www.realdigital.

org

A Brief Introduction to
Verilog
Hardware Definition Language (HDL)
 Forward
Verilog is a “Hardware Description” language (HDL) that is used to define the structure
and/or behavior of digital circuits. Verilog is a “concurrent” language, different than a
“procedural” language like C or Java.

Verilog is the most widely used HDL industry today, but VHDL is catching up. Although
the two languages are different, they are quite similar in many ways. If you learn
Verilog, it will only take a few hours to convert to VHDL.
Concepts: Behavioral vs. Structural Models
“Behavioral” code defines outputs as functions of inputs, without describing any
circuit components or modules that might be used in constructing the circuit.
“Structural” code is a form of netlist, defining a circuit as a collection of subordinate
components or modules and their interconnecting wires.

A B C Y I$001: INV(B,N$001)
Drive an output B
C I$002: AND2(N$001,C,N$002)
signal Y to a 1
whenever input B is Y I$003: INV(C,N$003)
not asserted at the A I$004: AND2(A,N$003,N$004)
same time C is, or I$005: OR2(N$002,N$004,Y)
when A is asserted
when C is not.

Behavioral descriptions define input-to- Structural descriptions show how lower-level

output relationships, but provide no components (like logic gates) are interconnected,
information about how to construct a circuit but the input/output behavior must be deduced.
 Concepts: Behavioral vs. Structural Models

Behavioral descriptions are more abstract, higher-level, quicker and easier to write,
easier for others to understand and follow, and largely self documenting.

Structural descriptions are often used when existing IP blocks can be reused. They
are easier to debug, easier to analyze (for timing and area), and can be easier to
optimize.

Most designers write behavioral code for individual, lower-level circuits, and
structural code when reusing existing IP or connecting lower-level blocks into
more complex circuits.
 Example: Behavioral vs. Structural Models
This example compares a structural 4-bit comparator schematic a Verilog behavioral
description. The Verilog description is far easier and faster to create, its function is clear to
the reader, and it is portable between CAD tools.

Structural Circuit (schematic)

Verilog Wire Assignments

GT <= (A > B) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0;

LT <= (A < B) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0’;
EQ <= (A == B) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0;
 Example: Behavioral vs. Structural Models
This example compares structural vs. behavioral Verilog for a 4-bit adder. Same advantages!

Behavioral Adder
Simpler and easier to read.

Verilog Structural Adder

More work, more detail.
A good thing?
Concept: HDLs can be Simulated and/or Synthesized
Verilog descriptions can be simulated to check for logical correctness, and synthesized
to automatically create a physical circuit definition.

Simulators were part of the original

Verilog release; synthesizers came
Test Bench
HDL Source Constraints
later. (Verilog or VHDL)
Simulators are arguably the most
important computer tools ever
created. Validating circuits and signal
timings prior to implementation .sdf file – can
allows far more complex designs to Simulator
Simulator
simulate with Synthesizer
Simulator

proceed more quickly and with fewer calculated delays

errors.
Synthesizers create physical circuit
descriptions from HDLs. Some Output: Vector Output: Config
descriptions can program an FPGA; files – inspect for files – implement
others can build custom chips. correctness & validate
 Background
• Schematic entry/capture were primary CAD tools until the mid 90’s, but were
completely replaced by VHDL and Verilog by the year 2000
✓ Higher-level, behavioral design methods – more complex designs more quickly
✓ Simulation/verification prior to implementation
✓ Synthesis to create physical circuits for a wide range of target technologies
✓ Accurate post-synthesis simulation allows detailed timing analysis
✓ Text-based tools allow platform independent source files (any editor can be used)
• HDLs specify physical circuit behavior, not procedural algorithms
• HDLs can define high-level behavioral or low-level structural models
• HDLs allow designers to easily incorporate IP from a wide range of developers
• Dozens of CAD tools/vendors, many free: Cadence, Mentor, Xilinx, Aldec, etc.
 VHDL vs. Verilog
VHDL Verilog
• Commissioned/sponsored by US • Private company (Gateway Design
government starting in 1979 Automation) starting in 1983
• Widespread use by 1987; Specified by • Widespread use by 1990; Specified by
IEEE 1076 in 1987 IEEE 1364 in 1995
• ADA like • C like
• Strong types, more structure, many • More targeted, less complex
features, can be complex

Many free VHDL and Verilog tools are available, and lots of reference and example
designs in both languages can be found around the internet
 Design Projects
Verilog tools organize the workspace using “Projects”. Projects contain all the source
files needed for a given design. External files can also be used by placing them in a
library, and making the library visible within a project.
Source files include Verilog modules, constraint files used by the synthesizer to guide
implementation, and .sdf files that store signal node timing data.
Verilog source files use modules. Modules are basic Verilog constructs that define
circuits. A simple design might use a single module; more complex designs might use
several. A project can include any number of modules.
Any Verilog module can be used as a component in any other Verilog source file.
Verilog modules stored in external libraries can be used in other projects.
Verilog code can be written to model and study circuits; to specify circuits and
document behavioral requirements; to use/reuse specific pre-existing IP blocks; and to
define circuits for synthesis.
Models for Synthesis

Verilog code written to define circuits for synthesis must model physical wires. Wires
transport signals between Verilog modules, or between modules and the “outside
world”. (Note: the outside world is typically a signal connection to a physical pin on an
IC package).

Verilog uses “modules” to define circuits and their behaviors.

Verilog uses the data type “wire” to model physical wires; only wires can transport
data.

Verilog “wires” use a 4-valued type to model signals: 0, 1, X, Z

 Verilog Modules: A first look
Modules are the principle design entity in Verilog. All
circuits are defined in modules. A simple design might
use a single module; more complex designs might use
several. A project can include any number of modules.
The keyword “module” is followed by the module name
and the port list. The port specifies all port signals as
inputs, outputs, or inout (bi-directional).
Local signals are declared immediately following the
module/port statement using the keyword “wire”.
Combinational assignments are made using the assign
statement. Sequential assignments are made inside an
“always” block. A module can have any number of
assign statements and always blocks. Assignment
statements are described in the following slides.

Modules can be instantiated/used in other modules by

including the module name and port connection list.
 Verilog Modules

Simple
The module declaration statement
Z
defines the “bounding box”, and the A X
module body statements define the
circuit functions B Y

Any module can be Next

“instantiated” as a Simple
component in another Z
module by listing it’s name C
A X F
K
and port connections. D G
Here, “named association” B
Y

is used.
.component_port(topmodule_port)
Concept: Sequential vs. Concurrent Models
• A sequential processing algorithm defines a set of steps that are taken in a
specific order
• Concurrent processing steps occur whenever new input data is available, with no
implied sequence relationship between separate concurrent processes
• Consider a simulation of a 2-input mux: At what time(s) should gate A1 be
simulated? What about gate O1?
A
A N2
A1
B B
N1 O1 Y
C
A2
C N3
Y
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

• Computer time vs. Simulation time

 Concurrency: Modelling time
HDL simulators are indispensable tools for designing and learning about digital circuits. They allow
every feature, every signal, every critical time to be checked, validated, and studied in detail. You must
become proficient at using the simulator to become a skilled designer.

HDL simulators model time by dividing it into arbitrarily small “simulator time steps”, which are the
smallest amounts of time that are relevant to the circuit (typically 10ps).

In any given simulator time step, the CPU only simulates circuit components whose inputs have
changed. Each simulator time step can take as much CPU time as is needed - during some time steps,
many circuit nodes may change, requiring a lot of CPU time. During other steps, very few nodes may
change, requiring almost no CPU time.
 Concurrency: Modelling time
A B
N$60 I$19: NAND3(N$43,N$41,N$44,N$53)
Block 1 N$42 I$22
N$43 I$20: OR3(N$45,N$43,N$46,N$54)
N$53
I$19 N$61 I$21: NAND2(N$53,N$54,N$58)
N$44
N$58 I$23 I$25 I$22: OR2(B,N$42,N$60)
B I$21 N$64 I$23: OR2(N$42,N$58,N$61)
Block 3 N$45
Clk N$46 I$20 N$62 I$24: FF(Clk,B,N$62)
N$54 I$25: AND3(N$60,N$61,N$62,N$54)
I$24
Clk
Block 2

User Source File Block 3 Detail Block 3 Netlist

Current time Simulator Time Steps

A Verilog source file is shown as a block diagram, with

...
Block 3 expanded into a schematic and netlist.
B ... 0 0 0 - - - ...
All “instances” and “nets” that are not given names in N$42 ... 1 1 0 - - - ...
the source file are assigned auto-generated identifiers. N$43 ... 1 1 1 - - - ...
Clk ... 0 0 1 - - - ...
Only some nets will change in any given time step. N$54 ... 1 1 1 - - - ...
Here, only N$42 and Clk change. Only instances N$58 ... 0 0 0 - - - ...
whose inputs have changed in a given step are N$61 ... 0 0 0 - - - ...
simulated. This is called “event driven simulation”.

...
Time
 Concurrency: Modeling time
Assigning new values to output nets requires a variable amount of CPU time for each simulator step,
depending on how many different signal assignments must be simulated. “Simulator time” is held
constant until all circuit nodes have been simulated and there are no more changes in that step. Only
then does simulator time advance.

Verilog combinational assignments are “continuous”. The left hand side is always driven and new
output values are assigned as soon as the right hand side is evaluated.

Verilog assign statements are “concurrent”. Assigned outputs are updated

immediately after an input changes, regardless of where the assignment
statement appears in the source file.

In the code shown, Y changes immediately after A or B change; X changes

immediately after A or Z change. The assign statements could swap places
in the source file, and there would be no difference in the outputs produced:
 Verilog Concurrency Model
No combinational net should be assigned more than once, because assignment statements are
concurrent and the results will not be determinant. The assign statement on the left will have the
expected results; the example on the right will not.

Memory requires a “procedural assignment” so that a timing signal can be checked. Memory
assignments use the “non-blocking” operator that updates outputs at the end of the simulation step.
Non-blocking procedural assignments can only occur inside an “always” block (described later).

In Verilog, flip-flop outputs are updated after a “procedure” checks for a clock edge. If an edge has
occurred in the current time step, any required output changes take effect at the end of the time step
 Verilog Concurrency Model
Combinational Non-blocking assignments are used for memory. They
Evaluating outputs requires
assignments are are concurrent, and must be inside of an always block.
variable amounts of CPU time, concurrent and take There can be any number of them, but they all take
depending on the number of effect immediately effect at the end of the simulation step.
instances that must be
simulated. “Simulator time” is
held constant during the
simulator time step, until all assign x = ... assign x = ... assign x = ... assign x = ...
assign y = ... assign y = ...
circuit nodes/instances have assign y = ...
assign z = ...
assign z = ... always @ (A)
been simulated and there are begin always @ (B)
no more changes. Only then GRN <= 1'b0 begin
does simulator time advance. If.. BLUE <=...
else if...
Red <=...
end
always @ (B)
begin
CPU
Simulation Step Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Time
Simulation Time 000001 000002 000003 000004

CPU time per simulation step (represented by colored box size) depends on
how much processing is required; it will vary for every step. Simulation Time is
fixed during each Simulation Step, and only increments at the end of the step.
The Verilog Language
Verilog Syntax: Identifiers and Numbers

Identifiers: space-free upper and lower case letters, numbers, _, and $. Can’t
begin with a digit; limited to 1024 characters. Verilog is case sensitive.
Numbers: <size>’ <base> <value>
size: decimal number that specifies number of bits
base: ‘ character followed by b (binary), d (decimal), h (hex)
value: set of digits
Examples:

White Space: Spaces, tabs, and new lines and form feeds can separate words
and are ignored.

Note: If no size is given, a 32-bit decimal number is assumed

Verilog Syntax: Constants and Parameters
Constants: A parameter statement defines local parameters (constants) inside of a
module. Parameters are not visible outside the module. They can be changed without
resynthesizing under certain conditions. Typical uses include defining a bus width, or
specifying a number of modules to synthesize in a variable bus-width design.

Localparam is the same, but constants cannot be changed. Localparam is often used
to define numbers or state identifiers (Localparam is most commonly used).

Global constants (and macros) can be defined using the ‘define keyword. They are
visible outside the module, throughout the project.

Examples:
Verilog Syntax: Operators

+ Add ! Negation > Greater than

- Subtract ~ Bit-wise negation < Less than

* Multiply & Bit-wise And >= Greater or equal

/ Divide | Bit-wise Or <= Lesser or equal

% Modulus ^ Bit-wise Xor == Case equality

<< Shift left && Logical And != Case inequality

>> Shift right || Logical Or ? Conditional

[ ] Bit select { } Concatenation {{ }} Replication

Data types: Nets and Variables
Verilog supports two data types: Net types that describe wires in a design, and Variable types
that can store data.
Net types include wire, tri, supply0 and supply1.
Wires are continuously driven. Wires are assigned a new value using the keyword “assign”.
They transport signals within a module or between modules and I/O pins. Wires can connect
to other wires, to ‘0’ or ‘1’ logic values, to modules, or to I/O pins. Tri is for tristate signals, and
supply0 and 1 are constant 0 and 1 values.
Variable types include reg, integer, real, time, and realtime. Only reg and integer types can be
synthesized (the others are for simulation only). Variables can only be assigned within a
procedural block using blocking (=) or non-blocking (<=) assignments.
The reg variable type is used when a procedure is needed to assign a value (like an if-then
statement). It does not imply a “register” will be synthesized. Synthesis of a reg variable may
result in memory device (flip-flop) or a wire, depending on how the Verilog code is written.

Possible values for reg and wire variables are 0, 1, X (unknown), and Z (high
impedance)
Wires and Assignments
“assign” statements assign values to wires, but not to variable types like reg. “assign”
statements are “continuous assignment” statements, which means they are always active and
take effect immediately. Wires must be declared prior to use with a wire statement. Examples:

All module input signals (ports) must be wires. Wires declared inside a module are not visible
outside that module.
Registers and Assignments
reg variable types are assigned in “procedural assignment” statements; procedural
assignments store their outputs in registers (reg) types. Verilog has two procedural
assignments: “initial”, run once at the start of simulation, and “always”, which always runs.
Registers/memory device outputs can only be assigned within an always block, and they
using the blocking (=) or non-blocking (<=) assignment operator. Wires cannot be assigned in
an always block.
Registers store the last value that was assigned to them (wires store nothing). Reg types are
required for instantiating memory. Registers are declared prior to use with a reg statement.
Examples:

Registers can connect to module outputs, but not to inputs (only wires can connect to module
inputs).
Blocking vs. Non-blocking Procedural Assignments
Reg variables are assigned new values with “blocking” or “non-blocking” assignments.
Blocking assignments (=) are executed in the order they appear, and they take effect
immediately. Non-blocking assignments (<=) are concurrent, and they take effect at the end
of the simulation step (they are called non-blocking because they schedule assignments to
take place at a later time, and so do not block the execution of statements that follow).
Always blocks can define combinational logic, sequential logic, or a mixture of both. If only
combinational logic is defined, then use blocking assignments; otherwise, use non-blocking.
Flip-flops are inferred (created) using an always block that checks for a posedge on clk
(and/or rst). Output values are assigned using a non blocking (<=) assignment.
Do not make assignments to the same variable from more than one always block.
A module can have as many procedural (always) blocks as necessary. Statements in a
procedural block are executed in order, but the blocks themselves are concurrent to other
blocks.
“Initial” procedural blocks are similar to always blocks, but they execute only once at the very
start of a simulation. Initial blocks are used to setup initial conditions for simulation.
Modules
Modules are the principle design entity in Verilog. The
keyword “module” is followed by the module name and
the port list.
The port list names all port signals as inputs, outputs,
or inout (bi-directional). Locally declared wires and regs
are typically declared immediately following the
module/port statement.
Within a module, combinational assignments use the
assign statement, and sequential assignments are
made inside an always block. A module can have any
number of assign statements and always blocks.

After a module is declared, it can be used instantiated

(i.e., used) in other modules by including the module
name and port connection list. “Named port
association” is recommended as shown in the example:
“.modulepinname(localname)”
Always Procedural Block
Procedural assignments define sequential
behavior – that is, events that happen only
under certain conditions.

Always blocks are procedural assignment

statements that are always active throughout
the simulation. They execute anytime a signal
in the sensitivity list changes. A sensitivity list is
a list of signals following the “always” keyword.

The sensitivity list may also contain function

calls, like “posedge(clk)”. Posedge(sig) will
return “true”, and cause the always block to
execute, whenever a positive edge is detected Example: D Flip-flop
on “sig”.

An always block must be used to infer memory

(e.g., flip-flops and latches).
Procedural blocks: If-then and Case statements
If-then and case statements can only appear in procedural
blocks (always blocks). They allow conditions to be checked
prior to taking action, and they use C-like syntax.
If and case statements can be used to infer memory, by
incompletely specifying all possible outcomes of a condition
check. If not all possibilities are specifically covered,
synthesis will generate extra latches.
If and case statements can also be used to define purely
combinational logic, but care must be taken to avoid creating
unwanted memory.
If statements can have one “else” block, but any number of
“else if” blocks. If only one assignment is needed, the begin…
end keywords are not required.
End case statements with “default”, or risk latches.
Procedural blocks: If-then and Case statements

Can you see the difference in the multiplexors?

Will one be purely combinational?

Will one generate latches?

Procedural blocks: If-then and Case statements

Case statement example

Hierarchical design

Cin Cin
Larger digital systems use X[15:0] Cin x0 A
B
Cin
fa1
x0
hierarchical design, with a x
sum
Y[15:0]
Y
sum0

top level module that Y[15:0]

y
Data A Cout
instantiates lower level Cout

modules. x
Cin
x1 A
B
Cin
fa2
y1 Y
sum sum1
Data B
Each module at every level Adder_16bit y
Cout
is designed and tested Digital System Cout
Cin
independently. Leaf modules x
x2 A Cin
fa3
typically use behavioral y
sum y2 B
Y
sum2

design, while higher levels Cout

typically use structural Cin

Cout
x
design. sum x3 A Cin
fa4
B
y y3 Y
sum3
Cout
Cout Cout
Adder_16bit cout

Adder_4bit
Structural Verilog: Using modules as building blocks
Cin
A Cin
x0
B
fa1
x0
This example uses the Verilog “built in” logic Y
sum0
modules of and, or, and xor. These module
instantiations use “positional association”,
which means the order of signals must match Cout

in the module and in the instantiation – they A Cin

x1 fa2
are matched left to right. In this case, the y1 B
Y
sum1
format is output name, followed by inputs.

Cout

A Cin
x2
B
fa3
y2 Y
sum2

Cout

A Cin
x3
B
fa4
y3 Y
sum3

Cout
cout

Adder_4bit
Verilog Multiplexor Examples

Using assign statment

Using a Case statement

Using if statement
Verilog Decoder Examples
Using assign statement

Using a Case statement

Using if statement
Verilog Random Truth Table Using a Case statement

Truth Table
A B C X Y
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1
Using Assign statement
ALU Example
Flip-Flops and Latch
D Flip-flop
Asynch reset

D Flip-flop
Synch reset
State Machine Models

Present
State
Circuit Combo Circuit
Inputs Logic Outputs
Next-State Next State Output Circuit
Logic State Register Logic Outputs
Next
State
Circuit
Inputs Present
State State
Register

Clk Clk
RST
RST
Mealy Model State Machine Combined Model State Machine

Background
State Machines
X
init

X
BELL
pick
Y Y

Z Z
Z
left right

LED1 Z LED1
LED2

This is a common (and good!) way to code

state machines:
1) Choose state codes, define state
localparams, and define ps and ns busses;
2) Use two always blocks – one for next-
state logic (combinational), and one for the
state register; 3) assign outputs.
State Machine (con’t)
X
init

X
BELL
pick
Y Y

Z Z
Z
left right

LED1 Z LED1
LED2

Case statement for FSM on previous

slide
Testbench
A testbench is a separate Verilog source file that is written specifically to
test other Verilog modules. It uses Verilog structures, syntax, and rules,
plus a few extra items that are intended specifically to drive the simulator,
and not to define a circuit.

A testbench is a module. It starts with a module declaration like any other

4-bit adder module statement from earlier
Verilog source file (it is typical to name the module after the module being example (reproduced for reference)
tested. We’re testing the 4bit adder presented earlier, so we added “_tb”
to the original module’s name). The testbench module has no inputs or
outputs – it doesn't need them. Instead, it will connect to the inputs and
outputs of the module being tested.

Next, we instantiate the module to be tested by proving the module name

(adder_4bit) and giving it an instance name (here we use “dut” for “device
under test”), and connect the ports. It is typical to use the same port
names in the testbench module as were used in the dut.

The remainder of the testbench source file drives inputs into the
simulator.
Testbench con’t

A typical testbench uses an “initial block” to drive input signals

with changing logic values over time. Initial blocks are only used
in testbenches – they are not synthesizable.

The characters “ #n “ (where n is a number) that appear prior to

inputs specify simulation delays before signals take the assigned
values. Delays are specified as “n” time scale units that default to
some number – you can optionally set the time scale by including
“ ’timescale 1ns/1ps” in your file (this sets the time step to 1ns,
and the precision to 1ps).

It is often more efficient to use a loop in the testbench to

automatically create larger numbers of test patterns. For example,
to create every possible combination of the 4-bit “x” adder inputs,
the loop shown to the right is an efficient method.
Miscellaneous

Memory Arrays: Verilog models memory as an array of regs. Memories are accessed by providing an
array access. Examples:

Other types: “Integer”, “time”, and “real” are legal Verilog variable types that are used in behavioral
modeling and in simulation, but rarely in sauce code intended for synthesis.