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HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR MATERIALS

Hazardous wastes are poisonous by products of manufacturing, farming, city septic systems,
construction, automotive garages, laboratories, hospitals, and other industries. The waste may be liquid, solid, or
sludge and contain chemicals, heavy metals, radiation, dangerous pathogens, or other toxins. Even households
generate hazardous waste from items such as batteries, used computer equipment, and leftover paints or
pesticides.

The rules surrounding hazardous waste are in the U.S. by the federal Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), as well as state departments of environmental protection. EPA requires that hazardous waste be handled
with special precautions and be disposed of in designated facilities located throughout the United States, which
charge for their services.

EPA began regulating hazardous waste in 1976. Many toxic waste dumps that pose a threat to
communities today are holdovers from the era prior to 1976. Other waste sites are the results of more recent
illegal dumping.

The Federal Conservation and Recovery Act regulates how hazardous waste must be handled and
stored. It also lists some but not all of the wastes that EPA considers hazardous. Substances that are not on the list
but are toxic are also considered hazardous waste and subject to EPA’s rules. The Superfund Act contains rules
about cleaning up hazardous waste that was dumped illegally.

One EPA rule that has proved very controversial governs industrial sludge. EPA allows sludge
containing heavy metals to be included in fertilizers that are used by farmers on food crops or sold directly to the
public. Environmental and other organizations say dangerous levels of the metals are taken up by some plants
and subsequently eaten by people, with particularly negative effects on children.

TYPES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

Nuclear Waste
Waste generated from nuclear power plants and nuclear weapon technology is arguably the most
dangerous created by society. The dangers associated with nuclear waste are compounded by the extremely long
half-life of radioactive materials, during which they maintain their hazardous properties. Dangers from nuclear
waste include both immediate health risks and long-term risks related to increases in cancer and birth defects.
There are also safety issues around nuclear waste as certain types can be used as weapons and need to be
stringently controlled.

Industrial Waste
Many cleaners and solvents used in industrial and commercial processes become hazardous waste after their use.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has specific technical groupings based on whether they come from specific or
non-specific industries or processes as well as the degree of danger they pose. These include wood preservation chemicals,
compounds that contain dioxin and refinery wastewater. Pharmaceutical manufacturing and organic chemical production also
lead to the creation of hazardous wastes. The EPA publishes guidelines on the disposal of hazardous industrial waste.

Universal Waste
This waste is generated from a large variety of sources and consists of products that serve both commercial and
personal use. Two of the prime examples of universal waste are batteries and light bulbs, used throughout society in great
quantities, disposal of batteries and other forms of universal waste cannot be as closely monitored or controlled as industrial
waste. Commonly just thrown out with the trash, these wastes make their way into landfills and incinerators where their toxic
components are released into the environment.

Medical Waste

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Medical waste of certain types can be as biohazard and pose safety risks. Through the U.S. EPA does not strictly
designate medical waste as hazardous, it definitely can cause health problems if it is not properly managed. Discarded
needles and blood products have the potential to spread diseases and cause injury. Most medical waste streams are regulated
at the state and local level.

Construction Waste
Asbestos tiles and insulation, lead pipes and certain chemicals used in maintenance all fall into this category. The
construction industry needs to be aware of theses hazards and vigilant in their safe disposal. EPA guidelines again regulate
and educate the industry on the disposal of their waste.

Electronic Waste
Many electronic products contain trace amounts of hazardous materials that can pose problem if incinerated or
disposal of in a landfill. Computers contain many components that fall into this category, including CPUs, CRT monitors and
printed circuit boards. Their widespread use and unregulated disposal make them a real contributor to the overall hazardous
waste problem.

HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL SITES

Hazardous waste facilities store and dispose of toxic materials. Hazardous waste material must be
transported, contained, treated or disposed of with extreme care and according to specific guidelines and
procedures. Hazardous waste sites vary according to the types of hazardous material they can process and
should be operating under resource.

Some of the largest areas committed to be decontaminated are in the Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. The
national government is under pressure to clean up radioactivity due to the Fukushima nuclear accident of March
2011 from as much land as possible so that some of the 110,000 displaced people can return. Stripping out the key
radioisotope threatening health (caesium-137) from low level waste could also dramatically decrease the volume
of waste requiring special disposal. A goal is to find techniques that might be able to strip out 80% to 95% of the
caesium from contaminated soil and other materials, efficiently and without destroying the organic content in the
soil.

Radioactive contamination
is typically the result of a spill or accident during the production, or use of, radionuclides
(radioisotopes); these have unstable nuclei which are subject to radioactive decay.

Nuclear fallout
is the distribution of radioactive contamination by a nuclear explosion. The amount of radioactive
material released in an accident is called the source term.

Contamination
may occur from radioactive gases, liquids or particles. For example, if a radionuclide used in nuclear
medicine is spilled (accidentally or, as in the case of the Goiania incident, through ignorance), the material could
be spread by people as they walk around. Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result of certain
processes, such as the release of radioactive xenon in nuclear fuel reprocessing. In cases that radioactive material
cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations.

Containment

Being within the intended “containment” differentiates radioactive material from radioactive
contamination. When radioactive materials are concentrated to a detectable level outside a planned containment,
the are affected is generally referred to as “contaminated”.

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Radioactive material is contained using various techniques to prevent contamination. High integrity
tanks or containers, typically with a sump system, are used for liquids, allowing leakage detection through
radiometric or conventional instrumentation.

Glove boxes are commonly used in hazardous laboratory and process operations to prevent airborne
materials. They are kept under negative pressure, filtered efficiently, and monitored by radiometric
instrumentation to ensure proper functioning.

Contamination Accumulation
Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air.

Surface Contamination
Is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area. For SI, this is Becquerel’s per square meter
(or Bq/m²). Other units such as picocurie’s per 100 cm² or disintegrations per minute per square centimeter (1
dpm/cm²= 167 Bq/m²) may be used. Surface contamination may either be fixed or removeable. In the case of
fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but it is still measurable.

Surface contamination detection for personnel and plants is typically done using Geiger counters,
scintillation counters, or proportional counters. Proportional counters and dual phosphor scintillation counters
can differentiate between alpha and beta contamination, while Geiger counters have smaller windows but are
more robust.

In the United Kingdom the HSE has released a user guidance note on selecting the appropriate radiation
measurement instrument for specific applications, covering all radiation instrument technologies and providing a
comparative guide.

Contamination from personnel exiting controlled nuclear areas is controlled using various barrier
techniques, including changing clothing and footwear. Radiological instrumentation is used to monitor potential
contamination spread, using hand-held survey instruments and permanently installed monitors. Compliance
with the Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is
also maintained.

Land Disposal
The most common form of disposing of hazardous waste occurs at land disposal sites such as landfills,
waste piles, land treatment units or surface impoundments. The primary goal with land disposal is “to
permanently contain the waste and prevent the release of harmful pollutants to the environment,” according to
EPA. Most municipalities have land disposal sites in the forms of landfills or otherwise that are capable of
disposing of varying types of hazardous waste.

Storage
Storage of hazardous waste refers only to the holding of waste for a temporary period of time before it is
“treated, disposed, or stored elsewhere,” says the EPA storage fast sheet. Depending on the type of hazardous
waste that you will be storing or transporting prior to placing it in an RCRA-compliant facility, waste storage
must adhere to hazardous waste regulations. The waste must be placed in containers, tanks, drip pads,
containment buildings or waste plies that sufficiently contain it without leaks of any variety.

Underground Injection Wells

Underground injection wells are used primarily for the disposal of liquid hazardous materials.
Underground injection wells are also regulated according to the Safe Drinking Water Act due to their potential
impact on drinking water resources.

Types of Disposal Facilities

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Hazardous waste facilities are organized by the types of hazardous materials they are able to process.
Facilities handle battery recycling, plastics, fluorescent lighting, infectious waste, metals, solvents, oil, antifreeze,
and are either government-run or private commercial facilities.

Radioactive wastes, by-products of nuclear power generation and other nuclear technology applications,
pose a significant threat to human health and the environment. Government agencies regulate these wastes to
protect human health and the environment. As Radioactivity diminishes over time, waste is typically isolated and
stored until no longer a hazard. The storage period depends on the type of waste, with low-level waste requiring
only hours or days, and high-level waste requiring thousands to millions of years. Current management
approaches include segregation and storage for short-lived wastes, neat-surface disposal for low and
intermediate wastes, and deep burial or transmutation for high-level wastes.

Radioactive contamination, also called “Radiological contamination”, is the deposition of, or presence of
radioactive substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids or gases (including the human body), where their
presence is unintended or undesirable (from IAEA definition).

Contamination poses a hazard due to radioactive decay, emitting harmful ionizing radiation like alpha
or beta particles, gamma rays, or neutrons. The hazard's degree depends on the contaminants' concentration,
energy, type, and proximity to body organs. The terms "radiation" and "contamination" are not interchangeable,
as contamination leads to radiation hazards.

Contamination from nuclear weapons or reactor containment breaches can affect people, places,
animals, and objects. Air, soil, and surrounding areas can be contaminated by nuclear fuel and fission products.
Spilled vials of radioactive material can also contaminate floors and rags. Examples of widespread radioactive
contamination include the Bikini Atoll, Rocky Flats Plant in Colorado, Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster,
Chernobyl disaster, and Mayak facility in Russia.

Cleaning up contamination can lead to radioactive waste unless it can be reprocessed for commercial
use. In large areas, burying and covering can help prevent further spread. If a person's body is contaminated by
ingestion or injury and standard cleaning cannot reduce further, they may be permanently contaminated.

Airborne Contamination

Air can be contaminated with particulate radioactive isotopes, posing a significant inhalation hazard.
Respirators with suitable air filters can help mitigate these risks. Airborne contamination is measured using
specialist radiometric instruments, such as semiconductor radiation detection sensors, which provide
spectrographic information. A "moving filter" device can also be used to present clean areas for accumulation,
allowing for a plot of airborne concentration over time.

Internal Human Contamination

Radioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or injection.
For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with radioactive materials.
Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or
drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all
potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered.

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Contamination Levels

1 2
1 H H

3 4 10
2 5 6 7 8 9
Li Be Ne
B C N O F

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26F 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Period
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn e Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43T 44 45 46 47 49 50 51 52 54
48 53
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo c Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sn Te I Xe
W

55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Bi Po Rn
Pb At

87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
**
7 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanide
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
W W

**Actinide 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cr Es Fm Md No Lr
s W W

Figure 1 2.7. Contamination Levels of Elements

Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope.

Elements which contain at least one stable isotope.

Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope is very long-lived, with half-life of over four million years.

Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between 800 and 34,000 years.

Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between one day and 103 years.

Highly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between several minutes and one day.

Extremely radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life less than several minutes.

Low Level contamination

The hazards associated with radioactive contamination depend on factors such as the type of
radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of its spread. While low levels of
radioactive contamination pose minimal risk, they can still be detected using radiation instrumentation. In
surveys or maps of contaminated areas, random sampling locations may be labeled with their activity
measured in units such as Becquerel’s or Curies upon contact. Additionally, low levels of contamination can
be reported in counts per minute using a scintillation counter.

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In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be
to simply allow the material to naturally decay. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly
disposed of, because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it.

Facilities and physical locations that are contaminated may be cordoned off and labeled as
"Contaminated area" by a health physicist. Individuals approaching these areas would typically need to wear
anti-contamination clothing or use anti-c's for protection.

High Level contamination

High levels of contamination can pose significant risks to both individuals and the environment. In the
event of an accident or intentional release involving large amounts of radioactive material, people can be exposed
to potentially lethal levels of radiation, both externally and internally. The biological effects of external exposure
to radioactive contamination are similar to those from other sources of radiation, such as x-ray machines, and
depend on the absorbed dose.

During the measurement or mapping of radioactive contamination, any location that appears as a
concentrated source of radiation is likely to be heavily contaminated and is commonly known as a "hot spot." On
a map of a contaminated area, hot spots may be labeled with their dose rate in millisieverts per hour (mSv/hr)
upon contact. In contaminated facilities, hot spots may be marked with signs, shielded using bags of lead shot, or
cordoned off with warning tape featuring the magenta radioactive trefoil symbol on a yellow background.

Radiation Hazards

The radiation warning symbol (trefoil).

Alpha radiation is composed of helium-4 nuclei and can be easily stopped by a

sheet of paper. Beta radiation, which consists of electrons, can be halted by an aluminum
plate. Gamma radiation, on the other hand, is gradually absorbed as it penetrates dense
materials. Lead is particularly effective at absorbing gamma radiation due to its high
density.

The hazard of contamination arises from the emission of

ionizing radiation. The primary types of radiation encountered are
alpha, beta, and gamma, each with distinct characteristics. These
types of radiation vary in terms of their penetrating power and
radiation effects. The accompanying diagram illustrates the
penetration of these radiations in simple terms. For an
understanding of the different ionizing effects and the weighting
factors applied to these radiations, please refer to the article on
absorbed dose.

Radiation monitoring involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for
reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the
interpretation of the results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of
environmental radiation monitoring programs and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and
types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS-G-1 and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64.

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Background Radiation

In the natural world, radiation is constantly emitted from radionuclides as they decay. Cosmic rays
bombard the Earth, and carbon-14, tritium, and potassium-40 are present in most living organisms, including
humans. While these levels of radioactivity pose little danger, they can complicate measurements. One challenge
is the presence of naturally generated Radon gas, which can interfere with instruments set to detect
contamination near normal background levels and lead to false alarms. Therefore, operators of radiological
survey equipment require skill to distinguish between background radiation and radiation emitted from
contamination.

EFFECTS OF CONTAMINATION

Biological effects

The biological effects of radionuclides are influenced by factors like activity, distribution, and removal
rate. These factors depend on the chemical form, particle size, and entry route. Chemical toxicity can also affect
the effects, as certain radionuclides, like tritiated water, can be quickly eliminated throughout the body.

Radionuclide variants in some organs can lead to lower removal rates, such as the thyroid gland, which
absorbs a significant amount of iodine. Inhaled or ingested radioactive iodine can impair or destroy the thyroid,
while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine-131, a common fission product, was a major
component of radiation from the Chernobyl disaster, leading to pediatric thyroid cancer and hypothyroidism.
Despite its potential, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treating thyroid diseases due to its selective
uptake.

Mental health effects

Low-level radiation can have psychological consequences, as it cannot be detected, leaving individuals
uncertain about their future. Many believe they have been contaminated for life, refusing to have children due to
birth defects. They may also be shunned by their community due to fear of contagion.

Forced evacuation from a radiation or nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression,
psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in the Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental health impact of
Chernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date". Frank, a U.S. scientist,
commented on the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, saying that "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term
psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas".

Nuclear radiation is the only material that poses a significant psychological risk due to its unique
historical legacy, unlike other materials that cause cancer and other deadly illnesses.

Nuclear radiation is the only material that poses a significant psychological risk due to its unique
historical legacy, unlike other materials that cause cancer and other deadly illnesses. Coal burning emissions,
while causing 10,000 premature deaths annually in the US, as a National Academy of sciences study found, do
not elicit the same level of fear. It is "only nuclear radiation that bears a huge psychological burden for it carries a
unique historical legacy".