage wrong way right turns onto ramps. Similar techniques shall be used to prevent
wrong-way movements on other types of grade-separated interchanges.
SHC 301
376 SHC 376
301
Table 10-10 Widths of Channelized Right-Turn Roadways (m)
Pavement Width (m)

Case II
Case I
One-Lane, One-Way
One-Lane, One-Way Case III
Operation
Operation Two-Lane, One-Way
Radius of With Provision for
No Provision for Operation
Inner Passing a Stalled
Passing
Edge (m) Vehicle
Design Traffic Conditions
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.50 5.50 7.00 7.00 7.75 9.00 9.50 10.75 13.00
25 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.25 6.75 7.75 8.50 9.50 11.50
35 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.50 8.50 9.25 10.50
45 4.25 4.75 5.25 6.00 6.50 7.25 8.25 9.00 10.00
60 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.75 6.50 7.25 8.25 9.00 9.75
80 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.75 6.25 7.00 8.00 8.75 9.50
100 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.50 6.25 6.75 8.00 8.75 9.25
125 4.00 4.50 4.75 5.25 6.00 6.75 8.00 8.50 9.00
150 3.75 4.50 4.75 5.00 6.00 6.50 7.75 8.50 8.75
Tangent 3.75 4.50 4.50 4.75 5.75 6.50 7.50 8.25 8.25
Notes:
• If barrier curbs are used on one side, add 0.5 m for Cases I and III.
• If barrier curbs are used on both sides, add 1.0 m for Cases I and III and 0.5 m for Case II.
• If there is a stabilized shoulder; deduct shoulder width in Case II but minimum pavement
width should be that for Case I; deduct 0.5 m where shoulder is 1.0 m or wider in Case III.
• Traffic conditions A: predominantly P vehicles but some consideration for SU trucks.
• Traffic condition B: sufficient SU vehicles but some consideration for semitrailer vehicles.
• Traffic condition C: sufficient semitrailer or WB vehicles.
SHC 301 377

Figure 10-17 Curbed Directional Islands with no Shoulder
SHC 301
378 SHC 378
301
Figure 10-18 Curbed Directional Islands with Outside Shoulder
SHC 301 379

Figure 10-19 Channelization to Improve Left-Turn Sight Distance
10.2.10. Median Acceleration Lanes

Median acceleration lane is an auxiliary lane on the median side that allows left turning vehicles
from the minor highway to accelerate along the divided highway before merging to the right
into the through lane. Could be found also as left turn acceleration lane. Median acceleration
lane may be utilized at unsignalized intersections on divided multilane highways, that
experience a high proportion of rear end, angle collisions, or side swipe collisions related to
the speed differential caused by left turning vehicles into the highway.
Median acceleration lane should normally be sufficiently long to permit all turning vehicles to
accelerate to at least 70 % of the design speed of the major highway. Recommended median
acceleration lane length is included in Table 10-11.
Table 10-11 Recommended Effective Median Acceleration Lane Length excluding Taper (AT, 2019)
Highway Assumed Typical Minimum Desirable Median

Design Speed Merge Speed Median Acceleration Acceleration Lane
V (km/h) (km/h) Lane Length (m) Length (m)
80 60 200 230
90 67 260 295
SHC 301
380 SHC 380
301
Highway Assumed Typical Minimum Desirable Median
Design Speed Merge Speed Median Acceleration Acceleration Lane
V (km/h) (km/h) Lane Length (m) Length (m)
100 74 345 395
110 81 430 490
120 88 545 620
130 92 610 695
Desirable length should be used where appropriate. Typical minimum length can be used if
there are site specific constraints or if the traffic flow is limited below the following values:
• Less than 10,000 AADT for major highway (two-way traffic).
• Intersecting minor highway (where the left turning traffic is generated for the
consideration of MAL) has two-way AADT less than 1,000.
• Large vehicles AADT that making the left turn from intersecting highway is less than
20.
If the length of a median acceleration lane is constrained below the minimum due to physical
or other limitations, a Design Exception may be requested according to procedure described
in Chapter 13.
For grades less than or equal to 3.0 %, Table 10-11 can be used to determine the median
acceleration length. For grades higher than 3.0 %, median acceleration length should be
adjusted to accommodate the impacts of grade as per Table 10-12.
Table 10-12 Adjustment Multiplier for Grades higher than 3% (AT, 2019)
Highway
Design Speed Grade (%) Upgrade Downgrade
V (km/h)
80 1.4 0.65
90 1.4 0.6
100 From 3.0 % up 1.5 0.6
110 to 5.0 % 1.5 0.6
120 1.5 0.6
130 1.6 0.6
80 1.5 0.55
90 1.6 0.55
More than 5.0 %
100 1.7 0.5
110 2.0 0.5
SHC 301 381

Highway
Design Speed Grade (%) Upgrade Downgrade
V (km/h)
120 2.15 0.5
130 2.3 0.5
Lane width of median acceleration lane shall be 3.65 m. A 220 m long taper with 60:1
inclination shall be utilized at the end of the median acceleration lane to tie to the through
lane. Standard shoulder width of 2.0 m should be used for the full median acceleration parallel
lane and the taper length. A typical layout for median acceleration lane is provided in Figure
10-20.
SHC 301
382 SHC 382
301
Figure 10-20 Typical Layout for Median Acceleration Lane on Four-Lane Divided Highway (AT, 2019)
SHC 301 383

The Superelevation rate on intersections is recommended to be kept as lower as possible with
the maximum superelevation applied could be limited to 6.0 %. Higher rates of 8.0 to 10.0 %
could be used in certain cases, e.g., where the Horizontal Curve Radius applied to the main
highway is very close to the permitted acceptable limited values provided in relevant
horizontal alignment tables.
The superelevation rate of channelized right-turn and left-turn roadways could be the same
with the other highways either for tangent or curved sections (see Section 4.6.6). The
development of these superelevations rate is shown schematically in Figure 10-21. The
maximum algebraic difference between the through-lane cross slope and the superelevation
of the right-turn roadway shall conform to Table 10-13. By knowing the approach speed for
the right-turn roadway and the cross slope of the through lanes, it is possible to determine
the superelevation at various points along a turning roadway. After the superelevations rate
have been determined, gutter flow lines shall be plotted and adjusted to ensure proper
drainage. More drainage information is provided in SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities
Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
Table 10-13 Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Superelevation at Turning Roadway Terminals
Maximum Algebraic Difference in

Design Speed of Exit or
Superelevation between Traveled Way
Entrance Curve (km/h)
and Turning Roadway (%)
Up to 30 6.0 %
30 to 50 5.0 %
Higher than 50 4.0 %
SHC 301
384 SHC 384
301
Figure 10-21 Superelevation Transition in Auxiliary Lanes
SHC 301 385

Figure 10-22 Channelization to Improve Intersection Operations
SHC 301
386 SHC 386
301
10.2.12. Bus Bays
Bus bays shall be located along the outside of traveled way or adjacent to a directional island
for safe loading and unloading of passengers. Bus bays are illustrated in Figure 10-23.
Figure 10-23 Bus Bays
SHC 301 387

10.2.13. Spacing of Intersections
General
The spacing of Intersections shall vary according to the functional classification of the highway.
On local and collector highways, the minimum spacing of intersections could be 150 m since
the function of these highways is to serve abutting land along with movement of traffic. On
arterial highways the spacing of intersections becomes more critical for the proper movement
of vehicles with minimum interruptions by cross traffic and traffic signals. Signalized
intersections shall have a minimum spacing of 500 m and be equally spaced if progressive
signalization is to be used.
Spacing Between Frontage Road Intersections and Interchanges or Other Intersections
Frontage roads create a problem when they intersect major cross highways. Generally,
frontage roads are separated from multilane highways by a narrow buffer strip (outer
separation). This results in two Intersections (see Figure 10-24 and Figure 10-25):
• frontage road to crossroad according to Figure 10-24.
• cross road to multilane highway (Figure 10-24) or to a ramp terminus from the
multilane highway (Figure 10-25).
When adequate distance is not provided between these Intersections, problems occur with
turning movements and signalization. Therefore, the Intersection of a frontage road and cross
road shall be spaced at least 50 m from the Intersection of the multilane highway or ramp
terminus as shown in Figure 10-24 and Figure 10-25.
SHC 301
388 SHC 388
301
Figure 10-24 Spacing of Frontage Road Terminus from Interchange
SHC 301 389

Figure 10-25 Intersection Channelization at Interchanges and Spacing of Frontage Roads from Interchange
10.2.14. Intersection Connections to Roadside Development

Another group of intersections consists of public and commercial/private side road
connections. The principles of basic Intersection design also apply to these connections for
proper sight distance and turning radii.
SHC 301
390 SHC 390
301
A public connection shall consist of side road approaches to public buildings, parks, and rest
areas. A commercial/private connection shall consist of entrances to industrial parks, service
stations, shopping centers, and small businesses.
Along expressways and high-speed multilane divided arterials (90 km/h or more), public
connections and commercial connections shall have exits and entrances consisting of
adequate tapers, acceleration and deceleration lanes, and gradually turning curves meeting
the requirements of Section 11.5. Along other highways, public and commercial connections
shall meet the tapers, acceleration and deceleration lanes, and turning radii presented also in
Section 11.5. The highway shall have left turn and median acceleration lanes. These are shown
in Figure 10-26.
Private road connections shall not be made to expressways and high-speed multilane arterials.
This type of connection shall be permitted on lower speed arterials, collectors, and local
highways. A private road connection is shown in Figure 10-27. Driveway connections shall be
permitted to collector and local highways. This type of connection is shown in Figure 10-27.
SHC 301 391

Figure 10-26 Public and Commercial Connections
SHC 301
392 SHC 392
301
Figure 10-27 Private Connections
SHC 301 393

10.3.Roundabout Intersections
10.3.1. General Design Principles
General design principles of a roundabout design, regardless of roundabout category or
location, should be:
• Provide slow entry speeds and consistent speeds through the roundabout by using
deflection.
• Provide the appropriate number of lanes and lane assignment to achieve adequate
capacity, lane volume, and lane continuity.
• Provide smooth channelization that is intuitive to drivers and results in vehicles
naturally using the intended lanes.
• Provide adequate accommodation for the design vehicles.
• Design to meet the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists.
• Provide appropriate sight distance and visibility.
Each element described above influences the operational efficiency and potential for crashes
at roundabouts. Designers should balance competing needs and may need to adjust the
design to appropriately serve all users.
10.3.2. Geometric Elements

Figure 10-28 provides an overview of the basic geometric elements of a roundabout that are:
• Central island: The central island is the raised area in the center of a roundabout around
which traffic circulates. The central island does not necessarily need to be circular in
shape.
• Splitter island: A splitter island is a raised or painted area on an approach used to
separate entering from existing traffic, deflect and slow entering vehicles, while also
allow pedestrians to cross the highway in two steps.
• Circulatory roadway: The circulatory roadway is the curved path used by vehicles to
travel in a counterclockwise direction around the central island.
• Apron: If needed on smaller roundabouts to accommodate the wheel tracking of large
vehicles, an apron is the mountable portion of the central island adjacent to the
circulatory roadway.
• Accessible pedestrian/bicycle crossings: Accessible pedestrian crossings should be
provided at all roundabouts. The crossing location is set back from the entrance line,
and the splitter island is cut to allow pedestrians, wheelchairs, strollers, and bicycles to
pass through.
• Landscape strip: Landscape strips are provided at most roundabouts to separate
vehicular and pedestrian traffic and to lead pedestrians to the designated crossing
locations. Landscape strips can also significantly improve the aesthetics of the
intersection.
SHC 301
394 SHC 394
301
Figure 10-28 Basic Geometric Elements of a Roundabout (AASHTO, 2018)
Table 10-14 provides typical ranges of inscribed circle diameters for various roundabout
configurations, assuming 90 ° angles between entries and no more than four legs.
Table 10-14 Typical Inscribed Circle Diameter Ranges for Various Roundabout Configurations and Daily Traffic
Volume that can be served (NCHRP, 2010)
Typical Common Inscribed Typical daily

Roundabout Configuration Design Speed Circle Diameter service volumes
(km/h) Range (m) (veh/d)
Mini-Roundabout 20~30 15 to 30 Up to 15,000
Single-Lane Roundabout 30~40 30 to 55 Up to 20,000
SHC 301 395

Typical Common Inscribed Typical daily
Roundabout Configuration Design Speed Circle Diameter service volumes
(km/h) Range (m) (veh/d)
Multilane Roundabout (2
40~50 45 to 70 Up to 45,000
lanes)
Multilane Roundabout (3
45~55 60 to 90 Up to 65,000
lanes)
10.3.3. Design Vehicles in Roundabouts

Another important factor affecting a roundabout’s layout is the need to accommodate the
largest vehicle likely to use the intersection. The turning path requirements of this vehicle,
termed hereafter the design vehicle, will dictate many of the roundabout’s dimensions. Before
beginning the design process, the engineer must be conscious of the design vehicle and
possess the appropriate vehicle turning templates provided in Section Minimum Turning Paths
or a CAD-based vehicle turning path software to determine the vehicle’s swept path.
Commonly, WB-15 vehicles are the largest vehicles along urban collectors and arterials. Larger
trucks, such as WB-20 vehicles, may need to be addressed at intersections on rural areas.
Smaller design vehicles may often be chosen at local highway intersections. At a minimum, fire
engines, transit vehicles, and single-unit delivery vehicles should be considered in urban areas,
and it is desirable that these vehicles be accommodated without the use of the truck apron.
Where roundabouts are systematically used by military vehicles care should be taken that the
circulatory roadway width is larger than 8.50 m, provided the Ministry of Defense does not
require wider widths.
10.3.4. Single-Lane and Multi-Lane Roundabouts

Once an initial inscribed diameter, roundabout location, and approach alignment are
identified, the design can be more fully developed to include establishing the entry widths,
circulatory roadway width, and initial entry and exit geometry.
Splitter Islands
Splitter islands (also called separator islands, divisional islands, or median islands) should be
provided on all single-lane and multi-lane roundabouts. Their purpose is:
• to provide refuge for pedestrians.
• to assist in controlling speeds.
• to guide traffic into the roundabout.
• to physically separate entering and exiting traffic directions.
• to deter wrong way movements.
• to be used as a place for vertical signs.
The total length of the raised island should generally be at least 15 m, while 30 m is desirable,
to provide sufficient protection for pedestrians and to alert approaching drivers to the
geometry of the roundabout. On higher speed highways, splitter island lengths of 45 m or
SHC 301
396 SHC 396
301
more are often beneficial. Additionally, the splitter island should extend beyond the end of the
exit curve to prevent exiting traffic from accidentally crossing into the path of approaching
traffic. The splitter island width should be a minimum of 1.8 m at the crosswalk to adequately
provide refuge for pedestrians, including those using wheelchairs, pushing a stroller, or
walking a bicycle.
Figure 10-29 shows the minimum dimensions for a splitter island at a single-lane roundabout,
including the location of the pedestrian crossing. An increase in the splitter island width results
in greater separation between the entering and exiting traffic directions and increases the time
for approaching drivers to distinguish between exiting and circulating vehicles. In this way,
larger splitter islands can help reduce confusion for entering motorists. Figure 10-30 shows
typical minimum splitter island nose radii and offset dimensions from the entry and exit
traveled ways.
Entry Width
Typical entry widths for single-lane entrances range from 4.2 to 5.5 m, that are often flared
from upstream approach widths. However, values higher or lower than this range may be
appropriate for site-specific design vehicle and speed requirements for critical vehicle paths.
A 4.6 m entry width is a common starting value for a single-lane roundabout. Swept path
analysis considering the design vehicle should made with software packages to define the
appropriate entry width in all approaches.
Figure 10-29 Minimum Splitter Island Dimensions (NCHRP, 2010)
SHC 301 397

Figure 10-30 Typical Minimum Splitter Island Nose Radii and Offsets (NCHRP, 2010)
Inscribed Circle Diameter

The inscribed circle diameter is the distance across the circle inscribed by the outer curb (or
edge) of the circulatory roadway, as illustrated previously in Figure 10-28.
At single-lane roundabouts, the size of the inscribed circle is largely dependent upon the
turning requirements of the design vehicle. The diameter must be large enough to
accommodate the design vehicle while maintaining adequate deflection curvature to ensure
safe travel speeds for smaller vehicles. The inscribed circle diameter typically needs to be at
least 32 m to accommodate a WB-15 design vehicle. Smaller roundabouts can be used for
some local or collector highway intersections, where the design vehicle may be a bus or single-
unit truck. For locations that must accommodate a larger WB-20 design vehicle, a larger
inscribed circle diameter will be required, typically in the range of 40 to 46 m. In situations with
more than four legs, larger inscribed circle diameters may be appropriate. Truck aprons are
typically needed to keep the inscribed circle diameter reasonable while accommodating the
larger design vehicles.
At multilane roundabouts, the size of the roundabout is usually determined by balancing the
need to achieve deflection with providing adequate alignment of the natural vehicle paths.
Typically, achieving both of these critical design objectives requires a slightly larger diameter
than used for single-lane roundabouts. Generally, the inscribed circle diameter of a multilane
roundabout ranges from 46 to 76 m. For two-lane roundabouts, a common starting point is
49 to 55 m. Roundabouts with three- or four-lane entries may require larger diameters of 55
to 100 m to achieve adequate speed control and alignment. Truck aprons are sometimes
SHC 301
398 SHC 398
301
needed to keep the inscribed circle diameter reasonable while accommodating the larger
design vehicles.
For initial selection of an inscribed circle diameter using Table 10-14, the Intersection design
vehicle and the context of the location should be taken into consideration.
Central Island
The central island of a roundabout is the raised, mainly non-traversable area surrounded by
the circulatory roadway. It may also include a traversable truck apron. The island is typically
landscaped for aesthetic reasons and to enhance driver recognition of the roundabout upon
approach. Raised central islands for single-lane roundabouts are preferred over depressed
central islands, as depressed central islands are difficult for approaching drivers to recognize
and drainage can be an issue.
The size of the central island is determined upon the inscribed circle diameter and the required
circulatory roadway width. Roundabouts in rural environments typically need larger central
islands than urban roundabouts to enhance their visibility, accommodate larger design
vehicles, enable better approach geometry to be designed in the transition from higher
speeds, and be more forgiving to approaching vehicles.
Entry Design
As shown in Figure 10-31, the entry is bounded by a curb or edge of pavement consisting of
one or more curves leading into the circulatory roadway. At single-lane roundabouts, a single-
entry curb radius is typically adequate; for approaches on higher speed roadways, the use of
compound curves as provided in Figure 10-53 may improve guidance and reduce the entrance
speed.
Figure 10-31 Single-Lane Roundabout Entry Design (NCHRP, 2010)
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The entry curb radius is an important factor in determining the operation of a roundabout
because it affects both capacity and safety. Excessively large entry curb radii have a higher
potential to produce faster entry speeds than desired. Entry radii at urban single-lane
roundabouts typically range from 15 to 30 m. The entry geometry should provide adequate
horizontal curvature to channelize drivers into the circulatory roadway to the right of the
central island.
Exit Design
The exit curb radii are usually larger than the entry curb radii in order to minimize the likelihood
of congestion and crashes at the exits. This, however, is balanced by the need to maintain slow
speeds through the pedestrian crossing on exit. Generally, exit curb radii should be no less
than 15 m, with values of 30 to 60 m being more common. Figure 10-32 shows a typical exit
layout for a single-lane roundabout.
For designs using an offset-left approach alignment, the exit design may require much larger
radii, ranging from 100 to 250 m or greater. Larger exit radii may also be desirable in areas
with high truck volumes to provide ease of navigation for trucks and reduce the potential for
trailers to track over the outside curb. These radii may provide acceptable speed through the
pedestrian crossing area given that the acceleration characteristics of the vehicles will result in
a practical limit to the speeds that can be achieved on the exit. A large-radius or tangential
type exit design is illustrated in Figure 10-33.
At single-lane roundabouts in urban environments, exits should be designed to enforce slow
exit path speeds to maximize safety for pedestrians crossing the exiting traffic stream.
Pedestrian activity should be considered at all exits except where separate pedestrian facilities
(grade separated paths, etc.) or other restrictions eliminate the likelihood of pedestrian activity
in the foreseeable future.
Figure 10-32 Single-Lane Roundabout Curvilinear Exit Design (NCHRP, 2010)
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Figure 10-33 Single-Lane Roundabout Large Radius Exit Design (NCHRP, 2010)
10.3.5. Turbo Roundabouts

A modified version of a multilane roundabout, known as a turbo roundabout, is provided in
last decades in many countries (see Figure 10-34).
Figure 10-34 Turbo Roundabout (Petru & Krivda, 2021)
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A turbo roundabout has the same operating characteristics as modern roundabouts but
utilizes notably different geometrics to address the conflicts associated with the common crash
types in multilane roundabouts. The spiral roadway geometry and separated lanes of turbo
roundabouts require drivers to choose the proper lane prior to entering the roundabout in
order to leave the roundabout in the desired direction. Figure 10-35 show that the turbo
roundabout eliminates the conflicts associated with the common crash types in multilane
roundabouts.
Figure 10-35 Conflict Point Frequency for Multilane and Turbo Roundabouts (FHWA, 2019)
10.3.5.1. Geometric design

The geometric design of a turbo roundabout is governed by the horizontal swept path of a
design vehicle and a fastest path analysis for a passenger car. The geometric design process
consists of iterating through different combinations of the inner radius, cross section elements,
and spirals within the turbo block. Designers select the inner radius value, lane widths, edgeline
offsets, and lane divider widths, and then design the radii that produce the desired spirals.
Designers perform swept path analyses with the selected design vehicle. If there is a violation
in the swept path analyses (the wheel track of the design vehicle leaves the designated travel
lane), designers adjust the inner radius and/or cross-sectional elements as needed and the
turbo block is redesigned.
Inner Radius
The inner radius, R1 in Figure 10-36, serves as the radius of the central island, the radius of the
inside travel lane, and is the base value for the rest of the geometrics in a turbo roundabout.
In principle, the smaller the inner radius, the lower the speed with which a vehicle will navigate
the roundabout.
Turbo Block
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Turbo roundabouts create a smooth, spiraled vehicle path by shifting the centers of the radii
defining the locations of the inside and outside lanes along a translation axis. The combination
of these circles and the translation axis is referred to as the turbo block. Figure 10-36 is an
example of a turbo block for a basic four-leg, two-lane turbo roundabout.
Figure 10-36 Graphic. Sample Turbo Block (FHWA, 2019)
The orientation of the translation axis is based on the major approaches (those with two lanes)
and should provide similar curvature for all through vehicle movements.
The turbo block in Figure 10-36 contains four radii, where:
• R1 is to the inside edge of the inside lane.
• R2 is to the outside edge of the inside lane.
• R3 is to the inside edge of the outside lane.
• R4 is to the outside edge of the outside lane.
The difference between R1 and R2 is the width of the inside lane plus the widths of the inside
edge line and the edge line delineating the raised lane divider. The difference between R2 and
R3 is the width of the lane divider. The difference between R3 and R4 is the width of the outside
lane plus the widths of the edge line delineating the raised lane divider and the outside edge
line. When meeting at the translation axis, R1 should eventually join with R2 and R3 should
eventually join with R4.
Cross Section Elements

The widths of the cross-section elements of a turbo roundabout, specifically the lane widths,
are dependent on the selection of the design vehicle and the inner radius (R1). Typically, the
inside lane of a turbo roundabout is wider than the outside lane to provide more room for the
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design vehicle to maneuver around the smaller radius path. The definition of the following
cross-section elements is required:
1. Inner edge line offset – the distance from the inside edge of the inner lane to the
central island, including the inside edge line pavement marking.
2. Inside lane width – width of the inside lane.
3. Divider inner line offset – the distance from the outside edge of the inner lane to the
raised lane divider, including the outside edge line pavement marking.
4. Raised divider width – the width of the raised lane divider.
5. Divider outer line offset – the distance from the inside edge of the outer lane to the
raised lane divider, including the inside edge line pavement marking.
6. Outside lane width – width of the outside lane.
7. Outer edge line offset – distance from the outside edge of the outer lane to the edge
of the roundabout, including the outside edge line pavement marking.
The combined width of elements 1, 2, and 3 is considered the width of the inside roadway,
while the combined width of elements 5, 6, and 7 is the width of the outside roadway. These
values, combined with the inner radius, define R2, R3, and R4 as well as the shift for the turbo
block. The design values, provided in Table 10-15, are based on a two-axle truck with a three-
axle semitrailer design.
Table 10-15 Standard Design Values for Basic Turbo Roundabouts (FHWA, 2019)
Turbo Roundabout
Measurement in meters
Feature
“Mini” “Regular” “Medium” “Large”
Inner radius of the

10.5 12 15 20
inner lane (R1)
Outside radius of the
15.85 17.15 20.00 24.90
inner lane (R2)
Inner radius of the
16.15 17.45 20.30 25.20
outside lane (R3)
Outside radius of the
21.15 22.45 25.20 29.90
outside lane (R4)
Width, inside roadway 5.35 5.15 5.00 4.90

Width, outside
5.00 5.00 4.90 4.70
roadway
Width, inside lane 4.70 4.50 4.35 4.25
Width, outside lane 4.35 4.35 4.25 4.05
Lane divider between

0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
driving lanes
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Turbo Roundabout
Measurement in meters
Feature
“Mini” “Regular” “Medium” “Large”
Shift of inner arc
centers along the 5.75 5.35 5.15 5.15
translation axis
Shift of outer arc
centers along the 5.05 5.05 4.95 4.75
translation axis
Overrun area (truck
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
apron) width
Fastest path speed for a
37-41 37-39 38-39 40
passenger car in km/h
10.3.6. Mini Roundabouts

Mini roundabouts are small roundabouts with a fully traversable central island. They are most
used in low-speed urban environments with average operating speeds of 20 km/h up to 50
km/h. Figure 10-37 shows the features of typical mini-roundabouts.
Mini roundabouts are relatively inexpensive because they typically require minimal additional
pavement at the intersecting highways and minor widening at the corner curbs. They are
mostly recommended where conventional single-lane roundabout design is precluded by
right-of-way constraints insufficient to accommodate the design vehicle. Due to the small size,
mini-roundabouts are perceived as pedestrian-friendly with short crossing distances and lower
vehicle speeds on entries and exits. A fully traversable central island is provided to
accommodate large vehicles and serves one of the distinguishing features of a mini
roundabout.
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Figure 10-37 Features of Typical Mini-Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010)
10.3.6.1. General design criteria for mini roundabouts

Many of the same principles are used in the design of mini roundabouts as in full-sized
roundabouts. Key considerations include vehicle channelization, design vehicle paths, and
intersection visibility. Given that the central island of a mini roundabout is fully traversable, the
overall design should provide channelization that naturally guides drivers to the intended path.
A mini-roundabout is often considered as an alternative to a larger single-lane roundabout
due to a desire to minimize impacts outside of the existing intersection footprint. Therefore,
the existing intersection curb lines are a typical starting point for establishing the mini-
roundabout inscribed circle diameter. Mini roundabouts should be made as large as possible
within the intersection constraints. However, a mini-roundabout inscribed circle diameter
should generally not exceed 30 m. Above 30 m, the inscribed circle diameter is typically large
enough to accommodate the design vehicles navigating around a raised central island. The
fully traversable central island provides the clearest indication to the user that the Intersection
is a mini roundabout.
Figure 10-38 illustrates one particular situation where the design allows passenger cars to turn
left in front of the central island. In this case, the combination of the intersection skew angle,
small size of the central island, small size of the splitter islands, and large width of the
circulatory roadway makes it comfortable for a driver to turn left in front of the central island
instead of navigating around it. Three possible design improvements are illustrated in Figure
10-39. These include:
• advancing the yield line forward (upper left case);
• simultaneously enlarging the central island and reducing the circulatory roadway width
(upper right case);
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• enlarging the inscribed circle diameter (lower case).
For intersections with excessive skew or offset approach alignments, the use of dual mini
roundabouts is another option for providing adequate vehicle channelization through the
intersection.
Figure 10-38 Design That Allows Left Turns in Front of Central Island (NCHRP, 2010)
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Figure 10-39 Possible Design Improvements to Resolve Turning in Front of Mini-Roundabout Central Island
(NCHRP, 2010)
10.3.6.2. Splitter islands

As with larger roundabouts, splitter islands are generally used at mini roundabouts to align
vehicles, encourage deflection and proper circulation, and provide pedestrian refuge. Splitter
islands are raised, traversable, or flush depending on the size of the island and whether are
needed traversable for trucks swept path. In general, raised islands are used where possible,
and flush islands are generally discouraged. General principles for the selection of splitter
island type under various site conditions are:
Consider a raised island if:
• All design vehicles can navigate the roundabout without tracking over the splitter
island area.
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• Sufficient space is available to provide an island with a minimum area of 4.6 m2.
• Pedestrians are present at the Intersection with regular frequency.
Consider a traversable island if:
• Some design vehicles must travel over the splitter island area and truck volumes are
minor.
• Sufficient space is available to provide an island with a minimum area of 4.6 m2.
Consider a flush (painted) island if:
• Vehicles are expected to travel over the splitter island area with relative frequency to
navigate the Intersection.
• An island with a minimum area of 4.6 m2 cannot be achieved.
• Intersection has slow vehicle speeds.
10.3.6.3. Design considerations at three-leg roundabouts

Typical T-intersections with perpendicular approach legs can present challenges to achieving
deflection within the existing right-of-way. Figure 10-40 illustrates the simplest and least costly
method for implementing a mini-roundabout at a standard T-intersection. The inscribed circle
of the roundabout is located within the existing curb lines, which requires no additional right-
of-way or modifications outside the existing intersection footprint. However, the downside of
such a design is that little or no deflection is provided along the top of the T for a driver moving
from right to left. Therefore, this type of design is best suited for locations where speeds are
already low or where supplemental traffic calming devices can be provided upstream of the
roundabout entry.
Figure 10-40 Mini-Roundabout within Existing Intersection Footprint (NCHRP, 2010)
Care must be taken in the splitter island design to provide adequate deflection for traffic
traveling from left to right across the top of the T to be directed to circulate around the central
island rather than simply traveling over it.
The preferred option for a mini-roundabout at a T-intersection is to deflect the outer curb line
at the top of the T to provide deflection for all movements, as illustrated in Figure 10-41. This
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option may also allow for a slightly larger inscribed circle diameter, which will increase
flexibility for larger vehicles. Modifications to the curb lines will result in higher costs for this
alternative and may also require additional right-of-way.
Figure 10-41 Mini-Roundabout with Central Island Centered Along Major Roadway (NCHRP, 2010)
A third option achieves deflection for all movements by shifting the inscribed circle along the
minor street axis, as illustrated in Figure 10-42. This option will likely require modification of
all intersection curb lines and may require additional realignment of the approach legs
upstream of the intersection. Care must be taken to sufficiently shift the central island to
actually achieve deflection. Minor shifts of less than one meter are not likely to provide
sufficient deflection, while may also be difficult to perceive by drivers.
Figure 10-42 Mini-Roundabout with Inscribed Circle Shifted along Minor Street Axis (NCHRP, 2010)
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10.3.7. Fastest Path
The fastest path allowed by the geometry of the roundabout and determines the negotiation
speed for that particular movement into, through, and exiting the roundabout. The fastest path
is drawn for a vehicle traversing through the entry, around the central island, and out the
relevant exit. The fastest paths must be drawn for all approaches and all movements, including
left-turn movements and right-turn movements.
Figure 10-43 illustrates the five critical path radii that must be checked for each approach.
• R1, the entry path radius, is the minimum radius on the fastest through path prior to
the entrance line.
• R2, the circulating path radius, is the minimum radius on the fastest through path
around the central island.
• R3, the exit path radius, is the minimum radius on the fastest through path into the exit.
• R4, the left-turn path radius, is the minimum radius on the path of the conflicting left-
turn movement.
• R5, the right-turn path radius, is the minimum radius on the fastest path of a right-
turning vehicle.
It is important to note that these vehicular path radii are not the same as the curb radii. The R1
through R5 radii measured in this procedure represent the vehicle centerline in its path through
the roundabout. Information on constructing the fastest paths is provided afterwards.
Figure 10-43 Vehicle Path Radii (NCHRP, 2010)
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Recommended maximum theoretical entry design speeds for roundabouts at various
intersection site categories are provided in Table 10-16.
Table 10-16 Recommended Maximum Entry Design Speeds in Roundabouts (NCHRP, 2010)
Recommended Maximum Theoretical

Roundabout Configuration
Entry Design Speed (km/ h)
Mini-Roundabout 30
Single-Lane Roundabout 40
Multilane Roundabout 40 to 50
Care should be taken when designing multilane roundabouts due to the arising conflict points
and the resulting increased number of crashes. In many cases a signalized multilane
roundabout may be the most appropriate solution.
10.3.7.1. Construction of vehicle paths

To determine the speed of a roundabout, the fastest path allowed by the geometry should be
drawn. This is the smoothest, flattest path possible for a single vehicle, in the absence of other
traffic and ignoring all lane markings, traversing through the entry, around the central island,
and out the exit. The design speed of the roundabout is determined from the smallest radius
along the fastest allowable path. The smallest radius usually occurs on the circulatory roadway
as the vehicle curves to the left around the central island.
A vehicle is assumed to be 2.0 m wide and maintain a minimum clearance of 0.5 m from a
roadway centerline or concrete curb and flush with a painted edge line. Thus, the centerline of
the vehicle path is drawn with the following distances to the particular geometric features:
• Distance 1.5 m from a concrete curb.
• Distance 1.5 m from a roadway centerline.
• Distance 1.0 m from a painted edge line.
Figure 10-44 and Figure 10-45 illustrate the construction of the fastest vehicle paths at a
single-lane and a multilane roundabout, respectively. Figure 10-46 provides an example of an
approach at which the right-turn path is more critical than the through movement. The fastest
path should be drawn and checked for all approaches of the roundabout.
The entry path radius R1, is a measure of the deflection imposed on a vehicle prior to entering
the roundabout. The ability of the roundabout to control speed at the entry is a proxy for
determining the potential safety of the roundabout and whether drivers are likely to yield to
circulating vehicles. Additional guidance is provided in Figure 10-47 on drawing and
measuring the R1 radius. The construction of the fastest path should begin at least 50 m prior
to the entrance line using the appropriate offsets identified above. The R 1 radius should be
measured as the smallest best-fit circular curve over a distance of at least 20 to 25 m near the
entrance line.
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Figure 10-44 Fastest Vehicle Path through Single-lane Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010)
Figure 10-45 Fastest Vehicle Path through Multilane Roundabout (NCHRP, 2010)
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Figure 10-46 Example of Critical Right-Turn Movement (NCHRP, 2010)
Figure 10-47 Guidance on Drawing and Measuring the Entry Path Radius (NCHRP, 2010)
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10.3.7.2. Vehicle speed estimation
The relationship between travel speed and horizontal curvature is documented in the AASHTO
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2018). Since the same side friction
factors applied in Section 4.6.2, Equations 10-4 and 10-5 could be used providing a simplified
relationship between speed and radius, considering that the most common superelevation
values encountered are + 0.02 and - 0.02, corresponding to 2 % cross slope.
𝐕 = 𝟖. 𝟕𝟔 ∙ 𝑹𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟔𝟏 for e = + 2.0 % Equation 10-4
𝐕 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟐 ∙ 𝑹𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟔𝟏 for e = -2.0 % Equation 10-5
where:
V = The predicted speed (km/h)
R = The radius of curve (m)
e = The superelevation rate (%).
10.3.8. Sight Distance on Roundabouts

Similar in application to other intersection forms, roundabouts need two types of sight
distance to be adequately provided:
• Stopping sight distance.
• Intersection sight distance.
The design should be checked to provide stopping sight distance at every point within the
roundabout and on each entering and exiting approach such that the driver can react to
objects within the roadway. Intersection sight distance should also be verified for any
roundabout design so that sufficient distance is available for drivers to perceive and react to
the presence of conflicting vehicles.
In general, it is recommended that no more than the minimum intersection sight distance
should be provided on each approach. Excessive intersection sight distance can lead to higher
vehicle speeds that may lead to increased crashes involving motorists, bicyclists, and
pedestrians. Landscaping within the central island can be effective in restricting sight distance
to the minimum needed.
10.3.8.1. Stopping sight distance on roundabouts

Stopping sight distance should be provided at every point within a roundabout and on each
entering and exiting approach and can be determined according to the Equation 4-10 and
Figure 4-9 provided in Chapter 4.
At roundabouts, a minimum of three critical types of locations should be checked:
• Approach sight distance (Figure 10-48),
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• Sight distance on circulatory roadway (Figure 10-49), and
• Sight distance to crosswalk on exit (Figure 10-50).
Forward sight distance at entry can also be checked; however, this will typically be satisfied by
providing adequate stopping sight distance on the circulatory roadway itself.
Figure 10-48 Stopping Sight Distance on the Approach (NCHRP, 2010)
Figure 10-49 Stopping Sight Distance on Circulatory Roadway (NCHRP, 2010)
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Figure 10-50 Sight Distance to Crosswalk on Exit (NCHRP, 2010)
10.3.8.2. Intersection sight distance on roundabouts

Intersection sight distance is the distance required for a driver without the right-of-way to
perceive and react to the presence of conflicting vehicles. Intersection sight distance is
achieved through the establishment of sight triangles that allow a driver to see and safely react
to potentially conflicting vehicles. At roundabouts, the only locations requiring evaluation of
intersection sight distance are the entries.
Intersection sight distance is traditionally measured through the determination of a sight
triangle. This triangle is bounded by a length of roadway defining a limit away from the
intersection on each of the two conflicting approaches and by a line connecting those two
limits. For roundabouts, these legs should be assumed to follow the curvature of the roadway,
and thus distances should be measured not as straight lines but as distances along the
vehicular path.
Intersection sight distance should be measured using an assumed height of driver’s eye of
1.08 m and an assumed height of object of 1.08 m. Figure 10-51 presents a diagram showing
the method for determining intersection sight distance. As can be seen in the figure, the sight
distance triangle has two conflicting approaches that must be checked independently.
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Figure 10-51 Intersection Sight Distance (NCHRP, 2010)
Length of approach leg of sight triangle

The length of the approach leg of the sight triangle should be limited to 15 m. If the approach
leg of the sight triangle is greater than 15 m, it may be advisable to add landscaping to restrict
sight distance to the minimum requirements.
Length of conflicting leg of sight triangle

A vehicle approaching an entry to a roundabout faces conflicting vehicles within the circulatory
roadway and on the immediate upstream entry. The length of the conflicting leg is calculated
using the following equation:
𝒅𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∙ 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒋𝒐𝒓 ∙ 𝒕𝒄 Equation 10-6
where:
d1= The length of entering leg of sight triangle (m)
d2= The length of circulating leg of sight triangle (m)
Vmajor= The speed of conflicting movement as described below (km/h)
tc= The critical headway for entering the major highway, equal to 5.0 s.
Two conflicting traffic streams should be checked at each entry:
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1. Entering stream, which is composed of vehicles from the immediate upstream entry.
The speed for this movement can be approximated by taking the average of the
theoretical entering (R1) speed and the circulating (R2) speed as calculated in Section
010.3.7.2.
2. Circulating stream, which is composed of vehicles that enter the roundabout prior to
the immediate upstream entry. This speed can be approximated by taking the speed
of left-turning vehicles as calculated in Section 10.3.7.2 (path with radius R4).
10.3.9. Treatments for High-Speed Approaches

Roundabouts located on rural highways often have special design considerations because
approach speeds are higher than for urban or local highways, and drivers do not expect to
encounter speed interruptions. The primary safety concern in rural locations is to make drivers
aware of the roundabout with ample distance to comfortably decelerate to the appropriate
speed. The design of a roundabout in a high-speed environment typically employs all of the
techniques of roundabouts in a lower-speed environment, with greater emphasis on the
following items.
Visibility Adequacy approaching the roundabout

An important feature affecting safety at rural intersections is the visibility of the intersection
itself. Where possible, the geometric alignment of approach carriageway should be
constructed to maximize the visibility of the central island and the shape of the roundabout.
Where adequate visibility cannot be provided through geometric alignment, additional
measures (signing, pavement markings, advanced warning beacons, etc.) should be
considered according to volume SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
Curbing
On an open rural highway, changes in the roadway’s cross-section can be an effective means
to help approaching drivers recognize the need to reduce their speed. Narrow shoulder widths
and curbs on the outside edges of pavement, generally give drivers a sense they are entering
a more controlled setting, causing them naturally to slow down. Thus, when installing a
roundabout on an open rural highway, curbs should be provided at the roundabout and on
the approaches, and consideration should be given to reducing shoulder widths.
Splitter Islands
Another effective cross-section measure to reduce approach speeds is to use longer splitter
islands on the approaches. Splitter islands should generally be extended upstream of the
entrance line to the point at which entering drivers are expected to begin decelerating
comfortably. A length of 60 m is recommended for high-speed approaches, while 30 m should
be the minimum applied. Figure 10-52 provides a diagram of such a splitter island design.
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Figure 10-52 Extended Splitter Island Treatment (NCHRP, 2010)
Approach Curves
One method to achieve speed reduction that reduces crashes at the roundabout while
minimizing single-vehicle crashes is the use of successive curves on approaches as shown in
Figure 10-53. This figure provides the typical geometric design features for rural roundabout
design with a succession of three curves prior to the entrance line. As shown in Figure 10-53,
these approach curves should be successively smaller radii to minimize the reduction in design
speed between successive curves. Shifting of the approaching carriageway laterally by
approximately 7.0 m usually enables adequate curvature to be obtained while keeping the
curve lengths to a minimum.
Figure 10-53 Use of Successive Curves on High-Speed Approaches (NCHRP, 2010)
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For roundabout developed in rural areas, radii provided in Table 10-17 could be used.
Table 10-17 Typical Broad and Moderate Radii Applied in Successive Curves on High-Speed Approaches (FDOT,
2022)
Approach Rural Typical Radius (m)

Highway Speed
(km/h) Broad Moderate
80 330 180
90 420 240
100 540 285
110 660 330
10.3.10. Roundabout Landscaping

Landscaping is one of the distinguishing features that give roundabouts an aesthetic
advantage over traditional intersections. Landscaping in the central island, splitter islands
(where appropriate), and along the approaches can benefit both public safety and community
enhancement. To determine the type and quantity of landscaping or other material to
incorporate into a roundabout design, maintenance, sight distance, and the available planting
zones should all be considered. The primary objectives and considerations of incorporating
landscaping or art into a roundabout design are to:
• Make the central island more conspicuous, thus improving safety.
• Improve the aesthetics of the area while complementing surrounding streetscapes as
much as possible.
• Make decisions regarding placement of fixed objects (e.g., trees, poles, walls, guide rail,
statues, or large rocks) that are sensitive to the speed environment where the
roundabout is located.
• Avoid obscuring the form of the roundabout or the signing to the driver.
• Maintain adequate sight distances.
• Clearly indicate to drivers that they cannot pass straight through the intersection.
• Discourage pedestrian traffic through the central island.
• Help pedestrians who are visually impaired locate sidewalks and crosswalks.
The landscaping of the central island may enhance the safety of the intersection by:
• making the intersection a focal point.
• promoting lower speeds.
• breaking the headlight glare of incoming vehicles.
Landscaping elements should be selected so that sight distance is maintained where required.
Conversely, the landscaping should also be strategically located to limit the amount of excess
sight distance to help encourage slow speeds. This typically results in different types of
landscaping being considered for the inner and outer portion of the central island. It is
desirable to create a domed or mounded central island to increase the visibility of the
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intersection on the approach. The elevation difference between the inscribed circle diameter
and the higher ground point of the inner landscape zone is suggested to be from 1.0 to 1.8
m, as shown in Figure 10-54. In addition, the slope of the central island should not exceed a
ratio of 6:1 (H:V) to enable errant vehicles to recover.
Figure 10-54 Central Island Landscaping Profile (NCHRP, 2010)
10.4.Bicycle and Pedestrian Design Considerations

10.4.1. Bicyclists
Where bicycle facilities enter an intersection, the design of the intersection should incorporate
the bicycle facility. Intersection features compatible with bicycle facilities include:
• Special sight distance considerations.
• Wider roadways to accommodate on-street lanes.
• Special lane markings to channelize and separate bicyclists from right-turning vehicles.
• Provisions for left-turn bicycle movements.
• Special traffic signal designs (such as bicycle detection at actuated signals or separate
signal Indications for bicyclists).
More information is provided in Sections 4.8.2.1 and 6.10.1 of the present Volume.
10.4.2. Pedestrians
Pedestrian facilities include:
• Sidewalks.
• Crosswalks.
• Traffic control features.
• Curb ramps for persons with disabilities that are also useful for people with baby
strollers, wagons, carts, and luggage.
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Both marked and unmarked crosswalks should be considered in intersection design. Where
sidewalks are present, the projected line of the sidewalk across an intersecting street
constitutes a crosswalk, even where no crosswalk markings are present. When designing a
project that involves curbs and adjacent sidewalks to accommodate pedestrian traffic, proper
attention should be given to location and design of ramps and traffic control devices to
accommodate the needs of persons with a variety of disabilities, such as mobility, vision,
hearing, and cognitive disabilities.
More information is provided in Sections 4.8.2.2 and 6.10.2 of the present Volume.
10.5.Public Transport Considerations

Transit operations on roadways usually involve the operation of buses, which share the same
key characteristics as vehicles previously described. In addition, transit operations may
sometimes involve a transit stop in the intersection area, thereby creating potential conflicts
with pedestrian, bicycle, and motor vehicle flow. Transit stops should be physically connected
to pedestrian facilities to serve arriving and departing transit patrons. Additionally, where light-
rail, trolley, or other transit is present, their unique physical and operating features should be
considered.
Information regarding the public transport considerations at intersections is provided in
Sections 4.8.1 and 6.9 of the present Volume.
10.6.Alternative Intersection Design

The use of alternative intersections has gained increased popularity in recent years, owing to
growing traffic demand. The design concept entails the re-routing of certain traffic
movements, left turns in particular, with the scope to minimize conflict points. In this respect,
and under specific traffic and site scenarios, alternative intersections outweigh their
conventional counterparts in terms of both operational efficiency and safety.
10.6.1. Displaced Left Turn

Displaced left-turn intersections, also known as a continuous-flow intersections (CFI) or
crossover-displaced left-turn (XDL) intersections, reduce conflict points at the main
intersection area by directing left-turning vehicles to crossover at a location upstream of the
main intersection.
At conventional intersections, since left turns and opposing through-movements occur
simultaneously at the main intersection, CFIs consist of parts with reduced movements to allow
more traffic to flow continuously. Left turning maneuvers along the main highway are
performed by introducing a left-turn bay placed to the left of oncoming traffic.
Α displaced left-turn intersection design is shown in Figure 10-55.
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Figure 10-55 Displaced Left-Turn Intersection Design (NCHRP, 2020)
The complete displaced left-turn intersection design operates as a set of two-phase signals.
During the first phase, left turning traffic from the main highway crosses the opposing traffic
and at the same time the secondary highway movements are served. The second signal phase
serves through traffic as well as the protected left-turn movements entering the secondary
highway. As a result, the left turning vehicles from the main highway potentially stop up to
two times; once at the midblock signal to cross the main highway’s opposing traffic and/or
another at the main intersection to cross the entering left turning vehicles from the secondary
highway.
Depending on traffic volumes provided according to information of SHC 601 (Traffic
Engineering) and the distance between the left-turn bay area and the primary intersection,
signal coordination, may optimize the left turning movements.
Intersections with high through and left-turn volumes may be appropriate sites for displaced
left-turn intersections. However, potential effects on pedestrians and bicyclists should be
considered. Since U-turns are not allowed at displaced left-turn intersections, such intersection
types shall be designed at areas with low U-turn demand.
10.6.2. Staggered Intersections

An offset T-intersection (also known as staggered intersection) is an at-grade road intersection
where a conventional four-leg intersection is divided into two three-leg intersections (see
Figure 10-56). Designing a four-leg intersection, traffic on any approach would negotiate both
opposing and cross traffic. however, in comparison, with three-leg intersection, the opposing
approach is eliminated on the minor approach. Therefore, using two separate three-leg
intersections leads traffic on a minor approach to encounter potential traffic conflicts only with
the major crossing approaches.
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Figure 10-56 Staggered Intersection (NCDOT, 2020)
Typically, staggered intersection has stop control on the minor approaches when traffic
demand is relatively low. When traffic demand is higher, signal installation may be considered
at one or both intersections to control traffic. More specific information regarding the need of
application of signalized intersections (signal use criteria – warrants) is provided in Section 5.2
of SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
The key to staggered intersection is the actual offset, or distance from one intersection to
another; a shorter distance increases the likelihood of both intersections behaving as one. An
offset between the two minor roads is recommended to be from 30 to 100 m because
intersections with small offsets seems to provide reduced road safety with respect to four-leg
intersections, while distance more than 100 m seems to have some disadvantages in terms of
average delay over a cross intersection.
10.6.3. Median U-Turn

10.6.3.1. General
Median U-turn intersections (MUTs) are also known as thru-turns, median U-turn crossovers,
boulevard turnarounds, and boulevard lefts. A MUT intersection (Figure 10-57) eliminates all
left turn conflicts (for both main and secondary highway) at the main intersection area by
redirecting vehicles to make a U-turn in order to turn left.
Figure 10-57 Median U-Turn Intersection Design (NCHRP, 2020)
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The MUT median width is a function of the design vehicle and the preferred alignment of the
design vehicle as it turns into the opposing traffic. Minimum widths of median to
accommodate U-turns by different design vehicles turning from the lane adjacent to the
median are given in Table 10-18.
By relocating the left-turn movements at intersections to median U-turn crossovers located
beyond the intersection, operational and safety, in terms of reducing conflict points,
improvements can be reached. However, potential effects on pedestrians and bicyclists should
be considered.
The median crossover may also be located on the secondary highway. In this case, drivers
aiming to turn left from the main highway turn right on the secondary highway and left
through the median crossover. Vehicles aiming to turn left from secondary to main highway,
proceed through the intersection, make a U-turn, and turn right at the main highway.
Median crossover designs on secondary highways may be also designed with roundabouts.
Table 10-18 Minimum Width of Median to Accommodate U-Turns (m) - (AASHTO, 2018)
Minimum Width of Median (m) for Design Vehicle
P WB-12 SU-9 BUS SU-12 WB-20

Type of Maneuver
Length of Design Vehicle (m)
5.7 14.0 9.0 12.0 12.0 22.4
Inner
Lane
9 18 19 19 23 21
to Inner
Lane
Inner
Lane
5 15 15 16 19 17
to Outer
Lane
Inner
Lane
2 12 12 12 16 14
to
Shoulder
10.6.3.2. Restricted crossing U-turn

A variation of MUTs, known as restricted crossing U-turn (RCUT) intersection, or Superstreet
intersection or a J-turn intersection (unsignalized) is shown in Figure 10-58.
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RCUT intersections redirect both left-turn and through movements from the secondary
highway to a one-way crossover located in the median of the divided roadway. Left-turning
vehicles from the main highway, divided roadway still utilize the primary intersection.
Potential effects on pedestrians and bicyclists should be considered.
RCUT configurations generally come along with high-volume main highways in suburban and
rural areas where relatively low traffic volumes enter from the secondary highway.
Figure 10-58 Restricted Crossing U-Turn Intersection Design (AASHTO, 2018)
10.6.3.3. Median considerations

In order to accommodate U-turns, a typical width of medians is 18 m.
For narrower median widths, U-turn movements may be accommodated using expanded
paved aprons (bump-outs or “loons”) provided in the shoulder area opposite a median
crossover.
Median U-turn roadways may generally apply at intersections with:
• High through movements on the main highway.
• Low-to-medium left turns from the main highway.
• Low-to-medium left turns from the secondary highway.
• Any amount of through volumes on the secondary highway.
The use of median U-turn roadways should be avoided in sites where:
• Connections with cycling routes along the secondary highway are required, unless an
appropriate path for the movement can be designed.
• High left-turning volumes are present, since the out-of-direction travel realized and
the potential for queue spillover at the median U-turn roadway location could offset
the benefits accrued from restricting the left-turning movement from the main
intersection.
The distance of the U-turn crossover from the primary intersection is determined by a number
of factors, such as vehicle speeds, traffic volumes for queue storage, design vehicle and type
of intersection traffic control.
In general, a signalized intersection shall necessitate a shorter distance to the crossover, given
that the signal phase change allows gaps to traffic circulation. In this case, shorter travel time
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for left-turning and through vehicles shall be particularly beneficial to cyclists attempting a left
turn or a through movement. Signalized intersections should consider the information
provided in SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering) as well as the safety considerations. Also, traffic
control devices can be used according to SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices).
In cases of non-signalized intersections, a longer distance to the crossover shall be required,
resulting, nevertheless, in longer travel times for left-turning and through vehicles.
In both cases, however, an adequate storage bay for queue overspill shall be provided. The
design shall also provide for adequate sight distance for both U-turning drivers and drivers of
vehicles approaching the crossover.
More specifically, the following shall apply to the design of median U-turn roadways:
• Design shall accommodate the design vehicle.
• Deceleration and storage lengths shall be designed in accordance with the design
traffic volume and foreseen traffic control features.
• Adequate spacing shall be provided between the U-turn roadway and main
intersection.
• In the case of the design vehicle being a tractor–semitrailer combination truck, a 18-m
wide median on a four-lane arterial shall be used. In the case of limited space for
turning, additional pavement shall be added outside the travel lane to allow the design
vehicle to complete the maneuver.
In addition, the operation of signalized intersections with median U-turn roadways shall entail
the following:
• A two-phase signal operation that shall provide shorter signal cycle length, while
minimizing delays for through-vehicles and improving signal coordination along a
traffic route. Vehicles turning left shall be obliged to cover a longer distance to realize
the turn, balancing a number of operational benefits to the through-vehicles.
• Appropriate signage to designate the median U-turn and the restriction of left-turn
movements at the intersection.
• Provision of additional storage for the U-turn movement.
• Signal timing coordination with adjacent signalized intersections.
The main benefits associated with the use of a median U-turn crossover intersection are a
significant reduction of left-turn collisions coupled with a smaller reduction of merging and
diverging collisions. Typical crash reductions when compared to conventional intersections
range from 20 to 50 %.
In addition, a reduction in the overall travel time and stops for the main line through
movements is also expected. Nevertheless, mixed results have been recorded with regard to
overall stops.
The use of a median increases the distance crossed by pedestrians; therefore, a median width
of at least 1.8 m shall be included to accommodate pedestrians, where multi-stage pedestrian
crossing intervals are required. The provision of additional ROW and access restrictions within
the wider median U-turn locations should be considered.
Other necessary measures include signage, enforcement and driver education to guide drivers
to the appropriate use of this configuration and deter them from making illegal turns.
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10.6.4. Parallel Flow Intersection (Parflow)
In order to accomplish the desired left-turn maneuvers, the PFI design integrates the main
intersection with a bypass intersection. Bypass turn lanes are located to the left of the opposing
through lanes (Figure 10-59).
The concurrent movement of left turns with the secondary highway’s through movements,
makes possible the operation of PFIs as a set of two-phase signals.
PFIs are characterized with increased efficiency, which is accomplished by arranging the left
turns to be performed just prior to the main intersection using a frontage road along the
secondary highway. Unlike many unconventional intersection designs, the parallel flow
intersection provides direct left turns nearly from the same stopping area location as a
conventional design.
During PFI designs, potential effects on pedestrians and bicyclists should be considered.
Figure 10-59 Parallel Flow Intersection Design (Dhatrak et al., 2010)
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10.7.Railroad-Highway Grade Crossings
The third group of at-grade intersections is railroad-highway grade crossings.
Railroad-highway grade crossings shall be permitted only on local, collector, or only in
exceptional cases on arterial highways. At higher volumes of vehicular and train traffic,
railroad-highway grade separated crossings shall be considered. All freeways/expressways
shall have grade separated railroad-highway crossings.
Railroad-highway grade crossings intersection angle shall be from 80 to 100 degrees. The full
width of roadway including shoulders shall be continued across the railroad crossing.
The sight distance for a railroad-highway grade crossing follows the same principles as a
highway-to-highway crossing as provided in Figure 4-9. The desirable crossing sight distance
shall be adequate so that a vehicle approaching the railroad will be able to stop in time after
seeing a train approaching. To satisfy this condition, the two sides of the minimum sight
triangle shall be as follows:
1. A distance along the highway measured from the crossing corresponding to the
minimum stopping distance for the design speed of the highway as shown in Table
10-19.
2. A distance along the railroad track, measured from the crossing, equivalent to the
distance traveled by the train during the time interval required for the highway vehicle
to be brought to a stop.
3. The sight distance meeting these requirements is required in all four quadrants.
For the above sight distance, the traffic control devices for railroads shall be installed, while in
case that the sight distance cannot be met, positive controls using railroad signal and gates
with flashing lights shall be installed. No commercial signs or other obstructions shall be
permitted within 100 m of a railroad-highway grade crossing. The safety warning devices
associated with such crossings shall be clearly visible. More information is provided in volume
SHC 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
Table 10-19 Required Sight Distance for Rural Unsignalized Railway-Highway Crossings (MoC, 1992)
Distance Travelled by Train at

Clear Sight Line Required for
Speed Shown During Time for
Road Design Train (m)
Vehicle to Come to a Strop (m)
Speed
(km/h)
Train Speed (km/h) Train Speed (km/h)
30 80 100 150 30 80 100 150
60 65 170 210 320 110 190 230 330
80 85 230 280 420 170 270 320 450
100 100 270 340 500 230 340 390 540
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11.Interchange Design
11.1.Concepts and Warrants
An interchange can be a useful and adaptable solution to improve many intersection
conditions either by reducing existing traffic bottlenecks or by reducing crash frequency.
However, the high cost of constructing an interchange limits its use to those cases where the
additional expenditure can be justified. An enumeration of the specific conditions or warrants
justifying an interchange at a given intersection is difficult and, in some instances, cannot be
conclusively stated. Because of the wide variety of site conditions, traffic volumes, highway
types, and interchange layouts, the warrants that justify an interchange may differ at each
location. The following six conditions, or warrants, should be considered when determining if
an interchange is justified at a particular site:
1. Design Designation: The determination to develop a highway (freeway) with full
control of access between selected terminals becomes the warrant for providing
interchanges for all crossing primary or secondary highways. The main concern is the
continuous flow on the major highway. If traffic on the minor highway will cross the
freeway, an interchange is provided.
2. Reduction of Bottlenecks or Spot Congestion: Insufficient capacity at the
intersection and inability to provide essential capacity with an at-grade facility provides
a warrant for an interchange.
3. Reduction of Crash Frequency and Severity: Some at-grade intersections have a
disproportionate frequency of serious crashes. If inexpensive methods of reducing
crashes are likely to be ineffective or impractical, an interchange may be warranted.
4. Site Topography: In some cases, grade-separation designs are the only type of
intersection that can be constructed economically. The topography at the site may be
such that, to satisfy appropriate design criteria, any other type of intersection is
physically impossible to develop or is equal to or greater than the cost of an
interchange design.
5. Road-User Benefits: The road-user costs from delays at congested at-grade
intersections are in many cases extremely high and could be a warrant for an
interchange. These costs, such as:
a. fuel and oil usage.
b. wear on tires, repairs.
c. delay to motorists.
d. crashes that result from speed changes, stops, and waiting.
The road-user costs are in many cases higher than the benefits taken from the
construction of an interchange. The relation of road-user benefits to the cost of
improvement indicates an economic warrant for that improvement.
6. Traffic Volume Warrant: A traffic volume warrant for interchange treatment may be
the most tangible of any interchange warrant. Interchanges are desirable at highway
crossings with high traffic volumes due to the elimination of conflicts.
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11.2.Basic Design Features
11.2.1. General
The interchange shall be designed to avoid erratic and unsafe driver behavior and for
maximum operational safety for the given traffic. This can be done with the application of
some basic interchange design principles and appropriate signing that is compatible with
projected traffic, adjacent land use, and site topography.

For the proper interchange design the following general principles should be considered:
1. Provide regularity and consistency of design features.
2. Ramp exits from the main highway shall be from the right except only. Exits from the
left are prohibited.
3. Ramp entrances to the main highway shall be on the right.
4. There should be one exit per direction from the main highway and any further division
of traffic movement shall be at a distance beyond the exit not less than that traveled
in 6.0 sec at the design speed.
5. Design speed of the ramp just beyond the exit should preferably be 50 to 67 % of
highways design speed.
6. Provide ramps for return or complementary traffic movements at the same
interchange.
7. In rural areas the intersecting highway is usually carried over the main highway.
8. Use flatter grades to minimize intrusion on the surrounding environment.
9. Signing is an important aspect of interchanges and its design should be done in
conjunction with the geometric design. More information could be found in volume
SCH 602 (Volume on Uniform Traffic Control Devices).
10. The angle of skew of intersecting highways should not be less than 72 degrees.
11.3.Interchange Types
11.3.1. Basic Interchange Configurations
Design patterns for interchanges vary with each interchange; a design suitable for one site is
rarely adaptable to the traffic and topographic conditions at another site. Uniformity in design
or standardizing interchange layouts whenever possible is very desirable. Definite patterns of
interchange designs have evolved that are suitable for use under most conditions. Common
patterns or types are:
• Diamond.
• Trumpet.
• Full Cloverleaf.
• Partial cloverleaf (parclo).
• Three-leg directional.
The choice of one of these types for a particular location is dependent on traffic volumes,
topography, land use, and cost. The basic interchange configurations are shown in Figure 11-1.
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All configurations may vary a lot due to different design characteristics, while there are a lot
of combinations of interchange types that are difficult to designate by separate names.
Figure 11-1 Interchange Configurations (AASHTO, 2018)
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11.3.2. Three-Leg Designs
The grade-separated three-leg interchange results from the intersection of two highways at
different levels, where one of them is terminating within the area of the Intersection. Figure
11-2 show the trumpet pattern that is widely used as a three-leg interchanges with one grade
separation. Through-traffic movements, from points (a) to (c), are on direct alignment of the
mainline highway. A criterion for selection of either design is the relative volumes of the left-
turning movements, the more direct alignment favoring the heavier volume and the loop
favoring the lesser volume. Curves with spiral transitions are effective in developing the desired
shape of ramps.
Figure 11-2 Three-Leg Interchanges with Single Structures (AASHTO, 2018)
Figure 11-3 illustrates high-type T- and Y-interchanges that provide all movements without
loops, while more than one structure or one three-level structure is needed. These
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configurations are more costly than single-structure configurations and are justified only
where all movements has high traffic volumes to serve.
Figure 11-3 Three-Leg Interchanges with Multiply Structures (AASHTO, 2018)
11.3.3. Four-Leg Designs

Interchanges with four Intersection legs may be grouped under the following configurations:
• Ramps in one quadrant.
• Diamond interchanges.
• Roundabout interchanges.
• Single-point diamond interchanges (SPDIs).
• Diverging diamond interchanges.
• Full or partial cloverleafs (including ramps in two or three quadrants).
• Directional interchanges.
Interchanges with ramps in only one quadrant have application for an intersection of roadways
with low traffic volumes. Where a grade separation is provided at an Intersection because of
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topography, even though volumes do not justify the structure, a single two-way ramp usually
could be provided for all turning traffic. The ramp terminals may be simple T-intersections. In
some instances, a one-quadrant interchange may be constructed as the first step in a stage
construction program. In this case, the initial ramps should be designed as a part of the
ultimate development.
Figure 11-4 illustrates two different cases of a one-quadrant interchange:
• The left figure refers at the intersection between two rural highways in mountainous
area where, the elongated shape of the ramp was determined largely by topography.
• The right figure refers at an intersection designed as an early phase of stage
construction. On future construction, it is readily adaptable to become a part of a full
or partial cloverleaf interchange without major renovation.
Figure 11-4 Four-Leg Interchanges, Ramps in One Quadrant (AASHTO, 2018)
11.3.3.1. Diamond interchanges

The simplest and perhaps most common interchange configuration is the diamond. A full
diamond interchange is formed when a one-way diagonal ramp is provided in each quadrant.
The ramps are aligned with free-flow terminals on the major highway, and an at-grade
intersection is provided between the ramps and the cross highway. The diamond interchange
has the following advantages with respect to a comparable partial cloverleaf:
• All traffic can enter and leave the major highway at relatively high speeds.
• Left-turning maneuvers entail little extra travel.
• A relatively narrow band of right-of-way is needed, sometimes no more than that
needed for the highway alone.
Figure 11-5 conventional arrangements for diamond interchanges. Diamond interchanges
have application in both rural and urban areas. They are particularly adaptable to major–minor
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crossings where left turns at grade on the minor highway are fitting and can be handled with
minimal interference to traffic approaching the intersection from either direction. Diamond
interchanges usually need traffic control, signalization, or a roundabout(s) where the cross
street carries moderate-to-large traffic volumes. The capacity of the ramps and that of the
cross street may be determined by the signal-controlled ramp terminals. At-grade intersection
design would prevent stored vehicles from extending too far along the ramps or into the
freeway.
Figure 11-5 Diamond Interchanges, Conventional Arrangements (AASHTO, 2018)
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11.3.3.2. Single-point diamond interchanges
Figure 11-6 and Figure 11-7 illustrates single-point diamond interchanges (SPDIs), also known
as the single-point urban interchanges (SPUIs), in wide and restricted right-of-way. The
primary features of an SPDI are that all four turning movements are controlled by a single
traffic signal and opposing left turns operate to the left of each other.
SPDIs are typically characterized by narrow right-of-way, high construction costs, and greater
capacity than conventional tight diamond interchanges. These interchanges can be
constructed either with or without frontage roads. They are primarily suited for urban areas
where right-of-way is restricted but may also be applicable to the rural context where it is
undesirable to utilize adjacent right-of-way due to environmental, geographical, or other
constraints.
SPDIs offer the following advantages:
• construction in a relatively narrow right-of-way, resulting in potentially significant cost
reductions.
• vehicles making opposing left turns pass to the left of each other rather than to the
right, so their paths do not intersect.
• right-turn movements from the exit ramps are typically free-flow or yield control and
only the left turns pass through the signalized intersection.
• has only one intersection, as opposed to two for a diamond interchange.
• the operation of the single traffic signal on the crossroad may result in reduced delay
through the intersection area when compared to a diamond interchange.
• The turning angle and curve radii for left-turn movements through the intersection are
significantly flatter than at conventional intersections and, therefore, the left turns
move at higher speeds. The left turn angle is typically 45 to 60 degrees with a minimum
radius of 45 to 65 m.
The above-mentioned operations may result in a higher capacity than a conventional tight
diamond interchange.
The primary disadvantage of SPDIs is high construction costs associated with bridges.
Overpass SPDIs need long bridges to span the large intersection below. A two-span structure
is not a design option because a center column would conflict with traffic movements. Single-
span overpass bridges are typically 65 m in length, while three-span bridges often exceed 120
m.
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Figure 11-6 Underpass Single-Point Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018)
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Figure 11-7 Typical SPDI Underpass Configuration in Restricted Right-Of-Way (AASHTO, 2018)
11.3.3.3. Diverging diamond interchanges

The Diverging Diamond Interchange (DDI), also known as the Double Crossover Diamond
(DCD), is a variation of a conventional diamond interchange and is illustrated in Figure 11-8.
The DDI uses directional crossover intersections to shift traffic on the cross carriageway to the
left-hand side between the ramp terminals within the interchange. Crossing the through
movements to the opposite side replaces left-turn conflicts with same-direction
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merge/diverge movements and eliminates the need for exclusive left-turn signal phases to
and from the ramp terminals. All connections from the ramps to and from the cross street are
joined outside of the cross-over intersections, and these connections can be controlled by
two-phase signaling programs, have stop or yield control, or be free flowing.
The DDI offers the following advantages in comparison to a conventional diamond
interchange:
• By allowing the ramp-terminal intersections to operate with simple, two-phase
signaling programs, the design provides flexibility to accommodate varying traffic
patterns.
• has significantly fewer vehicle-to-vehicle, vehicle-to-pedestrian, and vehicle-to-bike
conflict points compared to a conventional diamond interchange.
• Left-turn volume capacity at a DDI is generally higher, and fewer and shorter signal
phases are needed to accommodate both motorized and nonmotorized movements.
• Overall operations of a DDI may be greater compared to a conventional signalized
diamond interchange due to shorter cycle lengths, reduced time lost per cycle phase,
reduced stops and delay, and shorter queue lengths.
• The DDI also reduces the number and severity of conflict points for both motorized
and nonmotorized users.
• The crossing distances for pedestrians are comparatively shorter, and usually involve
traffic approaching from only one direction at a time.
• The cross-sectional characteristics of a DDI provide multiple options for facilitating
convenient pedestrian and bicycle movements, and the geometry of the crossover
intersections have an added benefit of reducing motorized vehicle speeds through the
interchange, resulting in a traffic calming effect which may reduce crashes.
A disadvantage of the DDI design is the inability to route oversized trucks or bus rapid transit
from the exit ramp directly through the intersection and onto the entrance ramp.
At an existing conventional diamond interchange where additional capacity is needed, it may
be advantageous to convert the interchange into a DDI. Retrofitting to a DDI may be less costly
than options involving widening the crossroad near the interchange (including widening the
bridge) and adding additional lanes to the ramps.
A DDI may be designed with the crossroad as either an underpass or overpass. The spacing
between ramp intersections is also a key consideration as this will impact signal design and
operations on the crossroad corridor.
Figure 11-8 Diverging Diamond Interchange (AASHTO, 2018)
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11.3.3.4. Cloverleaf interchanges
Cloverleafs are four-leg interchanges that employ loop ramps to accommodate left-turning
movements. Interchanges with loops in all four quadrants are referred to as “full cloverleafs”
and all others are referred to as “partial cloverleafs.” A full cloverleaf may not be warranted at
major–minor crossings where, with the provision of only two loops, freedom of movement for
traffic on the major highway can be maintained by an at-grade Intersection.
Figure 11-9 Full Cloverleaf Interchange with and without Distributor Roads (TxDOT, 2022)
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The principal disadvantages of the cloverleaf are the additional travel distance for left-turning
traffic, the weaving maneuver generated, the very short weaving length typically available, and
the relatively large right-of-way areas needed. When collector–distributor roads are not used,
further disadvantages include weaving on the main highway, the double exit on the main
highway, and difficulties in placing signing for the second exit. Because cloverleafs are
considerably more expansive than diamond interchanges, they are less common in urban areas
and are better adapted to suburban or rural areas where space is available.
Figure 11-10 Different Cases of Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements – Two Quadrants and Diagonally Opposite
(AASHTO, 2018)
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The advantages of increased speed should be weighed against the disadvantages of increased
travel time, distance, and right-of-way. Also, large trucks may not be able to operate as
efficiently on smaller radii curves. Considering all factors, the practical size of loops resolves
into approximate radii of 30 to 50 m for minor movements on highways with design speeds
of 80 km/h or less and 50 to 75 m for more important movements on highways with higher
design speeds. A continuous additional lane is needed for deceleration, acceleration, and
weaving between the on- and off-loop ramps. Additional structure width or length is usually
needed for this lane.
Full cloverleaf interchanges with and without collector-distributor roads are provided in Figure
11-9, while two, three and four quadrants schematics of partial cloverleaf arrangements are
illustrated in Figure 11-10 and Figure 11-11. In the design of partial cloverleafs, the site
conditions may offer a choice of quadrants to use. However, at a particular interchange site,
topography and culture may be the factors that determine the quadrants in which the ramps
and loops can be developed.
Figure 11-11 Different Cases of Partial Cloverleaf Ramp Arrangements – Three and Four Quadrants (AASHTO,
2018)
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11.3.4. Turnarounds at Diamond Interchanges
Turnarounds at diamonds interchanges allows vehicles traveling on a one-way frontage road
to access the opposing direction one-way frontage road via a U-turn before the terminal
intersections at the diamond interchange. This technique removes two potential left-turn
maneuvers from the adjacent at-grade intersections. The frontage road turnaround has
operational benefits that result from shifting vehicles that would typically be occupying the
intersection. The illustration of turnaround configuration and influential site characteristics are
presented in Figure 11-12.
Figure 11-12 Turnaround Configuration and Influential Site Characteristics (TxDOT, 2022)
11.3.5. Directional Interchanges

Direct or semidirect connections are used for important turning movements to reduce travel
distance, increase speed and capacity, eliminate weaving, and avoid the need for out-of-
direction travel in driving on a loop. Higher levels of service can be realized on direct
connections and, in some instances, on semidirect ramps because of relatively high speeds
and the likelihood of better terminal design. Figure 11-13 illustrates a semi-direct and a direct
interchange with weaving areas, while in Figure 11-14 directional interchanges without
weaving areas are provided.
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Figure 11-13 Directional Interchanges with Weaving Areas (AASHTO, 2018)
A direct connection is defined as a ramp that does not deviate greatly from the intended
direction of travel. Direct connections are generally designed with higher design speeds than
semidirect connections. A semidirect connection is defined as a ramp where the driver exits to
the right first, heading away from the intended direction of travel, gradually reversing, and
then passing around other interchange ramps before entering the other highway.
There are many configurations for directional interchanges that use various combinations of
direct and semidirect connections, and loop ramps. Any one of them may be appropriate for
a certain set of conditions, but only a limited number of patterns are generally used.
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Figure 11-14 Directional Interchanges with No Weaving (AASHTO, 2018)
Fully directional interchanges are generally preferred where two high-volume

freeways/expressways intersect. Since traffic movements between them are free-flow, full
directional interchange configuration, provides direct or semidirect ramp connections from
one freeway/expressway to the other. Fully directional interchanges are costly to construct due
to the increased number and length of ramps and the increased number of bridge crossings,
but they offer high-capacity movements for both through and turning traffic. Figure 11-15
illustrates some cases for full directional interchanges with multilevel structures.
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Figure 11-15 Full Directional Interchanges with Multilevel Structures (AASHTO, 2018)
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11.4.Determination of Interchange Configuration
In both rural and urban areas, interchange configurations are selected primarily based on
service demand. When the intersecting highways are freeways, directional interchanges may
be needed for high turning volumes.
A combination of directional, semi-directional, and loop ramps may be appropriate where
turning volumes are high for some movements and low for others. When loop ramps are used
in combination with direct and semidirect ramp designs, it is desirable that the loops be
arranged in such a way that weaving sections are avoided. For the selection of the interchange
type, the following thoughts could be considered:
• A cloverleaf interchange is the minimum design that can be used at the Intersection of
two fully controlled access facilities or where left turns at grade are prohibited.
• A simple diamond interchange is the most common interchange configuration for the
intersection of a major roadway with a minor facility.
Once several alternates have been prepared for the system design, they can be compared on
the following principles:
• Capacity.
• Route continuity.
• Uniformity of exit patterns.
• Single exits in advance of the separation structure.
• With or without weaving, (6) potential for signing.
• Cost.
• Availability of right-of-way.
• Potential for stage construction.
• Compatibility with the environment.
The most desirable alternatives can be retained for plan development. Figure 11-16 depicts
interchanges that are adaptable on freeways as related to classifications of intersecting
facilities in rural, suburban, and urban contexts.
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Figure 11-16 Adaptability of Interchanges on Freeways as Related to Types of Intersecting Facilities (AASHTO,
2018)
11.5.Design Standards
11.5.1. Auxiliary Single-Lanes
A critical design parameter for interchanges is the length and the design geometry of the
auxiliary lanes. On Figure 11-17 the alternative methods of reducing auxiliary lanes are
presented, while geometric design of auxiliary single-lane or multi-lanes beyond entry and exit
(acceleration and deceleration lanes) are provided on Figure 11-18, Figure 11-19, Figure 11-20
and Figure 11-21.
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Figure 11-17 Alternative Methods of Reducing Auxiliary Lanes (AASHTO, 2018)
For auxiliary single-lanes the minimum deceleration length for interchange ramps with grades
less than 3.0 %, is provided in Table 11-1, while the speed change lane adjustment factors for
higher grades are provided in Table 11-3.
On the other hand, the minimum acceleration length for interchange ramps with grades less
than 3.0 %, is provided on Table 11-2, while the speed change lane adjustment factors for
higher grades are provided on Table 11-4. In all cases the taper length is limited to 90 m, while
higher taper lengths could be provided.
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Where L* is the gap acceptance length that should be a minimum of 90 to 150 m.
On new highways the Parallel Design should be preferred due to its higher safety performance.
Figure 11-18 Auxiliary Single-Lanes Beyond Entrance (AASHTO, 2018)
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Figure 11-19 Auxiliary Single-Lanes Beyond Exit (AASHTO, 2018)
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Table 11-1 Minimum Deceleration Lane Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Slopes less than 3.0 % (AASHTO,
2018)
Deceleration Lane Length (m) for Design Speed of Controlling Feature on Ramp (km/h)
Highway
Stop
Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Conditions
V (km/h)
50 75 70 60 45 - - - -
60 95 90 80 65 55 - - -
70 110 105 95 85 70 55 - -
80 130 125 115 100 90 80 55 -
90 145 140 135 120 110 100 75 60
100 170 165 155 145 135 120 100 85
110 180 180 170 160 150 140 120 105
120 200 195 185 175 170 155 140 120
130 215 210 205 195 185 170 155 135
Table 11-2 Minimum Acceleration Lane Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Slopes less than 3.0 % (AASHTO,
2018)
Acceleration Lane Length (m) for Design Speed of Controlling Feature on Ramp (km/h)
Highway
Stop
Design Speed 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Conditions
V (km/h)
50 60 50 30 - - - - -
60 95 80 65 45 - - - -
70 150 130 110 90 65 - - -
80 200 180 165 145 115 65 - -
90 260 245 225 205 175 125 35 -
100 345 325 305 285 255 205 110 40
110 430 410 390 370 340 290 200 125
120 545 530 515 490 460 410 325 245
130 610 580 550 530 520 500 375 300
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Table 11-3 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Slopes – Deceleration Lanes (AASHTO, 2018)
Ratio of Length due to Grade for Design Speed of Turning Curve

(km/h)
Highway Design Speed V
(km/h) Upgrade Downgrade
3.0 to 4.0 % 5.0 to 6.0 % 3.0 to 4.0 % 5.0 to 6.0 %
All Speeds 0.90 0.80 1.20 1.35
Table 11-4 Speed Change Lane Adjustment Factors as a Function of Slopes – Acceleration Lanes (AASHTO, 2018)
Ratio of Length due to Grade for Design Speed of Turning Curve (km/h)
Highway 40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds

Design Speed
V (km/h) 3.0 to 4.0 % Upgrade 3.0 to 4.0 % Downgrade
50 1.2 1.3 - - - 0.70
60 1.3 1.4 1.4 - - 0.70
70 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 - 0.65
80 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.65
90 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.6 0.60
100 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.60
110 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.60
120 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 0.60
130 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.60
Highway 40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds

Design Speed
V (km/h) 5.0 to 6.0 % Upgrade 5.0 to 6.0 % Downgrade
50 1.4 - - - - 0.60
60 1.5 1.5 - - - 0.60
70 1.5 1.6 1.7 - - 0.60
80 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.8 - 0.55
90 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.2 0.55
100 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.5 0.50
110 2.0 2.2 2.6 2.8 3.0 0.50
120 2.15 2.35 2.8 3.2 3.5 0.50
130 2.3 2.5 3.0 3.2 3.5 0.50
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11.5.2. Auxiliary Multi-Lanes
For auxiliary multi-lanes, the deceleration length should not be less than 750 m, including a
minimum separate taper length for each lane equal to 90 m, while the distance between two
consequence tapers should be limited to 450 m. (see Figure 11-21). Taper section should have
an inclination between 15:1 up to 25:1.
On the other hand, the acceleration length should not be also less than 750 m, including a
minimum separate taper length for each lane equal to 90 m (see Figure 11-20).
Where L* is the gap acceptance length that should be a minimum of 90 to 150 m, while
suggested values are higher and up to 600 m for high-volume conditions.
Figure 11-20 Auxiliary Multi-Lanes Beyond Entrance (AASHTO, 2018)
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Figure 11-21 Auxiliary Multi-Lanes Beyond Exit (AASHTO, 2018)
11.5.3. Interchanges Spacing

The distance between consequence interchanges is recommended to be more than 5.0 km in
rural areas for freeways and 3.0 km for expressways. In urban areas this distance could be
limited to 1.5 km or less depending on the connection requirements with the rest urban road
network and the traffic requirements.
Figure 11-22 Interchange Spacing (AASHTO, 2018)
11.6.Ramp Design
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11.6.1. General
Information regarding terminal locations and spacing is provided in Section 4.5.4 of the
present Volume, while geometric design features regarding ramp-terminal at-grade
intersections are provided in Chapter 10, and more specific guidelines regarding ramp
terminals combination located in close succession are provided in Section 11.6.3. Other aspects
regarding ramps such as ramp capacity and level of service are provided in volume SHC 201
(Planning Process), and drainage issues are provided in volume SHC 302 (Highway Facilities
11.6.2. Typical Ramp Configurations

The typical ramp configurations are provided in Figure 11-23.
Figure 11-23 Typical Ramp Configurations (FHWA, 1997)
11.6.3. Distance Between Successive Ramp Terminals

In many cases and especially on urban freeways/expressways, two or more ramp terminals are
often located in close succession. In these cases, a reasonable distance should be provided
between successive ramp terminals for sufficient weaving length provision. Spacing between
successive outer ramp terminals is dependent on the classification of the interchanges
involved, the function of the ramp pairs (entrance or exit), and weaving potential.
The possible ramp-pair combinations are five:
• an entrance followed by an entrance (EN-EN),
• an exit followed by an exit (EX-EX),
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• an exit followed by an entrance (EX-EN),
• an entrance followed by an exit (EN-EX) (weaving), and
• turning roadways.
Recommended minimum ramp terminal spacing for the various ramp-pair combinations as
they are applicable to interchange classifications is provided in Table 11-5. These
recommended minimum ramp terminal spacing values are based on operational experience
and the need for flexibility and adequate signing and represent a reasonable starting point
during planning and early design. These values should be checked in accordance with the
procedure outlined in volume SHC 201 (Planning Process).
The length L shown in Table 11-5 is measured between the painted noses. Figure 11-24 shows
the definition of the ramp spacing dimension.
Figure 11-24 Ramp Spacing Dimension (AASHTO, 2018)
The ramp terminal spacing needs may be greater for conditions involving multilane ramps
such as freeway- to-freeway connections. Ramp spacing distances and the potential geometric
feasibility of specific ramp spacing dimensions were provided for simple service type
interchanges for each of the ramp pair combinations outlined in Table 11-5.
Table 11-5 Recommended Minimum Ramp Terminal Spacing (AASHTO, 2018)
Minimum Lengths Measured between Successive Ramp Terminals (m)
Minimum
Successive Ramp Terminals Ramp Type
Length
Full Freeway 300
CDR 240
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Minimum Lengths Measured between Successive Ramp Terminals (m)
Full Freeway 150
CDR 120
System Interchange 240
Service Interchange 180
Full Freeway 600

System to Service
Interchange
CDR 480
Full Freeway 480

Service to System
Interchange
CDR 300
NOTES: EN – Entrance, CDR – Collector Distributor Road, EX – Exit.
11.6.4. Design Speed

Desirably, ramp design speeds should approximate the low volume running speed on the
intersecting highways. Lower design speeds may be selected but limited to the lower values
provided on Table 11-6.
Table 11-6 Guide Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed (AASHTO, 2018)
Highway Design
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Speed V (km/h)
Ramp Design Speed (km/h)
Upper (85 %) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Middle (70 %) 30 40 50 60 60 70 80 90 100
Lower (50 %) 20 30 40 40 50 50 60 70 80
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11.6.5. Ramp Typical Cross Section
Typical cross sections for ramp design are provided in Figure 11-25. A single lane ramp could
be used when peak hourly volume (PHV) is less than 1,350 veh/h and the length of the ramp
is less than 500 m. For ramp lengths higher than 500 m, two-lane ramps with one-way direction
should be considered, while for PHV higher than 1,350 veh/hr two-lane ramp should be
investigated, regardless of the length of the ramp.
Figure 11-25 Typical Cross-Sections for Ramps (Commonwealth of Kentucky, 2017)

Minimum circular arc radii for application on the design of interchange ramps, as well as the
side friction factor are listed in Table 11-7 for superelevation applied equal from 4.0 % up to
12.0 %, and design speed range of 20 to 120 km/h.
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Table 11-7 Side Friction Factor and Minimum Circular Arc Length and Horizontal Radii with Respect to the Design
Speed for Interchange Ramps
Minimum Radii for Circular Arcs (m)

Design Side Minimum
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 % 12.00
%
20 0.35 15 10 10 10 10 10
30 0.28 20 25 25 20 20 20
40 0.23 25 50 45 45 40 40
50 0.19 30 90 80 75 70 65
60 0.17 35 135 125 115 105 100
70 0.15 40 205 185 170 155 145
80 0.14 45 280 255 230 210 195
90 0.13 50 380 340 305 280 260
100 0.12 60 495 440 395 360 330
110 0.11 65 640 565 505 455 415
120 0.1 70 810 710 630 570 520
Geometry). The values of minimum spiral parameter and length that should be applied on
each horizontal curve is summarized on Table 11-8, while recommended values are presented
on Table 11-9. Transition curves should be used in horizontal curves with radii equal or less
than the upper radius limit shown on the same tables (minimum and recommended values
respectively).
Design Speed for Interchange Ramps
(km/h) Parameter A (m) of Spiral (m) Spiral Applications (m)
20 15 11 24
30 20 17 53
40 30 22 95
50 45 28 148
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(km/h) Parameter A (m) of Spiral (m) Spiral Applications (m)
60 60 33 213
70 80 39 290
80 100 44 379
90 120 50 479
100 145 56 592
110 170 61 716
120 200 67 852
the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps

Length of Spiral Limit for Spiral
(km/h) Parameter A (m)
20 15 15 100
30 25 25 250
40 40 40 400
50 65 60 500
60 90 70 800
70 115 80 1,000
80 140 90 1,700
90 170 100 1,900
100 205 115 2,100
110 240 125 2,300
120 280 135 2,600
11.6.7. Grades
Ramp grades should be as lower as possible. The desirable and the maximum allowed grade
with respect to the design speed of the ramp is provided on Table 11-10.
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Table 11-10 Recommended Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Interchange Ramps
Ramp Design Desirable Maximum allowed Grade

Speed (km/h) Grade G (%) G (%)
20 - 30 6.0 8.0
40 - 50 5.0 7.0
60 4.0 6.0
70 or greater 3.0 5.0
11.6.8. Vertical Curves

Limited values for ramp design are similar to those provided for highway Sections. The
minimum K values for crest and sag curves as well as the minimum curve length for
interchange ramps are provided on Table 11-11.
Interchange Ramps
Minimum Crest Minimum Sag

Design Speed Minimum Curve
Curve Curve K value
(km/h) Length (m)
K value (m/%) (m/%)
20 1 2 12
30 2 5 18
40 4 8 24
50 6 12 30
60 11 17 36
70 17 23 42
80 26 29 48
90 39 38 54
100 52 45 60
110 74 54 66
120 95 63 72
Tangents
On tangents, the pavement of each carriageway is usually designed with the cross-slope to
the one side, with a minimum value equal to 2.0 or preferably 2.5 % (normal crown).
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Circular arcs
superelevation rate applied for interchange ramps is 12.0 %, while the minimum
superelevation slope is limited to 2.0 %. Figure 11-26 shows the superelevation rates required
with respect to the horizontal curve radius of the interchange ramps for all design speeds.
Values taken from Figure 11-26 are recommended to be rounded to the nearest 0.5 %.
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
5 10 25 50 100 200 300 500 1,000 2,000 5,000
Figure 11-26 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve on
Interchange Ramps (max e = 12.0 %)
a reverse cross-slope equal to - 2.0 % or -2.5 % can be applied (towards the external edge of
the circular arc as shown in Figure 4-13), if this solution an area with poor drainage can be
avoided.
Design Speed

Design Speed Implementation of Adverse SuperelevationAdverse
(km/h) Superelevation (m)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
20 ≥ 10 ≥ 10
30 ≥ 30 ≥ 30
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Design Speed Implementation of Adverse SuperelevationAdverse
(km/h) Superelevation (m)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
40 ≥ 60 ≥ 65
50 ≥ 120 ≥ 120
60 ≥ 190 ≥ 200
70 ≥ 300 ≥ 310
80 ≥ 420 ≥ 440
90 ≥ 580 ≥ 610
100 ≥ 790 ≥ 830
110 ≥ 1,060 ≥ 1,125
120 ≥ 1,420 ≥ 1,515
To prevent vehicles from skidding, the maximum compound slope (composition of grade and
superelevation), should be limited to a maximum limit of 12.0 %. For the calculation of the
minimum superelevation runoff length, relevant formula and basic parameters are provided in
Section 4.6.6.2.
Paved shoulders are designed with the same superelevation rate as one of the travel areas,
while unpaved shoulders are designed with a superelevation equal to 12.0 % in the inside area
of a curve when the pavement is drained through the unpaved shoulder, while otherwise a
superelevation of 6.0 % is applied. For safe vehicle recovery in case of running off the
pavement, an unpaved shoulder as part of the clear zone with a slope flatter than 6H:1V (17
%) is considered normally adequate.
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11.7.Other Interchange Design Features
11.7.1. Pedestrian and Bicyclist Accommodation
The accommodation of pedestrians and bicycles through interchanges should be considered
early in the development of interchange configurations. High-density land use in the vicinity
of an interchange can generate heavy pedestrian movements, resulting in conflicts between
vehicles and pedestrians.
The movement of pedestrians and bicycles through interchanges can be enhanced by
providing sidewalks or paths separate from the vehicular traffic. When sidewalks or paths are
provided, they should be placed as far from the roadway as practical and be wide enough to
handle the anticipated pedestrian or bicycle volumes. To maximize usage, the sidewalk or path
should provide the most direct route through the interchange with minimal change in vertical
alignment.
Where nonmotorized users will be crossing an interchange ramp, adequate sight distance
should be provided so that drivers can detect the presence of pedestrians and bicyclists and
users can perceive gaps in the traffic flow. To provide increased visibility at night, sidewalk/path
ramp crossings should have overhead illumination. Where there are high volumes of
pedestrians and bicyclists and insufficient gaps in the traffic flow to allow users to cross the
ramp, actuated signals or an overpass/underpass should be considered. Information about this
issue is provided in SHC 201 (Planning Process).
11.7.2. Managed Lanes and Transit Facilities

The accommodation of managed lanes and transit facilities and intermodal transfer should be
considered in the development or modification of interchange configurations. The varying
types and arrangements of managed lanes and transit facilities should be addressed and
coordinated with intersections. Some of the general design considerations for managed lanes
and transit facilities include:
• Lane treatments.
• Lane, shoulder and median widths.
• Location and types of entrances and exits.
• Transfer facilities.
11.7.3. Grading Development

Grading at an interchange is determined by the horizontal and vertical, cross-sections, and
drainage needs for the intersecting highways and ramps. Each through roadway or ramp
should not be treated as a separate unit and graded to a specified cross-section without regard
to its relationship with adjacent roads and to the surrounding topography. Instead, the entire
construction area should be designed as a single unit to reduce construction and maintenance
costs, increase visibility, and enhance the area’s appearance. In some parts, such as at narrow
sections between converging roadways, the slopes and grading controls may affect the
alignment and profile design. Relevant information for drainage issues is provided in SHC 302
(Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology and Hydraulic Design).
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12.Rehabilitation, Reconstruction, and Mobility
Corridor
12.1.Non-Freeway Rehabilitation (3R) Design Criteria
12.1.1. Purpose
The guidelines in this section are applicable only for (3R) projects; that is, the projects whose
scope includes only resurfacing, restoration, or rehabilitation (including improvements defined
hereinafter). The guidelines are not applicable to new construction or reconstruction.
Rehabilitation (3R) projects consist of non-freeway/expressway highways that extend the
service life and enhance the provided road safety level. Scope of (3R) projects can include the
following works:
• Highway resurfacing and restoration.
• The upgrading of the geometric design elements.
• The improvement of the provided road safety level.
Rehabilitation (3R) projects do not include the addition of through traffic lanes that is leading
to traffic capacity increasing, but may include, but are not limited to:
• The upgrading geometric features such as highway widening on curves.
• minor horizontal realignment.
• bridge improvements to meet current standards for structural requirements.
The present chapter has been developed to allow greater design flexibility on rehabilitation
(3R) projects while ensuring cost-effective design and further compliance with the updated
design standards and enhancing safety.
12.1.2. Design Characteristics

Rehabilitation (3R) projects may include several different designs including but not limited to:
• Pavement rehabilitation/resurfacing.
• Modification of highway geometric design features.
• Modification of typical cross-section elements (i.e., lane widths, shoulder width etc.).
• Application of safety barriers.
• Modification of elements outside the typical cross-section width (i.e., fence application,
change on cut or embankment slopes, wall application, etc.).
• Road safety improvements.
Pavement Design
Pavement rehabilitation includes all pavement-related work undertaken to extend the service
life of an existing highway. This may include but not limited to:
• Construction of additional asphalt layer and/or other works necessary to achieve
structural and/or functional adequacy.
• Resurfacing to provide improved structural capacity and/or serviceability.
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• Reconstruction or strengthening of base and subbase layers.
• Construction of underdrainage system.
More information with respect to pavement rehabilitation is included in SCH 308 (Pavement
Design).
Highway geometric design

Where existing highway features comply with the design values given in the relevant chapters
of the present volume, the designer may choose to keep these design elements. Also, a slight
deviation from the limited values of about 10 % could be maintained, in case where any change
in existing highway geometry (horizontal or vertical) has a significant cost increasing due to
additional height of walls, new structures or high earthworks needed. However, where existing
features do not meet these values, the designer should upgrade to the limited values provided
in the relevant chapter with respect to the functional highway classification. The designer
should select higher values to be consistent with adjoining highway sections, or to provide
operational improvements at specific locations.
The horizontal and vertical alignment of a rehabilitation (3R) project will have minor or no
change. However, in case of increased crash history in specific locations is observed, minor
improvement on horizontal curves (slight increasing or applied radii or existing superelevation
rate) or other improvements in geometric elements should be considered. These types of
isolated improvements are not considered substantial and thus may be included for
consideration in rehabilitation (3R) projects. Substantial changes in existing horizontal and/or
vertical alignment improvements are considered reconstruction (4R) projects and are covered
in the following chapter.
For highways that do not meet the minimum geometric design standards, an evaluation should
be done to examine high-frequency crash locations (and potential crash locations) to
determine whether cost-effective alignment modifications could be made. More information
with respect to road safety evaluations and to examination of crash locations in an existing
highway, is included in SCH 603 (Road Safety).
Lane Widths
Consideration should be given to increasing lane widths to 3.65 m in conjunction with
rehabilitation (3R) projects where the highway has an increased AADT and serves a high
percentage of heavy vehicles (trucks). Information regarding AADT could be found in SHC 201
(Planning Process) and SHC 601 (Traffic Engineering).
12.1.3. Safety Enhancements

Resurfacing, restoration, and rehabilitation (3R) projects must identify and incorporate
appropriate safety enhancements. Crash history and traffic volumes are important factors to
consider when evaluating cost-effectiveness of potential safety improvements. Low-cost safety
enhancements can reduce crash frequency and/or severity on all roadways. More information
with respect to road safety improvements, is included in volume SCH 603 (Road Safety).
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12.1.4. Bridges and Culverts
In cases where an adequate bridge width does not exist, or there is a deteriorated deck, or a
structure with an unsafe load carrying capability exists, may additional structural work is
required. If structural modification is necessary, it may be appropriate to consider a greater
bridge width if future traffic projections indicate that additional highway improvement will be
necessary in the future.
In case where an upgrade of a culvert should be applied to restore proper drainage system,
relevant modifications should be made in road geometric elements (i.e., increased highway
width or shoulder width, highway profile increasing etc.) depending to the hydraulic
requirements according to SHC 302 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design – Hydrology and
Hydraulic Design).
12.1.5. Three-Lane Rural Highways

A three-lane rural highway is where a continuous occasional passing lane is added to a two-
lane rural network to allow faster vehicles to pass slower vehicles and traffic platoons to
disperse, as described in Section 5.4.6. The passing lane will alternate from one direction of
travel to the other within a section of roadway allowing passing opportunities in both
directions. A three-lane rural highway project can be introduced on an existing two-lane
highway where there is a significant amount of slow-moving traffic, limited sight distance for
passing, prevalence of head-on crashes, and/or the existing traffic volume has exceeded the
two-lane highway capacity (creating the need for vehicles to pass on a more frequent basis).
Widening of the existing pavement can be symmetric about the centerline or on one side of
the highway depending on right-of-way availability and ease of construction.
Some issues to consider when designing a three-lane rural highway upgrade project could be,
but not limited to:
• Analyze existing right-of-way width considerations to determine feasibility of
upgrading to a three-lane carriageway.
• Consider providing a left turn or right turn lane in specific at-grade Intersections at the
limits of the three-lane upgraded highway, especially if there is a significant AADT
traffic volume requirements in these locations.
• Consider providing wider shoulders in areas with high driveway density.
• Consider traffic operations including truck AADT if terminating passing lanes on
significant uphill grades. Coordinating passing lanes with climbing lanes needs to
improve operating characteristics.
• Avoid terminating a passing lane in a crest vertical curve or inside a horizontal curve
where the available sight distance is limited and the end of the taper isn't visible from
the beginning of the taper.
• Consider left and right turn lane application, and other Intersection geometric elements
when evaluating the termination of a passing lane at an Intersection. If termination of
the passing lane at the Intersection would result in significant operational lane weaving,
then consider extending the passing lane beyond the intersection.
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12.2.Relocation and Reconstruction (4R) Design Criteria
12.2.1. Overview
This section describes guidelines applicable for relocation and reconstruction (4R) projects for
several different highway functional classes including:
• Urban Streets.
• Suburban Highways.
• Two-lane Rural Highways.
• Multilane Rural Highways.
• Freeways/Expressways.
For the purposes of this section, relocation and reconstruction (4R) projects are defined as
projects that either provide a new highway alignment or reconstruction to upgrade an existing
highway alignment to meet geometric requirements. In addition to work described under
resurfacing, restoration and rehabilitation (3R) projects, reconstruction work generally includes
substantial changes in the geometric character of the highway, such as but not limited to:
• widening to provide additional through lanes.
• significant horizontal or vertical realignments.
• major improvements to the pavement structure to improve long-term service.
• bridge or culvert replacement.
12.2.2. Urban Streets

Urban Streets refers to highways in developed areas that provide access to abutting property
as well as movement of vehicular traffic. Access to these facilities is controlled through
driveway locations, medians, and intersections with other highways. Basic design features in
urban streets for relocation/reconstruction (4R) could be the following:
Geometric Design Elements

Basic geometric design elements for urban arterials, collectors, and residential streets are
provided in Chapter 6. A slight deviation from the limited values provided in Chapter 6 of
about 10 % could be maintained, in case where any change in existing highway geometry
(horizontal or vertical) has a significant cost increase.
Medians - Median Openings

Medians are desirable for urban streets with four or more traffic lanes. The primary functions
of medians are to provide the following:
• Storage space for left-turning vehicles.
• Separation of opposing traffic streams and
• Access control to/from minor access drives and intersections.
Geometric design elements for medians and median openings in urban highways should
follow the information provided in Section 4.5.4.
SHC 301 471

Intersections
The number, design, and spacing of intersections influence an urban street’s capacity, speed,
and the provided road safety level. Information for the geometric design of intersections is
provided in Chapter 10.
12.2.3. Suburban Highways

The term “suburban highway” refers usually to a high-speed highway (speed limit or operating
speed exceeding 70 km/h), that serves as transitional highways between low-speed urban
highways and high-speed rural highways. Suburban highways are typically 1 to 5 km long and
have light to moderate driveway densities (approximately 5 to 20 driveways per km). Because
of their location, suburban highways have both rural (maintaining high speeds) and urban
(utilizing curbs and gutters to facilitate drainage) characteristics. Basic design features in
suburban highways for relocation/reconstruction (4R) could be the following:

Basic geometric design elements for suburban highways usually follow limited values provided
for urban arterials as described in Section 6.4.
Access Control
A major concern for suburban highways is the large number of access points introduced due
to commercial development, that create conflicts between exiting/entering traffic and through
traffic. The potential for severe crashes is also increased due to the high-speed differentials,
due to through traffic drivers traveling at high speeds do not expect to have to slow down or
stop and therefore their expectations are violated. Relocation/reconstruction (4R) should be
focused on reducing the number of access points and increase the access control measures
by separating conflicting traffic movements by using separated left/right-turn lanes.
Medians - Median Openings

Medians are desirable for suburban highways with four or more lanes to provide storage space
for left-turning vehicles. The types and the geometric design of medians used on suburban
highways are similar to those applied in urban highways and should follow the information
provided in Section 4.5.4 and for median openings in Chapter 10.
Intersections
Due to high operating speeds (usually higher than 70 km/h) on suburban highways, the design
elements of at-grade intersections should follow those provided in rural highways. Information
for the geometric design of intersections is provided in Chapter 10. Space restrictions due to
right-of-way limitations in suburban areas may necessitate reduction in the limited values for
rural at-grade intersections.
SHC 301
472 SHC 472
301
12.2.4. Two-Lane Rural Highways
Two-lane rural highways, refers to highways in rural areas that have one-lane of traffic in each
direction. Access to these facilities is usually controlled, while usually are not separated by any
type of median barrier. Basic design features in two-lane rural highways for
relocation/reconstruction (4R) could be the following:

Basic geometric design elements for two-lane rural highways are provided in Chapter 5. A
slight deviation from the limited values provided in Chapter 5 of about 10 % could be
maintained, in case where any change in existing highway geometry (horizontal or vertical) has
a significant cost increasing.
Access Control
The installation of access driveways along two-lane rural highways should be in accordance
with the information provided in Section 4.5.
Passing Sight Distance

Passing sight distance is a very critical parameter that should be fulfilled at least in 20 % of the
two-lane rural highway’s total length. Minimum or greater passing sight distance should be
provided wherever practical, since less than minimum distances reduce the provided road
safety level of the highway. Limited values for the adequate passing sight distance are provided
in Section 4.6.2.3. In rolling or mountainous terrain, provision of climbing/passing lanes may
be a more economical alternative than achieving a vertical alignment with adequate passing
sight distance. Both alternatives should be investigated in relocation/reconstruction (4R)
projects.
Intersections
The provision of adequate sight distance is of most critical issue in the design of at-grade
intersections along two-lane rural highways. At intersections, consideration should be given
to avoid steep profile grades and limited horizontal or vertical sight distance. An intersection
should not be situated just beyond a short crest vertical curve or a sharp horizontal curve.
Relevant information for the geometric design of intersections is provided in Chapter 10.
12.2.5. Multi-Lane Rural Highways

Multi-lane rural highways, refers to highways in rural areas that have two-lane of traffic in each
direction or more. Access to these facilities is controlled, while can be undivided or divided
with a depressed median or a surface mounted median. Multilane rural highways without a
median are providing a reduced road safety level and therefore relocation/reconstruction (4R)
projects should provide at least a central raised median. Depressed medians could be used
where the provided space between two carriageways is great enough for proper installation
SHC 301 473

of vehicle restrain systems according to SHC 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –

Basic geometric design elements for multi-lane rural highways are provided in Chapter 5. A
slight deviation from the limited values provided in Chapter 5 of about 10 % could be
maintained, in case where any change in existing highway geometry (horizontal or vertical) has
a significant cost increasing.
Access Control
For multi-lane rural highways constructed in developed or developing areas, it may be
desirable to control access to the main lanes through right-of-way acquisition or by designing
frontage roads. The design of access driveways along multi-lane rural highways should be in
accordance with the information provided in Section 4.5.
Medians – Median Openings

Medians are desirable for multi-lane rural highways to provide storage space for left-turning
vehicles. If practical, wide medians (approximately higher than 25 m width) should be used to:
• Provide sufficient storage space for tractor-trailer combination vehicles at median
openings.
• reduce headlight glare.
• provide a pleasing appearance.
• reduce the chances of head-on collisions.
• provide a sheltered storage area for crossing vehicles, including tractor-trailer
combinations.
The types and the geometric design of medians used on multi-lane rural highways should
follow the information provided in Section 7.4.2.6 and for median openings in Chapter 10.
Intersections
Due to high operating speeds (usually higher than 70 km/h) on multi-lane rural highways, the
provision of adequate sight distance is of most critical issue in the design of at-grade
intersections along the alignment. At intersections, consideration should be given to avoid
steep profile grades and limited horizontal or vertical sight distance. An intersection should
not be situated just beyond a short crest vertical curve or a sharp horizontal curve. Relevant
information for the geometric design of intersections is provided in Chapter 10.
SHC 301
474 SHC 474
301
Upgrading from two-lane to four-lane rural highways
The upgrade of a two-lane highway to a four-lane highway facility should include a median
when possible. If an existing two-lane rural highway is formed in rolling or mountainous terrain
or there are restricted right-of-way conditions, the conversion to a four-lane undivided
highway may be considered to improve passing opportunities and traffic operations. Limited
Geometric design elements for four-lane rural highways are provided in Chapter 5. In cases
where a median is being proposed and the existing roadbed will remain in place, resurfacing
/rehabilitation (3R) works may be applied to the existing carriageways, while relocation and/or
reconstruction (4R) works should be applied to the extensions/realignments.
Transitions from two-lane to four-lane rural highways

Typical transitions from a two-lane to a four-lane divided rural highway are shown in Figure
12-1. Transition geometric design criteria is based on the highest design speed of the two
highways. The minimum transition length for reducing the two lanes of the single carriageway
to one lane is given from the following equation as shown in Figure 12-1:
𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 ∙ 𝐖 ∙ 𝐒 Equation 12-1
where:
L = the minimum length of the transition (m)
W = the width of lane offset (m)
S = the highest posted speed of the two highways (km/h).
On the other hand, the minimum length of the taper for increasing one lane of the single
carriageway to two lanes, could be half of the provided length by Equation 12-1.
The transition should be visible to the driver approaching from either direction or median
openings should not be permitted within 400 m from the transition area. Transition areas
should be located away from any obstructions such as restrictive width bridges or underpasses
or other fixed objects.
When converting an existing two-lane highway to a four-lane divided highway, the existing
alignments (horizontal and vertical) could remain and only resurfacing/rehabilitation (3R)
works could be provided. Existing structures with substandard widths on the existing lanes
may remain in case any change has a significant cost increasing.
SHC 301 475

Figure 12-1 Typical Transitions from Two-Lane to Four-Lane Divided Highways (TxDOT, 2022)
12.2.6. Freeways and Expressways

Freeways and expressways refer to highways that have separate carriageways and two-lanes
or more in each direction. Both freeways and expressways are intended to provide high road
safety level and efficiency in the movement of higher traffic volumes traveling at high speeds.

Basic geometric design elements for urban freeways and expressways are provided in Chapter
6, while for rural freeways and expressways are provided in Chapter 7. A slight deviation from
the limited values provided in those chapters of about 10 % could be maintained, in case where
any change in existing freeway/expressway geometry (horizontal or vertical) has a significant
cost increasing.
Access Control
For freeways access is prohibited (full control of access), while in expressways limited access
could be provided. In expressways, the limited access is provided only through a ramp or a
frontage road. Information for access to expressways should be in accordance with the
information provided in Section 4.5.
SHC 301
476 SHC 476
301
Interchanges
Due to high operating speeds and full or limited control of access on freeways and
expressways, the application of at-grade Intersections is not allowed. Grade separations
between intersecting highways and the application of interchanges, offer the greatest
efficiency, safety, traffic flow and capacity. Relevant information for the geometric design of
interchanges is provided in Chapter 11.
12.3.Mobility Corridor (5R) Design Criteria

12.3.1. Overview
Mobility corridors (mobility highways) are intended to regenerate, or produce new, long-term
transportation opportunities. These transportation opportunities may include multiple modes
such as rail, utilities, freight, and passenger characteristics. This section is intended to provide
design guidance on the roadway aspects of these mobility corridors. This guidance can be
expected to be updated as experience is gained in the planning, design, construction, and
operations of these transportation facilities.
Mobility is the primary operation of these highways. The mobility highway facilities are
intended for long-distance travel and therefore the access is prohibited and is provided only
through ramp connections. Access will not be allowed along the ramps connecting to the
mobility highway. Since these highways are intended for mobility, the design speeds range
from 140 to 160 km/h. While higher operating speeds may not be appropriate in some cases
(such as a developed urban area), these higher design speeds could be applied, and should be
considered, whenever prudent.
With respect to facilities that one day could be part of a major mobility highway, it is strongly
recommended that these facilities be initially designed to accommodate a 160 km/h design
speed. Even though the facility may initially be posted for a 140 km/h speed, the higher speed
design criteria will allow the greatest flexibility, in terms of maximizing the future use of the
highway.
12.3.2. Highway Design Criteria

In this section the basic design criteria are provided with respect to the mobility highways.
12.3.2.1. Lane width and number of lanes

The usual minimum lane width for mobility corridors is 3.65 m. The number of the required
lanes to accommodate the traffic future volumes is determined according to SHC 203
(Preliminary Studies).
12.3.2.2. Shoulders
The minimum shoulder width is 3.65 m. This width applies to both inside and outside
shoulders, regardless of the number of main lanes. Shoulders must be continuously surfaced
and be maintained.
SHC 301 477

12.3.2.3. Stopping sight distance
Stopping sight distance (SSD) for mobility highways is calculated using the same methodology
described in Chapter 4. Figure 12-2 shows the required stopping sight distance in relation to
the grade and the design speed for mobility highways. In order to provide sufficient
perception-reaction time to the driver, as well as sufficient time to stop the vehicle, longer
visibility lengths are generally required. Therefore, visibility lengths should be at least 30 %
longer than the required stopping sight distance.
475
450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
-4% -2% 0% 2% 4%
Figure 12-2 Required Stopping Sight Distance SSD with Respect to the Design Speed and the Grade for Mobility
Highways

The dimensions of the geometric design elements for the alignment of mobility corridors
should be based on safety considerations and vehicle dynamics.
Elements for mobility corridors shall be designed in such a way as to allow vehicles to travel
safely for the design speed in wet conditions.
Tangents
As already mentioned in Section 7.5.2, it is recommended that the length of tangents in cases
of freeways/expressways and therefore for mobility highways should be limited to 2,000 m.
For better adaptation to the landscape or due to other limitations, longer tangent lengths can
be applied in certain cases. Tangents between consequence curves with the same direction
(left or right turn), should have a minimum length of 400 m.
SHC 301
478 SHC 478
301
Circular Curves
movement at the permitted speed as defined by the relevant freeway/expressway category.
Also, radii should harmonize with the topography of the terrain.
12-1. Higher value radii could be chosen if in this case the freeway/expressway alignment
adapts better to the terrain. For road users to perceive circular arcs as independent elements
within the curve, the minimum circular arc lengths in accordance with Table 12-1 should be
provided.
Design Speed for Mobility Highways

Design Side Minimum
4.00 % 6.00 % 8.00 % 10.00 %
140 0.08 80 1,290 1,105 965 860
150 0.07 85 1,615 1,365 1,185 1,045
160 0.06 90 2,020 1,680 1,440 1,260
Transition curves
Between tangents and circular arcs, as well as between consecutive circular arcs in the same
direction, transition curves (spirals) are provided. In case where spiral curves are provided
between tangents and circular arcs the minimum values for spiral parameter and spiral length
are summarized on Table 12-2, while the recommended values are presented in Table 12-3. In
the same table the upper radius limit for the necessity of spiral application is provided
(minimum and recommended values respectively). Transition curves are mathematically
defined according to Section Spiral Geometry
140 260 78 1,160
150 300 84 1,331
160 340 90 1,515
SHC 301 479

the Design Speed for Mobility Highways

140 375 160 4,000
150 425 170 5,000
160 480 180 6,000

Grades
Undesirable speed differentials between different vehicle types require grade limitation.
Passenger cars are not significantly affected by grades steeper than 3.0 %, while grades above
2.0 % may affect the speed of the trucks depending on the applied length of grade. For these
issues and for an upgraded provided road safety level, the maximum grades should not exceed
the values of Table 12-4.
Table 12-4 Recommended (Desirable and Allowed) Grades with Respect to the Design Speed for Mobility
Highways
Design Speed Desirable Maximum Allowed

140 2.0 3.0
150 2.0 3.0
160 2.0 3.0
In exceptional cases, the maximum grades of Table 12-4 could be exceeded, but not higher
than 4.0 % and for limited length.
Minimum values for crest and sag curves

Changes in grades in mobility highways should be curved. The rounding of crest and sag
curves is accomplished with implementing a circular arc. Vertical circular arcs are approximated
with a quadratic parabola (see Section Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves). Table
12-5 shows the minimum values of K parameter for crest and sag curves and the minimum
values of curve lengths.
SHC 301
480 SHC 480
301
Mobility Highways
Design Speed Minimum K value for Minimum K value for Minimum Curve
(km/h) Crest Curve (m/%) Sag Curve (m/%) Length (m)
140 161 84 84
150 202 95 90
160 255 108 96
On tangents
On tangents, the pavement of each carriageway is usually designed with the superelevation
cross-slope to the one side, with a minimum cross-slope value equal to 2.0 % or preferably 2.5
% (normal crown). To facilitate pavement drainage, mobility highways with three or more lanes
inclined in the same direction should have an increasing cross-slope as the distance from the
crown line increases. In these cases, the first two lanes adjacent to the crown line may be
sloped flatter than normal typically at 1.5 % but not less than 1.0 %. The cross slope of each
successive pair of lanes (or single lane if it is the outside lane) outward from the crown should
be increased by 0.5 to 1.0 % from the cross slope of the adjacent lane. A cross slope should
not exceed 4.0 % on a tangent-Sections. In bridges with three or more lanes in one direction
a constant slope of 2.5 % should be maintained, transitioning before and after the bridge
accordingly.
On circular arcs
In circular arcs, for reasons of dynamics and for their better identification, the superelevation
rate is applied towards the inside of the circular arc. The maximum superelevation applied in
mobility highways should be 10.0 %, while the minimum superelevation slope is limited to 2.0
%. Figure 12-3 shows the superelevation required with respect to the horizontal curve radius
for all design speed. Values taken are recommended to be rounded up by 0.5 %.
SHC 301 481

10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
-2%
500 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 10,000
Figure 12-3 Superelevation on Circular Arc with Respect to the Horizontal Curve Radius of the Curve in Mobility
Highways (max e = 10.0 %)
a reverse slope equal to -2.0 % or -2.5 % can be applied (towards to the external edge of the
circular arc), if with this solution an area with poor drainage can be avoided.

(km/h)
e = - 2.00 % e = - 2.50 %
140 ≥ 2,575 ≥ 2,810
150 ≥ 3,545 ≥ 3,940
160 ≥ 5,040 ≥ 5,760
To prevent vehicles from skidding under adverse weather conditions on mountainous areas,
the maximum compound slope (composition of grade and superelevation), should be limited
to a maximum limit of 12.0 %. Formula for the compound slope is provided in Section 4.5.5.
SHC 301
482 SHC 482
301
12.3.3. Roadside Design Criteria
12.3.3.1. Medians and side clear zone
Medians
The absolute minimum width of medians could become 3.00 m by applying a two-sided central
barrier, while wider medians should be constructed as far as possible based on the Figure 7-1
by applying two separate one-sided barriers. In ideal cases, considering the clear zone widths
in accordance with the Safe System Concept where no barriers will be needed, the median
width should be 100 m wide for 140 km/h and 115 m wide for 160 km/h, as derived for 2.5 s
perception-reaction time according to AASHTO design policy. Details for the need and the
application of barriers are described in SHS 304 (Highway Facilities and Utilities Design –
Side clear zones

Clear zone outside the mobility highway should be limited to 25 m in case of design speed
equal to 140 km/h and 30 m for design speed equal to 160 km/h.
12.3.3.2. Side slopes

For safety, it is desirable to design relatively flat areas adjacent to the carriageways of the
mobility highways to provide the relevant space for out-of-control vehicles for recovery or
make a controlled deceleration. For this reason, fill slope rates should be limited to 1V:6H for
embankments higher than 5.0 m, while slopes 1V:8H should be applied in embankments lower
than 5.0 m. Particularly difficult terrain (rolling or mountainous), may require deviation from
these values. Where conditions are favorable, it is desirable to use flatter slopes to enhance
roadside safety.
12.3.4. Ramps and Direct Connections

Ramps and direct connections for mobility highways are designed according to the following
rules, also considering the design criteria provided in Chapter 11.
12.3.4.1. Design speed

Ramps should have a relationship between the ramp design speed and the mobility highway
design speed. All ramps and direct connectors should be designed to enable incoming and
outgoing vehicles to leave and enter the main traffic lanes of the mobility highway at 85 %
(desirable) to 70 % (usual minimum) of the mobility highway design speed, rounded up to the
nearest 10 km/h increment. In certain difficult cases where the above limit is not possible to
achieved, the absolutely minimum percentage should be limited to 50 %. Every effort should
be made to meet the desirable ramp/connector design speed.
SHC 301 483

12.3.4.2. Lane and shoulder width
Ramps and direct connectors should have a lane width equal to 4.00 m, while the inside and
outside shoulder width should be limited to 1.20 m.
12.3.4.3. Acceleration and deceleration lengths

Acceleration and deceleration lanes should provide the needed space for the incoming and
outgoing vehicles to integrate the main traffic lanes of the mobility highway. Therefore, the
applied length of the acceleration and deceleration lanes with respect to the design speed of
the ramp and the mobility highway should be limited to the values provided in Table 12-7 and
Table 12-8. The taper length should be 60 m in all cases.
Table 12-7 Limited Values for the Deceleration Lanes Length in Ramps and Direct Connection in Mobility
Highways (Excluding the Taper)
Mobility Highway Ramp or direct connection design speed (km/h)

Design Speed
(km/h) 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
140 190 170 150 125 100 70 35 -
150 230 210 190 165 135 105 75 40
160 270 250 230 205 175 145 115 80
Table 12-8 Limited Values for the Acceleration Lanes Length in Ramps and Direct Connection in Mobility
Highways (Excluding the Taper)
Mobility Highway Ramp or direct connection design speed (km/h)

Design Speed
(km/h) 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
140 380 340 300 250 195 135 70 -
150 455 415 375 325 270 210 145 75
160 535 495 455 405 350 290 225 155
SHC 301
484 SHC 484
301
12.3.4.4. Distance between successive ramps
The minimum acceptable distance between successive ramps terminals shall be determined
according to design guidelines provided in Section 11.6.3, upon the merge, diverge, and
weaving operations that take place between ramps. Distances required for adequate signing
must also be considered.
12.3.4.5. Other design considerations

Horizontal Alignment
The limited design values for horizontal alignment elements are provided in Section 11.6.
Vertical Alignment
The limited design values for vertical alignment elements are provided in Section 11.6.
Cross-slopes
The limited design values for cross-slope are provided in Section 11.6.
SHC 301 485

13.Design Exception Procedure
13.1.General
Where an alternative design approach or design aspect is proposed by the designer, in the
form of a deviation or relaxation from the mandatory provisions of the present Volume, these
deviations must be clearly justified, documented, and subsequently provided for approval as
a design exception request based on the particular circumstances identified in each case. The
design exception procedure aims at documenting social, economic, physical, or environmental
constraints in concurrence with safe and efficient traffic operations that prevent the application
of specific highway design criteria, or standards. Design exceptions are applicable to new but
also existing highway projects, excluding preventive maintenance works.
A design exception is required when it is agreed that one or more of the controlling parameters
and criteria for the proposed design cannot meet the minimum or maximum values specified
in the present Volume). For instance, the design speed should be greater than the minimum
design speed for the facility type or the estimated posted speed not exceeded by more than
10 km/h., hence, a design exception may not be needed if an element meets the posted speed.
A design exception may be approved when it can be justified and documented that by
adopting a value other than the respective minimum or maximum one as specified in the
present guidelines for the same design speed, the proposed alternative is optimal.
The design exceptions may be appropriate in a variety of situations, yet these expectations
should not be seen as changing the scope of the project, eliminating a primary goal or
objective, or degradation of the project’s purpose, or passing a design option or solution that
leads to unsafe design in terms of consenting to unsafe situations. Design exception
applications shall be provided for approval by the Competent Authorities in compliance with
procedural requirements provided in Section 2.3, “Deviation and Relaxation”, of SHC 101.
13.2.Criteria for Design Exception

For highway projects with the design speed equal to or over 80 km/h, a design exception shall
be requested on the following controlling parameters (refer to the design exception checklist
shown on Figure 13-1, Figure 13-2 and Figure 13-3), if they do not meet the values proposed
in the present Volume:
• Design speed.
• Lane width.
• Shoulder width.
• Horizontal curve radius.
• Stopping sight distance for horizontal curves and crest vertical curves.
• Maximum grade.
• Vertical clearance.
For highway projects with a design speed below 80 km/h, a design exception shall be
requested mainly due to deviations from the design speed. Nevertheless, the above controlling
parameters also apply here.
SHC 301
486 SHC 486
301
13.3.Request for Design Exception
Deviations or relaxations in geometric design aspects should be documented as soon as the
need for the design exception is identified. The design exception shall be submitted for
approval by the Competent Authorities, including the RGA, but also other authorities or
agencies and ministries (MoTLS, MOMRAH, Amanah, Royal Commissions, the NRSC, the NCEC,
MODON, EXPRO, … etc.).
The request for a design exception shall be documented on a design exception request form
accompanied by a design exception process checklist and necessary supporting drawings. It
would be advisable to also include additional supporting material (e.g., accident history, etc.).
The design exception request form consists of the following sections:
• Project data: This section outlines the information that makes it possible for the
proposed design to be assessed against the respective SHC 301 control values.
• Basis for exception: This section describes the need and provides justification for the
design exception, based on the following:
o Description of the cross-section, geometrics, access control, etc. of the existing
roadway inside and outside the project limits.
o Description of any future plans for upgrading this roadway either at or in the
vicinity of the project, and the associated traffic impact.
o Explanation of why it is not reasonable or feasible to meet safety and
operational performance characteristics defined by the control requirements of
this Volume. Description of other alternatives that were considered before
making the decision to pursue a design exception.
o Description of how the crash history relates to the proposed design exception.
Assessment of current 3-year crash history (number, severity, cause,
comparison to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia wide average, etc.). Explanation of how
the crash history is relevant to the decision to request a design exception.
o Description of any measures proposed to mitigate the design elements that are
below standards.
Figure 13-1, Figure 13-2 and Figure 13-3 show an indicative structure of the design exception
checklist and request form respectively.
The request for such design exceptions should be signed by an accredited/certified
professional engineer and shall be in accordance with the requirements deviation and
relaxation provided in Section 2.3 of SHC 101.
SHC 301 487

Figure 13-1 Design Exception Process Checklist (Texas DOT, 2022)
SHC 301
488 SHC 488
301
Figure 13-2 Design Exception Request Form – 1st Page (Texas DOT, 2022)
SHC 301 489

Figure 13-3 Design Exception Request Form – 2nd Page (Texas DOT, 2022)
SHC 301
490 SHC 490
301
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Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
SHC 301 491

FHWA (2009) Technical Volume for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels - Civil Elements.
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Institute, Washington, DC.
FHWA (2019) Advancing Turbo Roundabouts in the United States: Synthesis Report. US
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC.
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Ministry of Transport and Public Works (2020) Low Volume Roads Manual, Volume 2, Geometric
Design and Road Safety. Republic of Malawi.
MoC (1992) Highway Design Manual - Volume 1 Highway Development. Ministry of
Communications, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
MoC (1992) Highway Design Manual - Volume 2 – Design of Roadways. Ministry of
MoC (1992) Highway Design Manual - Volume 3 - Structural Design Specifications. Ministry of
MoC (1992) Highway Design Manual - Volume 4 - Standard Drawings. Ministry of
MoMRAH (2019) Road Engineering Design Manual. Ministry of Municipal, Rural Affairs and
Housing, Riyadh, KSA.
NCDOT (2012) Complete Streets Planning and Design Guidelines. North Carolina Department
of Transportation, State of North Carolina, United States.
NCDOT (2020) Operational Applications of Signalized Offset T-Intersections. North Carolina
Department of Transportation, State of North Carolina, United States.
NCDOT (2021) Roadway Design Manual, Design Exception Preparation Guidelines. North
Carolina Department of Transportation, State of North Carolina, United States.
NCHRP (2010) Roundabouts: An Informational Guide. Second Edition, Report 672,
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
NCHRP (2020) Alternative Intersection Design and Selection. A Synthesis of Highway Practice.
Synthesis 550, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
Petru, J., & Krivda, V. (2021) An analysis of turbo roundabouts from the perspective of
sustainability of road transportation. Sustainability
Qatar MoT (2015) Qatar Highway Design Manual. Qatar Ministry of Transport.
Riyadh Amanah (2007) Traffic Calming Measures Guide in Riyadh City. Ministry of Municipal &
Rural Affairs, Riyadh Region Amanah.
State of Tennessee Standard Drawings – Department of Transportation.
SHC 301
492 SHC 492
301
Stover, V. G., and F. J. Koepke. (2002) Transportation and Land Development. Second Edition,
Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, D.C.
Sunline Transit Agency (2006) Transit Facilities Design Manual. Thousand Palms, CA.
TxDOT (2022) Roadway Design Manual. Texas Department of Transportation, USA.
VSS (2019) Hairpin Bends Technical Regulation 40198a (in German and French). Swiss
Association of Road and Transportation Experts, Switzerland.
Williams K. M. , Dr. Stover V. G. , Dr. Dixon K. (2014) Access Management Manual. Second
Edition, Transportation Research Board, US.
SHC 301 493

Appendix A - Geometric Configurations
A.1. Configuration of Passing Lanes on Rural Highways
A.1.1. Passing Lanes on Continues Three-Lane Rural Highways
For the separation of the two opposite directions, 1.00 m wide traffic island is applied along
the entire length of continuous three-lane rural highways. General arrangement and the
proposed horizontal and vertical signage is provided on Figure A-1. Prohibited parts of
pavement areas should be at least 180 m long in critical areas (where the widened lane is
dropped), while in non-critical areas could be reduced to 30 m long (where the widened lane
is generated). These changes of the cross-section should be clearly visible for reasons of
recognition. Critical areas should be perceived by 3 skewed arrows placed on the center of the
lane in 60 m step, in the direction of traffic.
A.1.2. Passing Lanes on Occasional Three-Lane Rural Highways

Passing lanes in occasional three-lane rural highways (designed as an additional lane in a
section of the highway for the overtaking procedure), are separated from the opposite
direction by a double continuous dividing line with a width of 0.50 m. General arrangement
and the proposed horizontal and vertical signage is provided on Figure A-2. The widening of
the road surface at the beginning and at the end of the passing lane should be at least 120 m
long. These changes of cross-section should be clearly visible for reasons of recognition.
Passing lane drop should be perceived by 3 skewed arrows placed on the center of the lane in
60 m step, in the direction of traffic.
SHC 301
494 SHC 494
301
Figure A-1 General Arrangement of Passing Lanes in Continues Three-Lane Rural Highways (FGSV, 2012)
SHC 301 495

Figure A-2 General Arrangement of Passing Lanes in Occasional Three-Lane Rural Highways (FGSV, 2012)
SHC 301
496 SHC 496
301
A.2. Spiral Geometry
All spirals (clothoids) are similar from a geometric point of view. That is why in all spirals the
same direction angles and the same values of relationships r/a = R/A, etc. are applied at the
same point. These points are called characteristic points. They are clearly defined by the radius
r of the unit spiral (a = 1) for all spirals (see Figure A-3 and Table A-1).
Figure A-3 Characteristic Points of the Spiral (FGSV, 2012)
Table A-1 Values for Specific Critical Point of a Spiral
Critical
τ (g) τ (rad) A (m) R (m) L (m)
Point r
1.00 · 1.00 ·
1 31.8310 0.50000 1.00 · R 1.00 · L 1.00 · A 1.00 · L
A R
0.67 · 0.45 ·
1.5 14.1471 0.22222 0.67 · R 0.67 · L 1.50 · A 2.25 · L
A R
0.50 · 0.25 ·
2 7.9577 0.12500 0.50 · R 0.50 · L 2.00 · A 4.00 · L
A R
0.33 · 0.11 ·
3 3.5368 0.05556 0.33 · R 0.33 · L 3.00 · A 9.00 · L
A R
0.25 · 0.06 ·
4 1.9894 0.03125 0.25 · R 0.25 · L 4.00 · A 16.00 · L
A R
0.20 · 0.04 ·
5 1.2732 0.02000 0.20 · R 0.20 · L 5.00 · A 25.00 · L
A R
0.17 · 0.03 ·
6 0.8842 0.01389 0.17 · R 0.17 · L 6.00 · A 36.00 · L
A R
∞ 0.0000 0.00000 0.00 0.00 ∞ ∞ 0.00 0.00
𝑹 100 1 𝑅 𝐴 𝑅
r·L r·A 𝑟2 ∙ 𝐿
𝑨 𝑟2 ∙ 𝜋 2 ∙ 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟2
SHC 301 497

For the geometry of horizontal curve with symmetric spirals Figure A-4 is applied.
Figure A-4 Geometry of Horizontal Curve with Symmetric Spirals Applied (FGSV, 2012)
Table A-2 Equations for Horizontal Curve with Symmetric Spirals Applied
Equations for horizontal curve with symmetric spirals applied
R = Curve Radius As = Spiral Parameter Ls = Spiral Length

(𝑅 + 𝛥𝑅)
𝐴𝑠 2 𝛿=
𝐿𝑠 = (physical equation of spiral) 𝛾 −𝑅
𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2)
𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑠 200 𝛾
𝜏𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜏𝑔𝑜𝑛 = ∙ 𝑡 = (𝑅 + 𝛥𝑅) ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2∙𝑅 2∙𝑅 𝜋 2
𝐿𝑠 3 𝐿𝑠 5 XM = X - R * sin(τ)
𝑋 = 𝐿𝑠 − +
40 ∙ 𝑅 2 3456 ∙ 𝑅 4
𝑋
Rounded Equation 𝑋𝑀 =
Rounded Equation X ≈ L 2
𝐿𝑠 2 𝐿𝑠 4 𝐿𝑠 6 𝐿𝑠
𝑌= − + 𝛼𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝛾𝑟𝑎𝑑 −
6 ∙ 𝑅 336 ∙ 𝑅 3 42240 ∙ 𝑅 5 𝑅
𝐿 2 𝐿𝑠 200
Rounded Equation 𝑌 = 6∙𝑅
𝑠
𝛼𝑔𝑜𝑛 = 𝛾𝑟𝑎𝑑 − ∙
𝑅 𝜋
T = t + XM YM = XM + ΔR
ΔR = Y - R * (1 – cos(τ) ) Lcurve=R * αrad

𝐿2 𝜋
Rounded Equation 𝛥𝑅 = 24∙𝑅 𝐿𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝑅 ∙ 𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 ∙
200
SHC 301
498 SHC 498
301
A.3. Calculations in Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Figure A-5 Rounding of Crest of Sag Vertical Curve (FGSV, 2012)
For the calculations of the rounding of crest and sag vertical curves the following equations
are applied:
𝐻 = 100 ∙ 𝐾
𝑥𝑠 = 𝑔1 ∙ 𝐾
𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔1 +
𝐾
𝑔1 𝑥2
𝑦(𝑥) = ∙𝑥+
100 200 ∙ 𝐾
𝐾
𝑇 = ∙ (𝑔2 − 𝑔1 )
2
2
𝑇 𝑇 𝐾
𝑓= = ∙ (𝑔2 − 𝑔1 ) = ∙ (𝑔2 − 𝑔1 )2
200 ∙ 𝐾 400 800
where:
H = the radius of crest or sag vertical curve (m)
K = the length of vertical curve to achieve 1.00 % change in grade (m)
T = the tangent length (m)
f = the distance between the point of intersection TS and the center of the curve (m)
g1, g2 = grade on the tangents (%)
gx = grade at a random point of a curve (%)
y(x) = Ordinate of a random point (m)
xs = Abscissa of the crown (m)
M = center of the curveS = crownTS=point of intersection.
SHC 301 499

A.4. Minimum Turning Paths
Figure A-6 Minimum Turning Path for Passenger Car (P) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301
500 SHC 500
301
SHC 301 501

SHC 301 502

502
503 SHC 301

SHC 301 504

504
Figure A-11 Minimum Turning Path for Articulated Bus (A-BUS) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
505 SHC 301

Figure A-12 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301 506

506
Figure A-13 Minimum Turning Path for Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-15) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
507 SHC 301

Figure A-14 Minimum Turning Path for Interstate Semitrailer (WB-20) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
SHC 301 508

508
Figure A-15 Minimum Turning Path for Double-Trailer Combination (WB-20D) Design Vehicle (AASHTO, 2018)
509 SHC 301

Appendix B - Glossary of Terms
(3R) - 3R projects are those which address pavement needs and/or deficiencies and which
substantially follow the existing horizontal and vertical alignment, while the basic purposes of
resurfacing, restoration or rehabilitation.
(4R) - 4R projects usually represent the highest type design since these are either new
highways or almost totally reconstructed highway sections.
(5R) - 5R projects refer to mobility corridors that are intended to generate, or produce new,
very long-term transportation opportunities that may include multiple modes such as rail,
utilities, freight and passenger characteristics. These modes may occur within a single corridor
alignment.
Access - Permission, liberty, or ability to enter, approach, or to make use of.
Alternative Intersection - An intersection created by rerouting one or more movements
(often left turns) from their usual places to secondary junctions.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials - An organization of
highway engineers that develops standards and publishes specifications, test protocols and
guides for use by transportation agencies throughout the United States
Arterial - A signalized street that primarily serves through traffic and that secondarily provides
access to abutting properties.
Avenue - A wide road with trees or tall buildings on both sides.
Bicycle - Vehicle with two wheels in tandem that is propelled by human power and is usually
ridden by one person.
Boulevard - A street or avenue, especially one that's very wide and lined with trees. Many
boulevards have a median strip of grass and sometimes trees.
Circulatory Roadway - The roadway within a circular intersection on which traffic travels in a
counterclockwise direction around an island in the center of the circular intersection.
City or Village - A subdivision comprised of a collection of houses and/or farms, used to
designate or identify the location of the proposed work.
Collector Highway - A term denoting a highway that in rural areas connects small towns and
local highways to arterial highways, and in urban areas provides land access and traffic
circulation within residential, commercial, and business areas and connects local highways to
the arterial highways.
Context Classification - Description of the land use and transportation context where a
highway is found. Highways are designed to match the characteristics and demands defined
by the appropriate Context Classification criteria.
Cross-Section - A perpendicular Intersection of the roadway at right angles to the centerline
of the roadway, including the elements of the road such as vertical and horizontal dimensions,
lanes, shoulders, elevations and slopes, pavement structure and layer thickness.
Cul-De-Sac Street - A local street open at one end only, and with special provision for turning
around.
SHC 301 510

510
Depressed Highway - A highway whose highway is below the adjacent ground level.
Design Class - A grouping of highways for geometric design purposes according to the level
of traffic service they provide for highway users. Four design classes that are recognized for
rural and urban conditions, respectively are: freeways, expressways, arterials, collectors and
local highways.
Design Criteria - Criteria, coupled with prudent judgmental factors that are used in design.
Design Exception - A design condition that does not meet the present guidelines and requires
specific approval by the competent Ministerial Authority.
Design Speed - A speed selected for purposes of design and correlation of the geometric
features of a highway and a measure of the quality of service offered by the highway.
Design Vehicle - A vehicle, with representative weight, dimensions, and operating
characteristics, used to establish highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of
designated classes.
Divided Highway - A highway that provides a median separation between the traffic in
opposite directions.
Driver - Any person who drives a motor vehicle or other vehicle (including a cycle).
Driver Workload - The number, complexity, and type of evaluations and decisions that a
driver of a motor vehicle must make to operate the vehicle safely in a specific physical and
traffic environment.
Elevated Highway - A highway whose highway is on fill or structure above the level of the
adjacent ground.
Entry Radius - The minimum radius of curvature measured along the right curb at entry of a
roundabout. Smaller radii may decrease capacity, while larger radii may cause inadequate entry
deflection.
Entry Width - The perpendicular distance from the right curb line of the entry to the
intersection of the left edge line and the inscribed circle of a roundabout.
Exit Radius - The minimum radius of curvature measured along the right curb at the exit of a
roundabout. Exit radii should then be larger than entering radii.
Exit Width - The perpendicular distance from the right curb line of the exit to the intersection
of the left edge line and the inscribed circle.
Expressway - A high-speed divided arterial highway for through traffic with limited points of
access or exit and grade separations at major Intersection.
Freeway - A fully access-controlled, divided highway with a minimum of two lanes (and
frequently more) in each direction.
Functional Classification - The grouping of streets and highways into classes, or systems,
according to the character of service they are intended to provide.
Geometric Design - The arrangement of the visible elements of a highway, such as alignment,
profile, sight distances, widths, slopes etc.
Grade Intersection - An Intersection where all highways join or cross at the same level.
511 SHC 301

Highway - A general term for denoting a public way for purposes of vehicular travel, including
the entire area within the right-of-way.
Horizontal Alignment - Horizontal geometrics of the highway.
Horizontal Curve - A circular curve or transitional by means of which a highway can change
direction to the right or left.
Interchange - A system of interconnecting roadways providing for traffic movement between
two or more highways that do not intersect at grade.
Intersection - A point where two or more highways cross or meet at grade, where vehicular
travel between the highways is accomplished via turning movements, and where right-of-way
is typically regulated through the use of traffic control devices.
KSA Highway Construction Authority - Any authority of the KSA that is competent or
tendering the construction, the reconstruction, rehabilitation, maintenance and operation of a
public highway (MoTLS, MoMRAH, Ammanah, Royal Commission).
Light Truck (Pickup) - A motor vehicle designed for transportation of goods and materials
whose unladen weight does not exceed 3,500 kg.
Local Street or Local Road - Roadways which provide high access to abutting property, low
average traffic volumes, and short average trip lengths. Local roads and streets may include
minor county roads, minor urban and suburban subdivision streets, and graded or unimproved
roads.
Median - A divider or island placed usually at the centerline of a highway which is meant to
separate opposite directions of travel.
Mobility - The quality or condition of being mobile by a given mode of transportation or a
combination of modes (walking, bicycle, private auto, taxi, bus, light rail, rail rapid transit,
airline, private aircraft, or other means) to satisfy personal needs or objectives.
Motor Vehicle - Every vehicle that is propelled by a motor or engine within itself.
Motorcycle - Self-propelled vehicle with two wheels in tandem that may be ridden by a
maximum of two persons.
Operating Speed - A speed at which a typical vehicle or the overall traffic operates. Operating
speed might be defined with speed values such as the average, pace, or 85th percentile speeds.
Outer Separation - The portion of an arterial highway between the traveled ways of a roadway
and a frontage street or road.
Parkway - A wide road, usually divided, with an area of grass and trees on both sides and in
the middle leading to or passing through a park.
Passenger Car - A motor vehicle, other than a motorcycle, designed for carrying 10 or fewer
passengers and used for the transportation of persons.
Pedestrian - Any person on foot or who is using a powered wheelchair or mobility scooter or
a wheeled means of conveyance propelled by human power, other than a cycle.
Perception-Reaction Time - The time needed for a motorist to see the signal indication
(perception) and then begin executing the appropriate response (reaction).
SHC 301 512

512
Pickup - A two axle freight vehicle with a total of four tires. In general, this classification
includes pickups, panels and other light two-axle vehicles with single tires on the rear axle
designed for carrying freight.
Primary Highway - A highway usually found in urban areas having population of 100,000 or
greater.
Profile - A longitudinal section of a highway.
Public Transportation - Transportation service to the public on a regular basis using vehicles
that transport more than one person for compensation, usually but not exclusively, over a set
route or routes from one fixed point to another. Routes and schedules of this service may be
predetermined by the operator or may be determined through a cooperative arrangement.
Subcategories include paratransit and mass transit service that are available to the public. Also
referred to as “public transit”.
Ramp - A dedicated highway providing a connection between two other highways; at least
one of the highways a ramp connects is typically a high-speed facility such as a freeway,
multilane highway, or Collector-Distributor highway.
Recreational Vehicle - A vehicle with light- or medium-duty chassis and suspension designed
for recreational living or hauling.
Residential Area - That portion of a municipality, or an area within the influence of a
municipality in which the dominant land uses is residential development, but where small
business area may be included.
Right-Of-Way (ROW) - The entire width between the boundaries of a strip of land occupied
or intended to be occupied by a road, sidewalk, crosswalk, railroad, electric transmission line,
oil or gas pipeline, water line, sanitary storm sewer, or other similar uses.
Running Speed - A measure of the average speed over a segment, which is calculated as the
distance traveled divided by the running time.
Safe System - The Safe System approach aims to eliminate fatalities and serious injuries of all
users of the transportation system through a holistic model of multiple elements working
together to safeguard against tragic crash outcomes.
Secondary Highway - A highway of less national significance than a Primary Highway, but
highway that is intended to move large volumes of traffic at high speed between population
centers of 50,000 or more.
Semitrailer - Any trailer designed to be coupled to a motor vehicle in such a way that part of
it rests on the motor vehicle and a substantial part of its weight and the weight of its load is
borne by a motor vehicle.
Sidewalks and Paths - A section associated with a roadway that is provided primarily for use
by pedestrians and excludes other forms of traffic such as motorized vehicles, etc.
Single-Unit Trucks - A single frame vehicle, longer than a passenger car, including trucks,
camping and recreational vehicles, motor homes, etc., regardless of the number of tires, axles,
or axle configuration.
Throat Length - The distance from the edge of the traveled way along the main roadway to
the first conflict point on a driveway or roadway.
513 SHC 301

Trailer - A vehicle designed for carrying persons or property and drawn by a motor vehicle
that carries no part of the weight and load of the trailer.
Truck - Heavy vehicle engaging primarily in the transport of goods and materials or in the
delivery of services other than public transportation.
Truck Apron - The mountable portion of the central island adjacent to the circulatory roadway.
It is required to accommodate the wheel tracking of long or oversized vehicles
Oversize/Overweight vehicles (OSOW). It is usually concrete with a contrasting color to
delineate the apron from the normal vehicle path.
Truck Combination - A truck tractor and a semitrailer, either with or without a full trailer or a
truck with one or more full trailers.
Truck Tractor - A motor vehicle designed for drawing other vehicles, but not for a load other
than a part of the weight of the vehicle and load drawn.
Urban Area - An area that contains or is zoned to contain built land use development.
Vehicle Restraint System - Post crash, passive safety systems placed on highway areas aiming
to contain vehicles involved in run-off-road crashes and/or redirect them smoothly to the
highway.
Viaduct - A specific type of bridge in a long elevated roadway, usually consisting of a series
of short spans supported on arches, piers, or columns.
Vulnerable Road User - Road users who are most likely to suffer serious injuries in a collision,
including pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists and wheelchair users.
SHC 301 514

514
Appendix C - Abbreviations, Acronyms
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
American Association of State Highway and Transportation

AASHTO Officials
ALDOT Alabama Department of Transportation
ARAMCO Saudi Arabian Oil Company
AT Alberta Transportation
CAD Computer Aided Design
CALTRANS California Department of Transportation (USA)
CDOT Colorado Department of Transport (USA)
CFI Continuous Flow Intersection
CRZ Clear Recovery Zone
DCD Double Crossover Diamond
DDHV Directional Design Hourly Volume
DDI Diverging Diamond Interchange
DHV Design Hourly Volume
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EAL Equivalent Axle Load
ETW Edge of the Traveled Way
FDOT Florida Department of Transport (USA)
FGSV Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen- und Verkehrswesen
FHWA Federal Highway Administration (USA)
FOC Face of Curb
GVW Gross Vehicle Weight
515 SHC 301

HOT High Occupancy and Toll
HOV High-Occupancy Vehicle
INDOT Indiana Department of Transportation
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
LOS Level of Service
Ministry of Communications (renamed to MoT, renamed to

MoC MoTLS)
MoMRAH Ministry of Municipal, Rural Affairs and Housing
MoTLS Ministry of Transport and Logistic Services
MSE Mechanically Stabilized Earth
MT Maneuver Time
MUT Median U-Turn
NCDOT North Carolina Department of Transportation
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program (USA)
O-D Origin - Destination
OSOW Oversize/Overweight Vehicles
PBPD Performance-Based Practical Design
PFI Parallel Flow Intersection
PHV Peak Hourly Volume
PIEV Perception, Identification, Emotion, Volition
PMMS Pavement Maintenance Management System
PRT Perception-Reaction Time
PSD Passing Sight Distance
PTW Powered Two-Wheeler
SHC 301 516

516
PwD(s) Person(s) with Disabilities
RCUT Restricted Crossing U-Turn
ROW Right-Of-Way
RV Recreational Vehicle
SASO Saudi Standards Metrology and Quality Organization
SEE Social, Economic and Environmental Effect
SER Self-Explaining Roads
SPA Swept Path Analysis
SPDI Single-Point Diamond Interchange
SPUI Single-Point Urban Interchanges
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
SU Single Unit Truck
TxDOT Texas Department of Transportation (USA)
VKT Vehicle Kilometers Traveled
XDL Crossover Displaced Left-Turn Intersection
517 SHC 301

Appendix D - Units
SI Units Imperial Units
Length
mm Millimeters in Inch
cm Centimeter ft Foot
m Meter
km Kilometer
Area
m2 Square meter
Weight
kg Kilogram
t Ton
Time
s Second
h Hour
d Day
month Month
Angular
° Degree
g Gradian
rad Radian
Other
km/h Kilometer per hour
m/s2 Meter per square

second
Other
veh/d Vehicle per day
veh/h Vehicle per hour
SHC 301 518

518

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Design of Highways, Bridges and Tunnels

SHC 301 – Highway Geometric Design

SHC STEERING COMMITTEE

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SHC Project Director

SHC SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE

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SHC TECHNICAL TEAM

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SHC ADMINISTRATIVE TAEM

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SHC LEGAL TEAM

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SHC TECHNICAL COMMITTEE (SHC 301)

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2.3.2. Multimodal Considerations ...................................................................................................................... 6

2.3.3. Project Design Types ................................................................................................................................ 7

2.3.4. Contextual Highway Classification ............................................................................................................ 8

2.3.5. Highway Access Management Classification .......................................................................................... 12

2.4. Categories of Highways ................................................................................................................. 14

2.4.2. Principles Considered in Establishing Approach ..................................................................................... 14

2.4.3. Design Characteristics and Description of Each Highway Category ....................................................... 15

2.4.4. Arab MASHREQ International Road Network ......................................................................................... 23

2.5. Highway Design Concepts ............................................................................................................. 25

2.5.2. Performance-Based Practical Design ...................................................................................................... 25

2.5.3. Safe System Approach ............................................................................................................................ 26

2.5.4. Concept of Complete Streets.................................................................................................................. 27

2.5.5. Concept of Self-Explaining Roads ........................................................................................................... 28

2.5.6. Concept of Sustainable Highway Design ................................................................................................ 29

2.6. Route Designations ....................................................................................................................... 31

2.6.2. Purpose ................................................................................................................................................... 31

2.6.3. Route Numbers....................................................................................................................................... 32

2.6.5. Additions, Deletions and Revisions......................................................................................................... 32

2.7. Approval Process ........................................................................................................................... 32

2.7.2. Specific Requirements ............................................................................................................................ 33

2.7.3. Form of Approval .................................................................................................................................... 34

2.7.4. Approval Schedule .................................................................................................................................. 34

2.7.5. Approving Authority ............................................................................................................................... 34

3. Predesign Elements ......................................................................................................................... 35

3.2.2. Driver Perception Reaction..................................................................................................................... 35

3.2.3. Older Drivers and Older Pedestrians ...................................................................................................... 36

3.2.4. The Driving and Guidance Task .............................................................................................................. 36

3.2.5. Stopping Procedure and Passing Maneuvers ......................................................................................... 39

3.2.6. Other Driving Performance Characteristics ............................................................................................ 40

3.3. Traffic Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 40

3.3.2. Traffic Flow Parameters for Design ........................................................................................................ 41

3.3.3. Speed Concepts ...................................................................................................................................... 41

3.4. Design Vehicles.............................................................................................................................. 43