Element of Maths I

CHAPTER ONE
INDICES AND LOGARITHMS
Exponents are used to indicate repeated multiplication

If n is any natural number, then
b n = b  b  b...  b
b appears as a factor n times
b is called the base while n is the exponent or index.
The expression b n is read as; b to the nth power or b to the nth
Law of Indices
The following are laws of indices which are helpful in computations. Students
are therefore, advised to learn these laws and also how to apply them in solving problems.
iii. ( a n ) = a n m
an m
i. a n  a m = a n +m ii. m
= a n−m
a
(ab )n
m
iv. = an bn v. a n = (n a ) m = n a m vi. a 0= 1
n −n n
a an −n 1 a b bn
vii.   = n viii. a = n ix.   =  = n
b b a b a a
1 7
Example Simplify the following, i. 3 2  3 2 ii. 5 2  5 iii. 10000−

7 2 1
3 4
Solution
1 7
(1 + 7 )
i. 3 2  3 2 = 3 2 2 = 3 4
5 2
(5 − 2 ) 2 )
5 2  5 3 = 5 2 3 = 5 ( 2−
5 3
ii.
1
iii. 10000− 4 = (10 4 ) − 4 = 10 −1 =
1 1
10
− 23
 27  a 7  a 10  a 4
Example Simplify the following, (i).   (ii)
 64  a 3  a 18  a 5
Solution
−2 3 − 23
 27   33  a 7  a 10  a 4 a 7 +10+ 4 a 21
i   =  3  ii. = = = a −5
 64  4  a 3  a 18  a 5 a 3+18+ 5 a 26
3 (− 2 3 )
3
= 
4
−2
3
= 
4
16
=
9
Elements of Mathematics I 1
2 1 2
8 3 9 3 4 3
Example Simplify the following; 2

3
12
Solution
2 1 2 2 1 4
8 8 9 3  4 3 (2 3 ) 8  (3 2 ) 8  (2 2 ) 3
2
= 2
12 3 (3 2 2 ) 3
8 4
2 2 3 3  2 3
= 2 4
33  23
10 2
2 3  33
= 2 4
33  23
2
− 2
= 2 3 − 3  33
10 4
3
= 2 2  30
=4
Solving Exponential function
We express both sides in terms of the base or in terms of the exponent, whichever is
appropriate.
Example
Solve 4
x− 3
=8
Solution
4 x−3 = 8
(22 ) x−3 = 23
22 x−6 = 23
The bases are equal, the powers must be equal.
2x − 6 = 3
2x = 9
x = 4.5
Example
Solve ( x + 2)3 = 125
Solution
( x + 2)3 = 125
( x + 2)3 = 53
x+2=5
x=3
Example
Solve the equations.
1
a. 4 2 x −9 = 64 x
b. (2 )
x +3
=
4
Solution
1
a. 4
2 x −9
= 64 b. (2 x ) x +3 =
4
4 2 x−9 = 43 (2 x ) x +3 = 2 −2
x 2 + 3 x = −2
2x − 9 = 3
x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0
2 x = 12 ( x + 2)( x + 1) = 0
x=6 x = −2 or x = −1
Example
Solve the equation 6(9x ) + 3x − 2 = 0
Solution
6(9x ) + 3x − 2 = 0
Let
3x = y  9 x = (32 ) x = y 2
 6 y2 + y − 2 = 0
(3 y + 2)(2 y − 1) = 0
−2 1
y= or
3 2
1 1
 3x =  log 3x = log( )  x log 3 = − log 2
2 2
log 2 0.301
x=− =− = −0.631
log 3 0.4771
Example
Solve the equation 4x − 5  2x + 4 = 0
Solution
( )
4x − 5 2x + 4 = 0
(2 ) − 5(2 ) + 4 = 0
2
x x
let y = 2 x
y2 − 5 y + 4 = 0
( y − 4 )( y − 1) = 0
 y=4 or y = 1
 2 = 1 or 2 x = 4
x
2 x = 20 2 x = 22
 x=0 or x=2
 2 x = 1 or 2 x = 4
2 x = 20 2 x = 22
 x=0 or x=2
EXERCISE
1. Simplify
1 1
27 2  243 2
1 1
6 2  96 4
(i) 4 (ii) 1
243 5 216 4
 8(  4 n+1 9 −(  3n+ 2  81− 4

3 5 1 1
3 )n
(iii) 16 ( 4)n
(iv) 2)n
 12 n+1  27 −( 2 ) n  32( 2 ) n 10( 3 ) n  15( 2 ) n  6 ( 6 ) n  45( 3 ) n

( 12 ) n 1 1 1 1 1 1
(v) 6 (vi)
2. Solve the equations:

1
(i) 2 = 16 (ii) x5 = = 243,
x 4 x−3
, (iii) 3
1024
2(1− x )
(iv) 3 − 28  3x + 3 = 0 (v) 2 + 2 − 5 = 0
2x x+ 2
3. Simplify
1 1 q
p+ 2
( xy )  x 3  2 y 4 x  y 2 p −q
i) 1 ii)
( x10 y 9 )12 ( xy 2 ) p  x q
1
− 23 −1 − 12
(1 + x) 3 − 13 x(1 + x) (1 − x) 12 (1 + x) 2 + 12 (1 − x) (1 + x)
iii) iv)
1− x
2
(1 + x) 3
LOGARITHM
A number, n written in the indices form as,
n = ab ,
can also be expressed in another mathematical form referred to as logarithm as ;
log a n = b
which is read; ‘‘logarithm of n to the base a equals b’’ or ‘‘b is the exponent to
which the base, a must be raised to in order to obtain n ’’.
Note that the base in logarithm plays a crucial role in finding the logarithm of a
particular number because different bases for the same number will give unique
answers. Consider logarithm of 64 to the following bases;
log 2 64 = 6.
log 4 64 = 3.
log 8 64 = 2.
Thus, logarithm of a particular number in different bases gives different answers
For all positive numbers p, where p ≠ 1, y = log p x is equivalent to x = p y .
We use the abbreviation log for logarithm. The function y = log p x (equivalently, x = p y ) is
called the logarithmic function of x with base p. We read y = log p x as “y is the logarithm of
x with base p”.
The expressions
x = p y and y = log p x
Define the same function, and as such can be used interchangeably.
Example
Change each logarithmic form to an equivalent exponential form
1 1
i) log 2 8 = 3 ii) log 25 5 = iii) log3   = −2
2 9
Solution
i) log 2 8 = 3  23 = 8
1
1
ii) log 25 5 =  25 2 = 5
2
1 1
iii) log3   = −2  3−2 =
9 9
Example
Change each exponential form to an equivalent logarithmic form
i) 82 = 64 ii) 3 = 9
Solution
i) 82 = 64  log8 64 = 2
1
ii) 3= 9  3 = 92
1
 log 9 3 =
2
Example
Find x in the following logarithmic equations;
(a) log 5 x = 3 (b) log 2 0.25 = x
Solution
a) x = 53 b) 0.25 = 2 x .
x = 5 5 5
1
= 125 0.25 = = 2x
4
−2
2 = 2x
x = –2
Laws of Logarithm
i. log a ( m  n ) = log a m + log a n

ii.. log a m n = n log a m
m
iii.. log a   = log a m − log a n
n
iv. log a 1 = 0
v. log a a = 1
vi. Change of base
Let p, a and x be positive real numbers and a  1 , p  1 . Let n be any real number.
Then
log p x
log a x =
log p a
All these laws can be proved. The proofs are left out as a challenge to the student
Examples
log3 (3  4) = log3 3 + log3 4
 15 
log10   = log10 15 − log10 18
 18 
log10 57
log 3 57 =
log10 3
Example
Write the expression as the sum or difference of logarithms of x, y, and z. Assume all
variable expressions within the logarithms represent positive real numbers.
 xy 3   x+ y 
b. log 
 10 
a. log 3  2 
 z   
Solution
xy 3
a. log 3 ( 2 )
z
= log 3 ( xy 3 ) − log 3 ( z 2 )
= [log3 ( x) + log3 ( y 3 )] − log3 ( z 2 )
= log3 ( x) + 3 log3 ( y) − 2 log3 ( z)

 x+ y 
b. log  = log x + y − log(10)
 10 
 
= log( x + y ) 2 − 1
1
1
= log( x + y ) − 1
2
SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
Example
Solve for x if log 10 (8x + 1) − log10 (2 x + 1) = log10 ( x + 2)
Solution
log 10 (8x + 1) − log10 (2 x + 1) = log10 ( x + 2)
8x + 1
log 10 = log10 ( x + 2)
2x + 1
8x + 1
= ( x + 2)
2x + 1
8x + 1 = 2 x 2 + 5x + 2
 2 x 2 − 3x + 1 = 0
(2 x − 1)( x − 1) = 0
1
 x = ,1
2
1
S = { x : x = , 1}
2
Example
Solve for x if log 10 (2 x − 1) − log10 (3x − 2) − log10 x = 0
Solution
log 10 (2 x − 1) − log10 (3x − 2) − log10 x = 0
2x − 1
log 10 =0
x(3 x − 2 )
2x − 1
=1
x(3 x − 2 )
2 x − 1 = 3x 2 − 2 x
3x 2 − 4 x + 1 = 0
(3x − 1)( x − 1) = 0
1
 x = ,1
3
Example
Without using table or calculator, find the truth set of x given that
2 1
2 log = log x − log18 + log16
3 2
Solution
2 1
2 log = log x − log18 + log16
3 2
4 1
log + log18 − log16 = log x 2
9
 4  18  1
log   = log x 2
 9  18 
1 1
= x2
2
1
 x=
4
 1
S = x : x = 
 4
Example
Solve the following system of equation
x + y = 25
log10 x + log10 y = 2
Solution
x + y = 25........(1)
log10 x + log10 y = 2.......(2)
From (2)
log10 xy = 2
 xy = 100
100
y=
x
100
Substitute for y in (1)
x
100
x+ = 25
x
x 2 + 100 = 25 x
x 2 − 25 x + 100 = 0
( x − 5)( x − 20) = 0
x − 5 = 0 or x − 20 = 0
x = 5 or x = 20
100
where x = 5 , y = = 20
5
100
where x = 20 , y = =5
20
CHAPTER TWO
LINEAR EQUATION
Definition
A linear equation or first degree equation is any equation which contains no higher powers than
the first of x and y, and is of the type y = ax + b where a and b are both constant (real numbers).
Any linear equation can be written in standard form ax + by + c = 0 . Where a, b, and c are all
constants.
E.g.
y = 2x
2x − y + 4 = 0
x y
+ =2
2 3
Definition (b)
A linear equation in one variable x is any equation that can be written in the form ax + b = 0 .
Where a, and b are constants.
An example of a linear equation in one variable is 2 x + 3 = 24
Graph of Linear equation

The graph of a Linear equation is always a straight line. To draw the graph of a linear equation
we do not need to plot all points, but two points are plotted and a straight line is drawn through
them. The distance between these two points should be a little bit wider. A third point is used
as a cross check.
E.g.
y = 4 + 2x
Let x = 0, y=4 hence we have the point (0,4)
When x = 3, y = 4 + 2(3) = 10 hence the point (3,10)
Using these two points the graph below is drawn for the line y = 4 + 2 x
10 x
x
6
40 1 2 3 4 5
Distance between two points

a) On a number line: x − y absolute sign.
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The distance between two points on a number line can be found by using absolute values
Let A and B be two points on the number line with co-ordinate a and b respectively. Then the
distance between A and B is the absolute value of a − b
i.e. a − b or b − a
E.g. The above numbers a − b or b − a is the distance (or length) and is always positive.
The distance between -3 and 5 is 5 − (−3) = 8 = 8 or −3−5 = −8 = 8
The shortest distance between two points is the straight line joining them.
WITH COORDINATE PLANE

Distance between two points
Let A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x2 , y 2 ) be two points in a rectangular coordinate system and let AB
represent the distance between these two points.
AB 2 = AN 2 + BN 2
AB = AN 2 + BN 2
= ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2
= ( x1 − x 2 ) 2 + ( y1 − y 2 ) 2
Examples
Find the distance between
a. A(2,7) and B(7,11)
b. C(-3,15) and D(-6,0)

 1 −5  3 
c. E  ,  and  , −6 
2 3  2 
Solution
a. AB = (7 − 2) 2 + (11 − 7) 2
= 52 + 4 2 = 25 + 16
= 41 =6.403
b. AB = {−6 − (−3)}2 + (0 − 15) 2
= (−3) 2 + (−15) 2 = 9 + 225
= 234 =15.297
(−5) 
2 2
3 1 
c. EF =  −  +  − 6 − 
2 2  3 
 − 13 
2
169
= (1) +   = 1+
2
 3  9
=4.4472
Mid-point of a straight
It is the point which divides the line joining two points, into two equal parts. Let M ( x , y ) be
the mid-point of line AB. Then
x − x1 = x2 − x
 2 x = x1 + x2
x + x2
x= 1
2
Similarly y − y1 = y2 − y
 2 y = y1 + y 2
y + y2
y= 1
2
Hence the coordinates of mid-point is given by
 x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
 , 
 2 2 
Co-Ordinates of a Point Dividing a Line into a Given Ratio
Let p divides AB into the Ratio of a : b
AP MN a x − x1 a
= =  =
PB NL b x2 − x b
b( x − x1 ) = a( x2 − x)
bx − bx1 = ax2 − ax
(a + b) x = bx1 + ax2
bx + ax2
x= 1
a+b
AP EF a y − y1 a
= =  =
PB FG b y2 − y b
b( y − y1 ) = a( y2 − y)
(a + b) y = by1 + ay2
by + ay2
y= 1
a+b
Hence the coordinates of the Point Dividing a Line into the Ratio a : b is given by
 bx1 + ax2 by1 + ay2 
 a+b , a+b 
 
Examples
Find the mid-point of the straight line joining the following pairs of points
i) A ( 2, 7 ) and B ( 6, 11)
ii) C ( −3, 15) and D ( −6, 0 )
Solution
 2 + 6 7 + 11 
i) Mid-point of AB =  , 
 2 2 
 8 18 
=  ,  = ( 4, 9 )
2 2 
ii) Mid-point of CD
 −3 + (−6) 15 + 0 
= , 
 2 2 
 −9 15 
= ,  = ( −4.5, 7.5 )
 2 2
EXERCISES
1. Find the lengths of the straight lines joining the following Pairs of points:
a) A(1,2) and B (5,2), b) C(3, 4) and D(7, 1),
c) E(- 2, 3) and F (4,3), d) G (6, 1) and H(6, 6),
e) J(-4, -2 and K(3, -7), f) L(-2, -4) and M (- 10, -10).
2. Find the coordinates of the mid-points of the lines AB, CD, etc., in No. 1 above.
3. Find the distance of the point (15, 8) from the origin.
4. P, Q, R are the points (5, -3), (-6, 1), (1, 8) respectively. Show that triangle is isosceles,
and find the coordinates of the mid-point of the base,
5. A and B are the points (12, 0) and (0, -5) respectively. Find the length of AB, and the
length of the median, through the origin O, of the triangle OAB.
SLOPE or GRADIENT
The gradient of a straight line joining the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) is given by
y − y1
Slope = 2 provided x1  x2
x 2 − x1
The tangent of the angle  is given by

y − y1
tan  = 2 = gradient
x 2 − x1
The gradient of a straight line can also be defined as the tangent of the angle the line makes
with the positive x-axis. The angle is measured anticlockwise (positive) from the x-axis to the
line.
Gradient of parallel lines
L1
L2
Suppose lines L1and L2 above are parallel.

Then  = 
 tan  = tan 
Hence their gradients are equal. That is parallel lines have equal gradients
Gradient of perpendicular lines
L2
L1
A N C
Let the two straight lines L1 and L2 intersect at right angle at the point B, and their
corresponding gradients be m1 and m2 , then
Gradient of line L1 = tan  = m1
Gradient of line L2 = tan  = m2
But  = 90 + 
 tan  = tan(90 +  )
−1 1
= − cot  = =−
tan  m1
1
 m2 = −
m1
 m1 m2 = −1
If two lines are perpendicular, then the product of their gradients is -1.
Angle between Two Straight Lines
L2 L1
 = + 
 = − 
tan  = tan( −  )
tan  − tan  m − m2
= = 1
1 + tan  tan  1 + m1 m2
 m1 − m2 
 = tan −1  
 1 + m1 m2 
Example
Find the gradient of the straight line joining the following pairs of points
d. A ( 2, 7 ) and B ( 7, 11)
e. C ( −3, 15) and D ( −6, 0 )
1 −5  3 
f. E ,  and F  , −6 
2 3  2 
Solution
11 − 7 4
i) slope = =
7−2 5
0 − 15 − 15
ii) slope = = =5
− 6 − ( −3) −3
 −5 
−6 −  
iii) Slope =  3 
3 1
−
2 2
5 −18 + 5
−6 +
3 3 −13
= = =
1 1 3
Exercises
1. Find the gradients of the lines joining the following pairs of points:
a. ( 4, 3) and ( 8, 12 ) b. ( −2, −3) and ( 4, 6 )
c. ( 5, 6 ) and (10, 2 ) d. ( −3, 4) and (8, 6 )
e. ( 0,
a ) and ( a, 0 ) f. ( 0, 0) and ( a, b )
2. A and B are the points (3, 4) and (7, 1) respectively. Calculate the gradients of OA and
AB, and find their product.
FORMING LINEAR EQUATION

To form linear equation, we must have
i) a known point on a line, and
ii) gradient of the line
If the known point is ( x1 , y1 ) and the gradient is m then the equation is given by
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
where y1 is the known coordinate on the y axis and x1 is the known coordinate on the x-axis.
Example
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 4 and passes through point ( 2, 5 ) .
Solution
The known point is ( 2, 5 )
Hence the equation is given by
y − 5 = 4( x − 2)
Simplify: y − 5 = 4 x − 8
y = 4x − 3
Example
Find the equation of the straight line through (1, 4) and (5,7).
Solution
The gradient was not given, but we use gradient formula to calculate it.
7−4 3
Gradient m = =
5 −1 4
Any one of the two known points is used for the equation
y − 7 = 34 ( x − 5)
4 y − 28 = 3x − 15
4 y = 3 x + 13
3 x − 4 y + 13 = 0
Exercises
1. Find the gradients of the straight lines joining the following pairs of points:
a) (4, 6) and (9, 15) b) (5, -11) and (-1, 3)
c) (− 2 2 ,− 2 ) and (4 2 ,−1)
1 1 1 d) (7,0) and (-3, -2)
2. Find the gradients of the straight lines which make the following angles with the x-axis, the
angle in each case being measured anti-clockwise from the a) 45o, b) 135o, c)
o o
60 , d) 150 .
3. Find if AB is parallel or perpendicular to PQ in the following cases:

a) A(-6, -1), B(-6, 3), P(2, 0), Q(2, -5);
b) A(4, 3), B(-7, 3), P(5, 2), Q(5, -1);
c) A(3, 1), B(7, 3), P(-3, 2), Q(1, 0).
1. Show that A(-3, 1), B(1, 2), C(0, 1), D(-4, -2) are the vertices of a parallelogram.
2. Find the y-coordinates of the points on the curve y = x2 + 1 for which the x-coordinates are
3, 0, 1, 5. Find the coordinates of points on the curve whose y-coordinates are 5, and 17.
3. Determine whether the following points lie on the given curve:

a) y = 3x − 5, (−1, −8) b) 5 x − 2 y = 7 x + 2, (−1,0)
c) y = x , (−4,64)
3
d) x 2 y = 1, (2, 14 )
7. Find the intercepts on the axes made by the straight

line 3x − 2 y + 10 = 0.
8. Write down the equation of the straight line

a) through (5, 11) parallel to the x-axis,
b) which is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining (2, 0) and (6, 0),
c) through (0, - 10) parallel to the y = 6x + 3,
d) through (0, 2) parallel to y + 8x = 0,
e) through (0, - 1) perpendicular to 3x – 2y + = 0.
9. Find the equation of the straight line joining the origin to the mid-point of the line joining
A(3, 2) and B(5, - 1).
10. A is the point (5, 8) . Find the co-ordinates of B, which is the image of A in the line
2 y = x + 1. If A and B are opposite vectors of a square, find equations of any two adjust
sides of the square.
SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

The process of solving a linear equation involves writing a series of equivalent equations. The
last of the equivalent equations should be in the form
x=d
where d is constant.
Our goal in solving equation is to isolate the variable. The variable may be isolated on the left
side of the equation or on the right side of the equation.
Equivalent Equations
Equations that have the same solution are said to be equivalent equations. To solve an equation
means to find all of the solutions to the equation
The addition and multiplication properties of equality are used to produce equivalent equations
Addition property of equality
For all real numbers a, b and c
If a = b then a + c = b + c
The same real number may be added to both sides of an equation without changing its solution
set.
Example
Solve 9 + x = −2
Solution
We can remove the 9 from the left side by adding -9 to each side or by subtracting 9 from each
side of the equation:
9 + x = −2
9 + x − 9 = −2 − 9 Subtracting 9 from each side.
x = −11 Simplifying each side
Multiplication property of equality
For all real numbers a , b and c (where c  0 )
If a = b then ac = bc
The same non zero real number may be multiply on both sides of an equation without changing
the solution set.
Since subtraction is defined in terms of addition, and division is also defined in terms of
multiplication, these properties can be extended to include subtraction and division
Subtraction property of equality
For all real numbers a, b , and c
If a = b then a − c = b − c
The same real number may be subtracted from both sides of an equation without changing the
solution set.
Division property of equality
For all real numbers a, b and c (where c  0 )
a b
If a = b then =
c c
The same non zero real number may be dividing both sides of an equation without changing
the solution set.
Equation with One Unknown

The unknown is made the subject of the formula. That is, to obtain an equivalent equation with
x isolated on the left side and a number on the other side.
Example
Solve for x if 2 x + 3 = 15
Solution
2 x + 3 = 15
2 x + 3 − 3 = 15 − 3 Subtracting 3 from both sides.
2 x = 18
2 x 18
= Dividing both sides by 2
2 2
x=9
Example
3x − 4 = 2 − 6 x
3x − 4 + 6 x = 2 − 6 x + 6 x Adding 6x to both sides
9x − 4 = 2
9x − 4 + 4 = 2 + 4 Adding 4 to both sides
9x = 6
9 6
x= Dividing through by 9
9 9
2
x=
3
In some equations, we must simplify one or both sides before using the properties of equality.
Example
Solve 2( x − 4) + 5 x = −22
Solution
2( x − 4) + 5 x = −22
2 x − 8 + 5x = −22 Using distributive property on the left side
7 x − 8 = −22
7 x − 8 + 8 = −22 + 8 Adding 8 to both sides.
7 x = −14
7 x − 14
7 7
x = −2
Solving a Linear Equation Containing Fractions

We multiply both sides by the LCM
Example
x−4 x 8
Solve + =−
5 3 5
Solution
x−4 x 8
+ =−
5 3 5
 x−4 x  8
15 +  = 15 −  Multiplying both sides by the LCM, 15
 5 3  5
3( x − 4) + 5 x = 3(−8)
3x − 12 + 5x = −24 Using distributive property on the left side
8x − 12 = −24
8x − 12 + 12 = −24 + 12 Adding 12 to both sides.
8x = −12
8 x − 12
8 8
3
x=−
2
Example
Solve 4x 2 + 4 = 2x + 1
Solution
Get rid of  sign by squaring both sides
( 4 x 2 + 4 ) 2 = (2 x + 1) 2
4 x2 + 4 = (2 x + 1)(2 x + 1)
4x 2 + 4 = 4x 2 + 4x + 1 2
Subtracting 4x from both sides
4 = 4x + 1
3 = 4x
3
x=
4
Linear Equation with No Solution

If a contradiction is obtained in solving an equation, then the equation has no solution. That is
the solution set is empty. Such equation is called an inconsistent equation.
Example
Solve − 6(1 − x) − 4 x = 7 + 2 x
Solution
− 6(1 − x) − 4 x = 7 + 2 x
− 6 + 6x − 4x = 7 + 2x
− 6 + 2x = 7 + 2x
−6 = 7
Contradiction, hence there is no solution. No value of x satisfies the original equation
Linear Equation with infinitely many solutions

If a linear equation is satisfied by all real numbers, then the equation has infinitely many
solutions. A statement in the form a = a (such as 5 = 5 ) is obtained in solving such equations.
Example
Solve 3x − 3(2 − x) = 6( x − 1)
Solution
3x − 3(2 − x) = 6( x − 1)
3x − 6 + 3x = 6 x − 6
6x − 6 = 6x − 6
− 6 = −6
We have a trivial solution of equality, − 6 = −6. the left and right sides are equal regardless of
what number is substituted for the variable. Hence the solution set consists of the set of all real
numbers: x : x  R
Worded problems
Many practical problems can be solved using algebraic techniques; however, there is no one
method that will work for all. We can formulate a strategy that will help us solved such
problems.
Strategy for solving worded problems
1. Read the problem carefully until you have understood it; know what is given and what is
to be found.
2. Let one of the unknown quantities be represented by a variable, say x, and try to represent
all other unknown quantities in terms of x, if possible.
3. Draw figures or diagrams and label known and unknown parts, if appropriate.
4. Think of a formula (or formulae) connecting known quantities to the unknown quantities.
5. Form an equation relating the unknown quantities to the known quantities.
6. Solve the equation and write answers to all questions asked in the problem.
7. Check and interpret all solutions in terms of the original problem.
Example
Find four consecutive even integers such that the sum of the first three exceeds the fourth by
eight.
Solution
Let x represent the first even integer, then, since even integers increase by 2 the four numbers
are
x, x + 2, x + 4, and x + 6
The sum of the first three is more than the fourth by 8, which means the sum of the first three
equals the fourth plus 8.
i.e. x + ( x + 2) + ( x + 4) = ( x + 6) + 8
3x + 6 = x + 14
2x = 8
x=4
The four consecutive even integers are 4, 6, 8 and 10.
Example
The price of a dress is reduced by 40%. When the dress is not bought, it is reduced by 40% of
the reduced price. If the price of the dress after both reductions is ¢648,000, what was the
original price?
Solution
Let x = the original price of the dress. Implied within this problem is the following statement.
Original 1st 2nd Equal Final

Minus Minus
price Reduction Reduction to price
x - 0.4x - 0.4( x − 0.4 x) = 648,000

Hence, the problem mathematically is
x − 0.4 x − 0.4( x − 0.4 x) = 648,000
x − 0.4 x − 0.4 x + 0.16 x = 648,000
x − 0.64 x = 648,000
100 x − 64 x = 64,800,000
36 x = 64,800,000
64,800,000
x=
36
x = 1,800,000
Hence the original price was ¢1,800,000
Exercises
1. 5x + 3 = 18 2. 4 x − 14 = 50
3. 25 − 6 x = −83 4. 9(5 x − 2) = 45
5. 10(3x + 2) = 70 6. 5 x − (2 x − 10) = 35
x−4 x 8
7. 11x − (6 x − 5) = 40 8. + =−
5 3 5
x−4 x 8 x−4 x 8
9. + =− 10. + =−
5 3 5 5 3 5
11. Find a number such that 10 less than two-thirds the number is one-fourth the number.
12. Find a number such that 6 more than one-half the number is two-thirds the number.
13. Find four consecutive even integers such that the sum of the first three is 2 more than twice
the fourth.
14. Find three consecutive even integers such that the first plus twice the second is twice the
third.
15. The sale price on a camera after a 20% discount is GH¢72, what was the price before the
discount?
16. One employee of a computer store is paid a base salary of GH¢ 2,150 a month plus an 8%
commission on all sales over GH¢7,000 during the month. How much must the employee
sell in 1 month to earn a total of GH¢3,170 for the month?
17. A real estate agent receives a commission of 6% of the selling price of the house. What
should be the selling price so that the seller can get GH¢67,500,000
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Linear Equation
A linear equation in any arbitrary number of unknowns, say x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xn equal to
b. Such as the equation
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn = b
where a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., a n , b are real numbers. The numbers ai are called the coefficients
of xi and b is a real number called the constant term of the equation. An n-tuple of real numbers
 = (k1 , k 2 , ..., k n ), is a solution set of the above equation if, on substituting ki for xi, the
statement
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn = b is true.
 = (3, 2, 1, 0) is a solution of the equation x + 2 y − 4 z + w = 3 since 3+ 2(2) – 4(1)
+ 0 =3 or 3 =3 is a true statement.
On the other hand,  = (1, 1, 2, 2) is not a solution of the equation since 1+ 2(1) –
4(2) + 2 = -3
-3 ≠ 3
A linear equation is said to degenerate if the coefficients of the unknowns are all zero. There
are two cases:
i) the constant not zero, 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 +…… 0 xn = b
There is no solution to this linear equation.
ii) the constant is also zero, 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 +…… 0 xn = 0

then every n-tuple of real numbers is a solution of the equation.
Systems of Linear Equations
A system of m equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 ,....., xn is of the form
a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + a13 x3 + ..... + a1n x n = b1 
a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + a 23 x3 + .... + a 2 n x n = b2 

.... .... ..... ..... ..... ................(1)
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 

a m1 x1 + a m 2 x 2 + a m 3 x3 + .... + a mn x n = bm 
where the aij, bi are real numbers. An n-tuple of numbers  = (k1 , k 2 , ..., k n ) which
satisfies all the equations is called a solution of the system.
We reduce the system equation (1) to a simpler system which is equivalent to the original
system, (ie. has the same solutions).
Linear System of Equations in Two Variables

If we have two or more linear equations, then those equations together is call a system of linear
equations or simultaneous linear equations
The solution set of a system of equations in two variables is the set of all ordered pairs of values
(a, b) that satisfy every equation in the system.
Simultaneous linear equations may be solved using one of following:
a. graphical method
b. substitution method
c. elimination method
i) Solving linear equations by graphical method
If we graph a system of linear equations, any point where the lines intersect (meet) is a solution
of both equations. The coordinates of such a point give the solution of the system.
Example
Solve the following system of equations
2x + y = 4
2 x − 3 y = −4
The solution set of the
system of equations
ii) Solving linear equations by substitution method

a) Solve one of the equations for one variable in terms of the other.
b) Substitute the expression found in (a) into the other equation. This will result in an equation
in one variable.
c) Solve the equation obtained in (b).
d) Using the value obtained in (c) find the remaining variable.
Example
Solve by substitution method
5x − 4 y = 9
x − 2 y = −3
Solution
5x − 4 y = 9 ...............(1)
x − 2 y = −3 ..........(2)
From (2), x = 2 y − 3
Substituting 2 y − 3 for x in (1), we obtain
5(2 y − 3) − 4 y = 9
10 y − 15 − 4 y = 9
6 y − 15 = 9
6 y = 24
y=4
But x = 2 y − 3  x = 2(4) − 3 = 5
iii) Solving linear equations by elimination method

a) Write both equations in standard form: ax + by = c
b) Multiply one or both equations by nonzero constants to create opposite coefficients
for one of the variable.
c) Add the equations from (b) to eliminate one variable.
d) Solve for the remaining variable.
e) Substitute the known value found in (d) into one of the original equations to solve
for the other variable.
f) Check the solution in both equations.
Example
Solve the system by elimination method
4x + 5 y = 2
3x = 1 − 4 y
Solution
4 x + 5 y = 2 .......(1)
3x + 4 y = 1 .......(2) writing in the standard form
We may choose to eliminate either variable. To eliminate x , change the coefficients to 12 and
-12.
12 x + 15 y = 6 .......(1a) multiplying (1) by 3
−12 x − 16 y = −4 ....(2a) multiplying (1) by -4
−y = 2 adding (1a) and (2a)
y = −2
Substituting -2 for y in one of the original equations and solve for x.
4 x + 5(−2) = 2
4 x − 10 = 2
4 x = 12
x=3
Example
Solve the system by elimination method
1 1
x − y =1
5 2
−4 x + 12 y = −24
Solution
1 1
x − y = 1 .....(1)
5 2
−4 x + 12 y = −24 .....(2)
10  (1); 2 x − 5 y = 10 .....(1a) clearing fractions
1
 (2); −2 x + 6 y = −12 .....(2a)
2
(1a ) + (2a); y = −2
Substituting -2 for y in one of the original equations and solve for x.
1 1
x − (−2) = 1
5 2
1
x +1 = 1
5
1
x=0
5
x=0
Linear System In Three Or More Variables
Backward substitution
The method of elimination can be used in solving a system of equations involving more than
two variables. In using the method of elimination the system of equation is written in such a
manner to make it possible for the application of the backwards substitution.
Consider the following system of equation;

x − 2y + 3z =9
−x + 3y = −4
2x − 5y + 5z = 17
This can be written in the form
x − 2y + 3z =9 ..........(1)
+ y + 3z = 5 ...........( 2)
z = 2 ...........(3)
so that from (3) it is known that z = 2
putting z = 2 into (2)
y + 3(2) =5
y = -1
also putting the value of z and y into (1)
we obtain
x – 2(-1) + 3(2) = 9
x=1
thus the solution is x = 1, y = -1 and z = 2 which can be written as order of triple (1, -1, 2).
Gaussian Elimination
The Gaussian elimination method of solving a system of linear equation is normally applied
on equivalent system of equations, i.e. having the same solution set. The Gaussian elimination
method particularly involves the following basic operations that produce equivalent system.
a) Interchange equations
b) Multiply one of the equations by a nonzero constant.
c) Add a multiple of one of the equation to another equation to replace the latter equation.
Example
Use the method of elimination to solve the following system of linear equations.
3x − 2y = −1
x − y =0
Solution
The equations in the system can be interchanged.
x − y = 0 ..............(1)
3x − 2y = −1...............(2)
Multiply (1) through by-3 so as to eliminate x from the system
− 3x + 3 y = 0
Subtracting (2) from the new equation, we get

− 3x + 3y = 0
3x − 2 y = −1
y = −1
Now the system becomes
x– y= 0
y = -1
Thus x – (-1) = 0, x = -1
Hence the solution to the system of equation is

x = -1 and y = -1
Example
Using elimination, solve the following system of linear equations
x − 2y + 3z =9 ..........(1)
−x + 3y = −4 ...........(2)
2x − 5y + 5z = 17 ...........(3)
Solution
Using the Gaussian Elimination and hence the backward substitution, we maintain the x in (1)
and try to eliminate the xs in (1) and (2)
i.e.
x − 2y + 3z =9 Adding (1) to (2) to obtain
+y + 3z = 5 ...........(2 ) / the new equation
2x − 5y + 5z = 17
multiply (1) by -2 add
x − 2y + 3z =9 results to (3) to obtain
+y + 3z =5 the new equation
−y −z = −1 ..............(3 / )
Now that all ‘x’s [except x in (1)] is eliminated we move to the second column and work from
(2/) to eliminate y.
x − 2y + 3z =9
Adding (2/) to (3/) to
+ y + 3z =5
obtain the new equation
2z = 4 ............(3 // )
Thus z = 2, y = -1 and x = 1
Inconsistent system
In some cases a system of linear equations may have no solution. That is, it becomes impossible
to find the solution variable of the system of equation. A system of equations in this form is
known as Inconsistent system.
Example
Solve the following system of linear equations
x − 3y +z =1 ..........(1)
2x −y − 2z =2 ...........(2)
x + 2y − 3z = −1 ...........(3)
Solution
x − 3y +z =1 ..........(1)
2x −y − 2z =2 ...........(2)
x + 2y − 3z = −1 ...........(3)
Adding -2(1) to (2)
x − 3y +z =1 to obtain the new
5y − 4z =0 equation
x + 2y − 3z = −1
x − 3y +z =1
5y − 4z =0
5y − 4z = −2
x − 3y +z =1
5y − 4z =0
0 = −2
The third equation is impossible to solve, thus it is inconsistent,
since 0z  -2.
A system with infinitely many solutions

In some cases a system of equations may be such that there is no unique solution to the system,
thus it may be having infinitely many solutions
Example
Solve the following system of linear equations
x + y − 3z = −1 ..............(1)
y −z = 0 ...............(2)
−x + 2y = −1................(3)
Solution
x + y − 3z = −1
y −z =0
−x + 2y =1
x + y − 3z = −1
y −z =0
0 =0
This means that (3) depends on (1) and (2) in the sense that it gives us no additional information
about the variables. Thus the original system is equivalent to the system
x + y − 3z = −1
y−z =0
In the last equation we can solve for y in terms of z to obtain y = z. Backward substituting for
y into the previous equation produces
x = 2z − 1
Now let z = a thus the solution to the given system is of the form
x = 2a − 1 y = a, z = a where a is a real number
Example
For what value of c does the following system of equations has solution. Find the solution.
x +3 y +4 z = 8
x +4 y +7 z = 4
2x +y −7 z =c
Solution
x +3 y +4 z =8
x +4 y +7 z = 4
2x +y −7 z =c
x +3 y +4 z =8
y +3z = −4
−5 y −15 z = c − 16
x +3 y +4 z =8
y +3z = −4
0 = c − 36
For the system to have solution c − 36 = 0  c = 36
Assuming for z , y = −4 − 3z and x = 8 − 4 z − 3 y = 8 − 4 z − 3(−4 − 3z) = 20 + 5 z
Exercise
Solve the following system of linear equation using the backward substitution method.
2x + 4y − 10 z = −2 3x + 5y −z = −7
1. 3x + 9y − 12 z =0 2. x +y −z = −1
x + 5y − 12 z =1 2x + 11z =7
− 2x +y − 3z = −7 x −y =0
3. x − 9y +z =0 4. 3x + 2y =7
x − 3y −z =1 x −z = −1
x + 2 y − 4 z = −4 5 x − 3 y + 2 z = −6
5. 5x − 3y − 7z =6 6. 2x −y + 3z =9
3x − 2 y + 3z = 11 4 x − 2 y + 4 z = −8
x1 − x2 + 3x3 − 2x4 = 1
− 4x + 8y + 10 z = −6
− 2 x1 + 4 x 2 − 3x + x 4 = 0.5 8. 6x − 12 y − 15 z =9
3x1 − x2 + 10 x 3 − 4 x 4 = 2.9
− 8 x + 14 y + 19 z = −8
4 x1 − 3x 2 + 8 x3 − 2 x 4 = 0.6
CHAPTER THREE
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Quadratic Functions
A function f is a quadratic function if there are real numbers a, b, and c with a 0, such that
the function value for f is given by
f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c .
That is, a quadratic function is a function that has a defining equation of the form
y = ax 2 + bx + c .
The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.
The expression ax 2 + bx + c is a real number for all real numbers.
Hence the domain of a quadratic function is the set of all real numbers.
Quadratic Equations
If a, b, and c are real numbers, a0, and if f (x) = 0 then the quadratic function
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c is the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Definition
An equation of the type ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants and a0 is called the
standard form of a quadratic equation. A quadratic equation may also be called second-degree
polynomial equation.
Factors
Thus is to rewrite the left side of the standard form of a quadratic equation as the product of
two linear factors lets start with particular situations
a) If a = 1 then ax 2 + bx + c = 0 becomes
x 2 + bx + c = 0
We find two numbers that multiply to give c and at the same add up to give b.
ie. If c = c1  c2 and b = c1 + c2
Then x 2 + bx + c = 0 is
(x + c1 )(x + c2 ) = 0
Examples
i) x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0
6 = 1 x6 but 1+6  5
6 = (− 2)(− 3) , but − 2 + (− 3)  5
6=2x3 and 2+3=5
Hence x 2 + 5 x + 6 = 0 is the same as
(x + 2)(x + 3) = 0
ii) x − 6x + 5 = 0
2
5 = −1  (− 5) and − 1 + (− 5) = −6
hence x 2 − 6 x + 5 = 0 in factors form is
(x − 1)(x − 5) = 0
iii) x 2 − 7 x + 10 = 0
10 = (−2)(−5) and (−2) + (−5) = −7
x − 7 x + 10 = 0 in factors form is
2
(x − 2)(x − 5) = 0
(b) If a1 but c = 1, the equation is of the from ax 2 + bx + 1 = 0
We find two numbers that multiply to give us a and add up to b. i, if a = a1 a 2 and
a1 + a2 = b . Then ax 2 + bx + 1 = 0 in the factor form is
(a1 x + 1)(a2 x + 1) = 0
Examples
i) 6 x 2 + 5x + 1 = 0
6 = 23 and 5= 2+3
hence 6 x + 5 x + 1 = 0 in the factor form is
2
(2 x + 1)(3x + 1) = 0
ii) 15 x 2 − 8 x + 1 = 0
15 = (−3)(−5) and − 8 = −3 + (−5)
(− 3x + 1)(− 5x + 1) = 0
(−1)(3x − 1)(− 1)(5x − 1) = 0
(3x − 1)(5x − 1) = 0
(c) Let us consider the general situation where a1 and c1, that is ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Let d = a  c suppose d = d1d2 and b = d1+ d2. express bx as d1x + d2x in the expression
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 which becomes ax 2 + d1 x + d 2 x + c = 0 we then factorize the latter
expression.
Example
2x 2 + 7x + 6 = 0
d = ac = 12 = 3  4 and 3 + 4 = 7
Hence we have
2 x 2 + 4 x + 3x + 6 = 0
2 x( x + 2) + 3( x + 2) = 0
(2 x + 3)( x + 2) = 0
ZERO (ROOTS)
To solve a quadratic equation is to find its zeros (roots). These are the values of the variable
which makes the statement ax 2 + bx + c = 0 true.
There are three basic techniques for solving quadratic equations. These are factoring, the
quadratic formula and graphical method.
a) FACTORING
To use this technique, we express the standard form of the quadratic equation in its
factors and set each factor equal to zero.
Example
1) Solve x 2 − 3x − 10 = 0
Solution
x 2 − 3x − 10 = 0
(x + 2)(x − 5) = 0 factoring
x + 2 = 0  x = −2
x −5 = 0  x = 5
Example
2) Solve (x − 1)(x + 1) = 5(x − 1)
Solution
(x − 1)(x + 1) = 5(x − 1)
This is not the standard form. One side of the equation must be zero before finding the factors.
x 2 + x − x − 1 = 5x − 5
x 2 − 1 = 5x − 5
x 2 − 5x + 5 − 1 = 0
x 2 − 5x + 4 = 0
(x − 4)(x − 1) = 0 factoring
x−4=0 x = 4
x −1 = 0  x = 1
Equation to the type ax 2 + c = 0

Lets consider equations in which b = 0 , that is equation ax 2 + c = 0 . In other words, equations
in which ax 2 equals some constant. In order to solve equations of this type we often need to
take the square root of both sides of the equation
Consider the equation

x2 = k where k is a real number.
If k is negative, then there are no real roots, we have complex roots.
Example
An equation like 4 x 2 + 9 = 0 has no real solution.
If k is positive, then we have real roots (real solution).
1) Solve 4 x 2 − 36 = 0
Solution 4 x 2 − 36 = 0
x2 − 9 = 0
4 x 2 = 36
(x − 3)(x + 3) = 0
x2 = 9 x −3 = 0  x = 3
x = 3 x + 3 = 0  x = −3
b) EXTRACTING SQUARE ROOTS

Solving an equation of the form u 2 = d without going through the steps of factoring is called
extracting square roots.
The equation u 2 = d where d  0 , has exactly two solutions
u = d and u = − d
These solutions may be written as u =  d .
Example
Solve 3x 2 − 16 = 0
Solution
3x 2 − 16 = 0
3 x 2 = 16 Adding 16 to both sides
16
x2 =
3 Dividing through by 3
16 16
x2 = or x 2 = −
3 3
4 4
x= or x = −
3 3
Example
Solve (2 x − 7 ) = 50
2
Solution (2 x − 7 )2 = 50
2x − 7 =  50
= 5 2
2x = 7  5 2
7 5
x=  2
2 2
7 5 7 5
x= + 2 or x= − 2
2 2 2 2
Equation of type ax 2 + bx = 0
When c = 0 (but a  0, b  0) , we can factor ax 2 + bx = 0 as x(ax + b ) and use the principle of
zero products.
x(ax + b ) =0
x = 0 or ax + b = 0
x = 0 or ax = −0
b
x = 0 or x = −
a
Example
Solve 3 x 2 + 5 x = 0
Solution 3x 2 + 5 x = 0
x(3x + 5) = 0
x=0
3x + 5 = 0  3x = −5
−5
x=
3
Example
13
The sum of a number and its reciprocal is . Find all such numbers.
6
Solution
1
Let x be the number, then its reciprocal is
x
13
Their sum is
6
1 13
 x+ =
x 6
6 x + 6 = 13x
2
6 x 2 − 13x + 6 = 0
(2 x − 3)(3x − 2) = 0
 2 x − 3 = 0 or 3x − 2 = 0
3 2
x= or x =
2 3
Example
The sum of a numbers is 23 and their product is 132. Find the two numbers.
Solution
If one of the numbers is x, then the other is 23 – x. their product is 132
Their product is 132
 x(23 − x) = 132
23x − x 2 = 132
x 2 − 23x + 132 = 0
(x − 11)(x − 12) = 0
 x − 11 = 0 or x − 12 = 0
x = 11 or x = 12
Example
Solve x = x + 2
Solution
x = x+2
x2 = ( x + 2)2  x2 = x + 2
 x2 − x − 2 = 0
(x + 1)(x − 2) = 0
 x = −1 or x = 2
Example
Solve 2 x + 3 − x − 2 = 2
Solution
2x + 3 − x − 2 = 2
2x + 3 = 2 + x − 2
( 2 x + 3) 2 = (2 + x − 2) 2
2x + 3 = 4 + 4 x − 2 + x − 2
2x + 3 = x + 2 + 4 x − 2
x +1 = 4 x − 2
x 2 + 2 x + 1 = 16( x − 2)
x 2 − 14 x + 33 = 0
(x − 3)(x − 11) = 0
 x = 3 or x = 11
Example
Solve x 3 − x 3 − 6 = 0
2 1
Solution
(x 3 )2 − (x 3 ) − 6 = 0
2 1
Let y = x
1
3
y2 − y − 6 = 0
( y − 3)(x + 2) = 0
 y = 3 or y = −2
If y = 3
x1 3 = 3
x = 33 = 27
if y = −2
x 1 3 = −2
x = ( −2 ) 3 = − 8
c) METHOD OF COMPLETING SQUARES

A quadratic expression x 2 + px + q that is said to be a perfect square if
2
 p
q= 
2
2 2
 p  p
If q =   in the expression x 2 + px + q then x 2 + px + q =  x + 
2  2
The goal of completing the square is to express a quadratic equation in the form (x + d ) = e
2
and then apply the square root method.
Example
Find the value of c that makes x 2 + 14 x + c a perfect square.
Solution
14
Step1. Find half of 14. That is =7
2
Step2. Square the result of step 1. 7 2 = 49
Hence, the value of c for which x 2 + 14 x + c a perfect square is 49.
Hence the expression is x 2 + 14 x + 49
Notice that x 2 + 14 x + 49 = (x + 7 )
2
Example
Solve x 2 + 6 x − 16 = 0 by completing square.
Solution; x 2 + 6 x − 16 = 0 not a perfect square
2
to complete square   = 9 is added to each side

6
x 2 + 6 x = 16
2
x 2 + 6 x + 9 = 16 + 9
(x + 3) = 25
x + 3 =  25
= 5
That is x = −3 + 5
x = −3 + 5 or x = −3 − 5
=2 = −8
Example
Solve the equation y 2 − 8 y = 4 by completing square
Solution: y2 − 8y = 4
 −8  −8
2 2
y − 8y + 
2
 = 4+ 
 2   2 
y − 8 y + 16 = 4 + 16
( y − 4 )2 = 20
y − 4 =  20
y = 4 =  20
y = 4 + 20 or y = 4 − 20
Example
Solve by completing the square
2 x 2 + 5x − 4 = 0
Solution: 2 x 2 + 5x − 4 = 0
2 x 2 5x 4 0
+ − =
2 2 2 2
5
x2 + x − 2 = 0
2
5
x2 + x = 2
2
2 2
5 5 5
x + x+  = 2+ 
2
2 4 4
2
 5 25 57
x+  = 2+ =
 4 16 16
5 57
x+ x=
4 4
5 57
x= 
4 4
QUADRATIC FORMULA
Let us now consider the general quadratic equation with unspecific coefficients.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , a0
We can solve it by completing the square. Make the coefficient of x 2 one by dividing through
by a.
b c
x2 + x + = 0
a a
−c
Adding to both sides of the equation
a
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
2 2
b  b  c  b 
Completing square of the left side, we have x + x+  = − + 
2
a  2a  a  2a 
2 2
b b c b
x2 + x + 2 = − + 2
a 4a a 4a
2
 b  2
b c
x+  = 2 −
 2a  4a a
b 2 − 4ac
2
 b 
x+  =
 2a  4a 2
 b  b 2 − 4ac
x + =
 2a  4a 2
b 2 − 4ac
=
2a
b b 2 − 4ac
x=− 
2a 2a
− b + b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
− b − b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Example
Solve the following by completing squares
(i) x 2 − 3x − 6 = 0 (ii) x + 3 = 143 − x
1 3 5
(iii) + = (iv) 2 x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
x x−2 8
Examples
Solve the following
(i) x + 3 x − 10 = 0
(ii) (x 2
− 1) − (x 2 − 1) − 2 = 0
2
(iii) (x 2
− x ) − 14 (x 2 − x ) + 24 = 0
2
Solution
(i) x + 3 x − 10 = 0
Let y = x  x = y 2
Hence we have
y 2 + 3 y − 10 = 0
( y + 5)( y − 2) = 0
 y + 5 = 0  y = −5
y−2=0 y = 2
when y = −5
x = (− 5) = 25
2
when y = 2
x = 22 = 4
(ii) (x 2
− 1) − (x 2 − 1) − 2 = 0
2
let y = x 2 − 1
 (x 2 − 1) − (x 2 − 1) − 2 = 0
2
becomes
y2 − y − 2 = 0
( y − 2)( y + 1) = 0
 y−2=0 or y +1 = 0
 y=2 or y = −1
when y = 2  x − 1 = 2
2
 x2 = 3
x= 3
when y = −1  x 2 − 1 = −1
 x2 = 0

Hence the solution set x = 0,− 3, 3 
(iii) (x 2 − x ) − 14(x 2 − x ) + 24 = 0
2
Let u = x 2 − x
 the equation becomes
u 2 − 14u + 24 = 0
(u − 12)(u − 2) = 0
 u − 12 = 0 or u−2=0
 u = 12 or u=2
if u = 12 , then
 u 2 − u = 12
 u 2 − u − 12 = 0
(u − 4)(u + 3) = 0
u =4 or u = −3
if u = 2 , then
 u2 − u = 2
 u2 − u − 2 = 0
(u − 2)(u + 1) = 0
u =2 or u = −1
Hence the solution x = − 1,2,−3,4
THE DISCRIMINANT
The expression b 2 − 4ac in the quadratic formula is known as discriminant. From this we can
determine the nature of the solutions of a quadratic equation.
An equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 with a  0 and all coefficients real numbers has
(i) Exactly one real root solution if b 2 − 4ac = 0 (ie repeated roots)
(ii) Two real roots if b 2 − 4ac 0
(iii) Two complex roots (ie no real root) if b 2 − 4ac 0
Calculate the discriminant of the following quadratic equations and state the nature of each of
the roots
(i) 3x 2 + 5 x − 1 = 0
(ii) 49 x 2 + 42 x + 9 = 0
(iii) 2 x 2 + 8x + 9 = 0
(iv) 2x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0
Example
State the value of the discriminant and determine the nature of the equation
(i) 2 x 2 + 10 x + 11 = 0
a = 2 , b = 10 and c = 11
b 2 + 4ac = (10) − 4(2)(11)
2
= 100 − 88
= 12
Since b 2 − 4ac 0, the equation 3x 2 + 4 x + 2 = 0 has two real roots.
Determine the value of k such that each quadratic equation has the indicated number of real
roots
(i) kx 2 + kx + 36 = 0 , 1 (ii) x 2 + 8 x + k = 0 , 2
(iii) kx 2 + 5 x = 1 ,0 40
(iv) kx 2 + = 4x , 1
3
Sum and Product of Roots

Suppose the roots of a quadratic equation are known to be -3 and 8
If x = −3 then x + 3 = 0
If x = −8 then x − 8 = 0
The quadratic equation whose roots are -3 and 8 may be written as
(x + 3)(x − 8) = 0
 x + 3x − 8 x − 24 = 0
2
x 2 − 5 x − 24 = 0
Suppose we want to find the sum and the product of the roots of this equation then,
sum of the roots = − 3 + 8 = 5
= negative Coefficient of x
product of the roots = (− 3)(8)
= −24
= the constant term
let  and  be the roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 then the equation may be
written as (x− )(x −  ) = 0
 x 2 −  x − x +   = 0
 x2 − ( +  ) x +  = 0 ........(1)
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,
b c
 x 2 + x + = 0 ........(2)
a a
Comparing equations (1) and (2)
− ( +  ) =
b
a,
b
 + = −
a
c
 =
a
b
Hence for the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , the sum of the roots is − , and the product of the
a
c
roots is − .
a
Hence quadratic equation may be written as x 2 − (sum of roots) x (Product of the roots) = 0
Examples
Find the sums and products of the roots of the equation.
(i) 2 x 2 − 11x + 3 = 0
(ii) t (t − 1) = 3
(iii) 3x 2 − 7 x + 6
Solutions
(i) 2 x 2 − 11x + 3 = 0
11 3
 x − x+ =0
2 2
 −11  11
sum of roots = −   =
 2  2
3
products of roots =
2
(ii) t (t − 1) = 3
 t2 −t −3 = 0
sum of roots –(-1) = 1
product = -3
Examples
Find the quadratic equation whose roots are
−2
(i) 3 and
5
(ii) 2 + 5 and 2 − 5
Solutions
−2
= 3 =
5
Sum of roots =  + 
−2
= 3 +  
 5 
2 13
=3 − =
5 5
−2 −6
Product =  = 3 =
 5  5
Hence the equation
13 6
x2 − x − = 0
5 5
 5 x − 13x − 6 = 0
2
(ii) = 2 + 5 and  = 2− 5
 +  = (2 + 5) + (2 − 5) = 4
(
  = 2+ 5 2− 5 )( )
= 4 – 5 = −1
Hence the equation

x + (− 4)x + (− 1) = 0
x 2 − 4x − 1 = 0
EXERCISES
1. Determine the nature of the solutions of each equation
i) x 2 − 6 x + 9 = 0 ii) x 2 − 10 x + 25 = 0
iii) x 2 − 10 x + 25 = 0 iv) x 2 + 7 = 0
v) 4 x 2 − 12 x + 9 = 0 vi) 9t 2 − 3t = 0
1 3 9
vii) y 2 = y + viii) y 2 + y = 4 y
2 5 4
ix) 4 x − 4 3x + 3 = 0
2
2. Without solving, find the sum and product of the roots of the following.
i) x2 − 7x + 8 = 0 ii) x 2 − 2 x + 10 = 0
4 x 2 − 12 x + 2 = 0 iv) 2 x − 1 = (1 − 5 x )
2
iii)
5(t − 3) = 4(t + 3)
2 2
v)
1. Find a quadratic equation for which the sum and product of the roots are as given.
1 1
i) Sum = -5; product = ii). Sum = -π; product =
2 4
iii) sum = 3 ; product = 8 iv). Sum= 5; product = − 2
4. Find the quadratic equation whose roots are the following.

i) − 11 , 9 ii) −4, 4
iii) 7 (only solution) iv) − 5 (only solution)
2 6 1 1
v) − , vi) − , −
5 5 4 2
c d
vii) , viii) − 3 , 2 3
d 2
5. If the roots of equation 2 x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0 are  and  , find the values of

i)  2 +  2 ii)  2 −  +  2
1 1
iii) + iv) ( + 1)( + 1)
 
2 2
v)  2  +  2 vi) +
 
6. If the roots of the equation x 2 − 7 x + 8 = 0 are ,, find equations whose roots are
a) 2, 2; b)  + 1,  + 1; c) 2, 2.
7. The roots of the equation 2 x 2 − 4 x + 1 = 0 are , . Find equations with integral coefficients
whose roots are
a)  - 2,  -2; b) 1/, 1/; c) /, /.
8. Find an equation, with integral coefficients, whose roots are the squares of the roots of the
equation 2 x 2 + 5 x − 6 = 0 .
9. The roots of the equation x2 − 6 x + q = 0 are  and  - 1. Find the value of q.
10. The roots of the equation x2 − px + 8 = 0 are  and  + 2 . Find two possible values of p.
11. The roots of the equation x2 + 2 px + q = 0 differ by 2. Show that p 2 = 1 + q.
12. If the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are , , find expressions in terms of a, b, c for
a) 2 + 2 b) 2 + 2
c)  + 
3 3
d) 1/ + 1/
e) /  + / f) 4 + 4
CHAPTER FOUR
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
A polynomial function in one variable of say x, is an expression of the form
f (x ) = a0 x 0 + a1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + ..... + a n x n + ...
where a0 , a1 , a2 ,....., an ,... are constants (or real numbers) and are called the coefficients of the
function. The exponents (powers) of x are non-negative integers.
Examples
i) f (x ) = 18x 3 − 34 x 2 + 16x + 9
ii) h( y ) = 5 − y + 4 y 3 − 3 y 4
Degree of the Polynomial Function

The highest power n of the polynomial function is known as its degree.
Examples
Determine the degree of each of the following polynomials.
i ) − 11x 4 − x 3 + x 2 + 3 x − 9
ii)1 + t + t 3 − 3t 2
Solution
The degree of − 11x 4 − x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 9 is 4
Since the highest power is 4.
Similarly, the degree of 1 + t + t 3 − 3t 2 is 3
Special Cases
Linear and quadratic functions are first - and second – degree polynomial functions
respectively.
i.e. f (x ) = ax + b , a  0 linear function
f (x ) = ax + bxc , a 0
2
quadratic function
f (x ) = ax + bx + cx + d , a  0 cubic function
3 2
The expressions like

i) 5x − xy 2 + 7 y + 2
ii) 15x 3 y 2
iii) 9 xy 2 z − 4 x 3 z − 14x 4 y 2
are polynomials in general variables.
The degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of all the terms.
Example
Determine the degree of each term and the degree of the polynomial
6x 2 + 8x 2 y 3 − 17 xy − 24xy 2 z 4 + 2 y + 3
Solution
Term 6x 2 8 x 2 y 3 − 17 xy − 24 xy 2 z 4 2y 3
Degree 2 5 2 7 1 0
The degree of the polynomial = the highest degree of the terms

=7
Examples
Which of the following is a polynomial?
i) − 2 x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2
ii) x 2 − 3x
iii) x 2 + 5 x −1
Solution
− 2 x 3 + x 2 + 3x − 2 i.e. a polynomial of degree 3.
x 2 − 3x is not a polynomial because the radical sign indicates a non integer power of x.
x 2 + 5 x −1 is not a polynomial because of the negative exponent.
EXERCISE
1. An open box is made by cutting squares from the corners of a piece of metal that is 18
inches by 26 inches, and folding up the sides. If the edge of each cut-out square is x inches,
find the volume as a polynomial in standard form.
2. Determine the degree of the following polynomials

i) − 11x − x + x + 3x − 9
4 3 2
ii) t 3 + 3t 2 + t + 1
ii) y + 2 y + x y − 8
3 6 2 4
iii) u + 3v − u v − 7
2 5 3 4
iv) 8 p 6 + 2 p 4 t 4 − 7 p 3t + 5 p 2 − 14
v) a 5 + 4a 2 b 4 + 6ab + 4a − 3
Arithmetic of Polynomial function

In this text we shall be dealing with polynomials with one variable.
1. Additions
If two terms of a polynomial are raised to the same powers, the terms are said to be
“Similar” or “Like” terms. Like terms can be combined using the distributive property.
Examples
5x 6 + 15x 6 = (5 + 15) x 6
= 20x 6
Examples
Simplify
5 x 2 + 3x 4 + 2 x 2 + x 4
Solution
5 x 2 + 3x 4 + 2 x 2 + x 4 = 5 x 2 + 2 x 2 + 3x 4 + x 4 Grouping like terms
= (5 + 2) x 2 + (3 + 1) x 4
= 7x 2 + 4x 4
Example
If f ( x) = 3x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 and h( x) = 15x 5 + 9 x 4 − 2 x 3 + 10
Add f (x) and h(x)
Solution
f ( x) + h( x) = (3x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 ) + (15x 5 + 9 x 4 − 2 x 3 + 10)
= 3x 5 + 15 x 5 + 9 x 4 + x 3 − 2 x 3 + 5 x 2 + 10
= (3 + 15) x 5 + 9 x 4 + (1 − 2) x 3 + 5x 2 + 10
= 18 x 5 + 9 x 4 − x 3 + 5 x 2 + 10
This can be done by adding the coefficients of the like terms after arranging the function in
ascending or descending powers of the variables with the like terms in the same column. The
above example becomes
3x 5 + x3 +5x 2
+ (15x5 +9x 4 −2x 3 +10)
18x5 +9x 4 − x3 +5x 2 +10
SUBTRACTION
Similarly, subtraction is done by finding the difference between like terms using distributive
properties.
Examples
If f ( x) = 3x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 and h( x) = 15x 5 + 9 x 4 − 2 x 3 + 10
Find h( x) − f ( x)
15x5 +9x 4 −2x 3 +0 +10

− (3x5 + x3 +5x 2
+0 +0)
12x 5
+9x 4
−3x 3
−5x 2 +10
MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication of polynomial is based on the distributive law. To multiply two polynomial
functions, we multiply each term of one by each term of the other and then add the results.
Example
Multiply 3x 3 + 4 x 2 + 7 by x 2 + 2
Solution
3x 3 + 4 x 2 + 7
x ( x 2 + 2)
6 x 3 + 8 x 2 + 14
3x + 4 x 4 + 7 x 2
5
3x 5 + 4 x 4 + 6 x 3 + 15 x 2 + 14
DIVISION
We recall that a  b = c if and only if b  c = a we call a the dividend, b the divisor and c the
a
quotient. We may also refer to a  b and as quotient. We can find the quotient of polynomials
b
by a long division process (method) similar to that used in arithmetic.
Example
Divide 5 + 4 x −3x by 2 x − 3
3
Solution
Arrange the dividend and the divisor in descending powers of the variable. You may insert
with 0 coefficients, any missing terms less than the degree of the polynomial.
2 x − 3 4 x 3 + 0 x 2 − 3x + 5
Divide the first term of the dividend (4 x3 ) into the first term of the divisor (2 x) .This is obtained
by finding an expression when multiplied by the first of the divisor will give the first term of
the dividend (2 x 2 ) . Multiply the divisor by the result (2 x 2 ) , line up like terms.
2 x 2 + 3x + 3
2 x − 3 4 x 3 + 0 x 2 − 3x + 5
−(4 x3 − 6 x2 ) multiplying 2 x − 3 by 2x 2
6 x 2 − 3x bringing the next term( −3x )
−(6 x 2 − 9 x)
6x + 5 bringing the next term( 5 )
−(6 x − 9)
14 remainder
Subtract as in arithmetic and bring down the next term. Repeat the process until the degree of
the reminder is less than that of the divisor.
Thus
4 x 3 − 3x + 5
= 2 x 2 + 3x + 3 Remainder 14
2x − 3
4 x 3 − 3x + 5 14
ie = 2 x 2 + 3x + 3 +
2x − 3 2x − 3
Example
Divide 6 x 2 − 30 + 9 x 3 by 3x − 4
Solution
3x 2 + 6 x + 8
3x − 4 9 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 30
(
− 9 x 3 − 12 x 2 )
2
18x
(
− 18x 2 − 24 x )
24 x − 30
− (24 x − 32)
2 Remainder
Thus
6 x 2 − 30 + 9 x3 2
= 3x 2 + 6 x + 8 +
3x − 4 3x − 4
Division Algorithm
From the above two examples
4 x 3 − 3x + 5 14
i) = 2 x 2 + 3x + 3 +
2x − 3 2x − 3 ,
Multiplying both sides by 2 x − 3 we attained
4x3 − 3x + 5 = (2 x − 3)(2 x2 + 3x + 3) + 14
9 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 30 2
ii) = 3x 2 + 6 x + 8 +
3x − 4 3x − 4
Multiplying thro by 3x − 4 we have 9 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 30 = (3x − 4)(3x + 6 x + 8) + 2
It therefore follows that

Dividend = Divisor x Quotient + Remainder
Division Algorithm (Theorem)
For each polynomial P(x) of degree greater than 0 and each number r, there exists a unique
polynomial Q( x) of degree 1 less than that of P(x) and a unique number R such that
P( x) = ( x − r )Q( x) + R
The polynomial Q(x) is called the quotient, x − r is the divisor and R is the remainder.
R may by zero
EXERCISES
1. Let P(x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 2 x + 8
a) Evaluate P(x) for

i. x = -2 ii x = 1 iii x = 3
b) Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by

i. x + 2 ii. x – 1 iii. x - 3
2. Find the quotient and remainder when 2 x 4 − 5 x 2 + 6 x − 9 is divided by x -2
Zeros and Roots
The number r is said to be a zero of the function P, or a zero of the polynomial P(x) or a solution
or root of the equation P(x)=o, if P(r) = o
A zero of a polynomial may or may not be the number o. A zero of a polynomial is a number
that makes the value of the polynomial o. If the coefficient of the polynomial P(x) are real
numbers, then a real zero is simply an intercept for the graph of y = P(x)
Factor Theorem
The division algorithm
p( x) = ( x − r )Q( x) + R
May be written in a form where R is replaced by P(r)

P(x) = (x-r)Q(x) +P(r)
If x − r factor of P(x) then remainder P(r) = o and x-r =o. Hence r is a zero of the polynomial
P(x)
The factor theorem states that if r is a zero of the polynomial p ( x ) , then x – r is a factor of
p ( x). Conversely, if x − r is a factor of p ( x ) , then r is a zero of P(x)
EXERCISE
1. Find the remainders when

a) x 3 + 3 x 2 − 4 x + 2 is divided by x − 1
b) x 3 − 2 x 2 + 5 x + 8 is divided by x + 2
c) x5 + x − 9 is divided by x + 1
d) x3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2 ,
e) 4 x3 − 5 x + 4 is divided by 2 x − 1
f) 4 x3 + 6 x 2 + 3x + 2 is divided by 2 x + 3
2. Find the values of a in the expressions below when the following conditions are satisfied
x3+ax2 +3x-5 has remainder -3 when divided by x-2,
x3+x2 +ax+8 is divisible by x-1
x3+x2-2ax+a2 has remainder 8 when divided by x-2,
x4-3x2+2x+a is divisible by x+1,
x3 – 3x2+ax+5 has remainder 17 when divided by x-3,
x +4x4-6x2+ax+2 has remainder 6 when divided by x+2
5
CAPTER FIVE
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
For a and b real numbers, if there exists a positive real number p such that a + p = b (or
b − a = p ) then we say that a is less than b or b is greater than a and write
a  b or b  a
The inequalities symbols < and > have a clear geometric interpretation on the number line.
If a  b, then a is to the left of b on the number line and if c  d , then c is to the right of d .
a b d c
If x is a variable such that x  b, then x is always less than b and never equals to b . If it is
possible for x to be equals to b then we write
x  b,
and read as x is less than or equal to b
If x  b, then x is always greater than b and never equals to b . If it possible for x to be

equals to b then we write
a  b,
and read as x is greater than or equal to b
Trichotomy property.
For any two real numbers a and b , either a  b, or a  b, or a = b. This property of real
numbers is called trichotomy property.
Double (compound) Inequality
If a and b are real numbers such that a  b, then x  a and x  b is written as a  x  b. This is
known as double inequality or compound inequality. This means x is between a and b. The
numbers a and b are endpoints. a is the left endpoint and b is the right endpoint.
Properties of inequalities
For real numbers a , b and c :
1. if a  b, and b  c, then a  c. transitive property

2. if a  b, then a + c  b + c. addition property
3. if a  b, then a − c  b − c. subtraction property
4. if a  b and c is positive, then
i) ac  bc Multiplication property
a b
ii)  Division property
c c
5. if a  b and c is negative, then
i) ac  bc Multiplication property
a b
ii)  Division property
c c
These properties hold for each inequality sign. As you might have notice that:
The order of the inequality reverses if we multiply or divide both sides of an inequality
statement by a negative number.
Solving linear inequalities
We can perform essentially the same operations on inequalities as perform on equations.
Example
Solve 7 x − 8  4 x + 7
Solution
7 x − 8  4x + 7
7x − 8 + 8  4x + 7 + 8 adding 8 to both sides
7 x  4 x + 15
7 x − 4 x  4 x − 4 x + 15 subtracting 4x from both sides
3x  15
3x 15
 dividing both sides by 3
3 3
x5
Example
Solve 2(2 x + 3) − 10  6( x − 2)
Solution
2(2 x + 3) − 10  6( x − 2)
4 x + 6 − 10  6 x − 12
−2 x − 4  −12
−2 x  −8
x4
Example
2x − 3 4x
Solve +6  2+
4 3
Solution
2x − 3 4x
+6  2+
4 3
2x − 3 4x
12  + 12  6  12  2 + 12  multiply both sides by 12
4 3
3(2 x − 3) + 72  24 + 4  4 x
6 x − 9 + 72  24 + 16 x
6 x + 63  24 + 16 x
−10 x  −39
x  3.9 Dividing through by -10 changes the sign ≥to ≤
Solving double inequality
We proceed as before, except that we try to isolate the variable in the middle with a coefficient
of one.
Example
Solve 16  7 − 3x  31
Solution
16  7 − 3x  31
16 − 7  7 − 7 − 3x  31 − 7
9  −3x  24
9 −3x 24
 
−3 −3 −3
−3  x  −8
Example
Find the solution sets of the inequality
x2 − x − 2  0
Solution
x2 − x − 2  0
( x − 2)( x + 1)  0
Method I
Either x − 2  0 and x + 1  0
or
x − 2  0 and x + 1  0
If x − 2  0 and x + 1  0
x  2 and x  −1
( (
-1 0 1 2 3
Solution set = {x  2}
If x − 2  0 and x + 1  0
x  2 and x  −1
) )
-1 0 1 2 3
Solution set = {x  −1}
The solution set of the given inequality is the union of the two solution sets above
{x  R : x  −1}  {x  R : x  2}
Method II
We sketch the graph of y = ( x − 2)( x + 1) . The sections of the curve above the x -axis is the
solution set.
-1 2
From the graph, the solution set is {x  R : x  −1}  {x  R : x  2}
Method III
Let f ( x) = ( x − 2)( x + 1)  0
f ( x) = 0 at x = 2 , and x = −1
We look for the signs of f ( x) for the ranges of values of x  −1 , between -1 and 2, and
above 2.
x  −1 −1  x  2 x2
x−2 − − +
x +1 − + +
Sign of f ( x) + − +
Solution set is {x  R : x  −1}  {x  R : x  2}
Example
Find the solution set of the inequality
x +1
2
x−2
Solution
x +1
2
x−2
We square both sides to remove the absolute sign
( x + 1) 2
4
( x − 2) 2
Multiply through by ( x − 2)2
( x + 1)2  4( x − 2)2
( x + 1)2 − 4( x − 2)2  0
{( x + 1) − 2( x − 2)}{( x + 1) + 2( x − 2)}  0
(− x + 5)(3x − 3)  0
−3( x − 5)( x − 1)  0
( x − 5)( x − 1)  0
1 5
Solution set is {x  R : x  1}  {x  R : x  5}
Applications
We use the same strategies for solving worded problems under equations.
Example
An electronics firm is planning to market a new graphing calculator. The fixed costs are
GH¢650,000 and the variable costs are GH¢47 per calculator. The wholesale price of the
calculator will be GH¢63. For the company to make a profit revenues must be greater than
costs. How many calculators must be sold for the company to
i) make profit?
ii) Break even?
Solution
Let x = the number of calculators needed to be sold.
Variable costs per calculator = GH¢47
For x calculators, total variable costs = 47x
Total costs = fixed costs + total variable cost
= 650, 000 + 47x
For x calculators sold, total revenue = 63x
i) For profit, total revenues must be greater than total costs
i.e. 63x  650, 000 + 47 x

16 x  650, 000
650, 000
x
16
x  40625
That is, for the company to make profit more than 40625 calculators need to be sold.
ii) For break even, total revenues must be equals to total costs
i.e. 63x = 650, 000 + 47 x

16 x = 650, 000
650, 000
x=
16
x = 40625
That is, 40625 calculators need to be sold for the company to break even.
Example
Yeboah sells electronics machines and his salary is GH¢250 plus a 4% commission on sales.
How much money in sales does Yeboah need to earn a salary that exceed GH¢400?
Solution
Let x = Yeboah’s sales, then
His salary = 250 + 0.04x
His salary exceeding GH¢400
 250 + 0.04 x  400
0.04 x  400 − 250
0.04 x  150
150
x
0.04
x  3750
EXERCICES
1. An electronic firm is planning to market a new graphing calculator. The fixed costs are
GH¢650,000 and the variable costs are GH¢50.5 per calculator. The wholesale price of the
calculator will be GH¢63. For the company to make a profit, it is clear that revenues must
be greater than costs.
(a) How many calculators must be sold for the company to make a profit?
(b) How many calculators must be sold for the company to break even?
2. A video game manufacturer is planning to market a 64-bit version of its game machine.
The fixed costs are GH¢550,000 and the variable costs are GH¢120 per machine. The
wholesale price of the machine will be GH¢140.
(a) How many game machines must be sold for the company to make profit?
(b) How many game machines must be sold for the company to break even?
(c) Discuss the relationship between the results in parts (a) and (b).
3. The video game manufacturer in problem 2 finds that unexpected programming problems
increase the fixed costs to GH¢660,000.
(a) Discuss possible strategies the company might use to deal with this increase in costs.
(b) If the company continues to sell the game machine for GH¢140, how many must they
sell now to make a profit?
(c) If the company wants to start making a profit at the same production level as before the
cost increase, by how much should they increase the wholesale price?
MA
4. A person’s IQ is given by the formula IQ = 100 , where MA is mental age and CA is
CA
chronological age. If 80  IQ  140 for a group of 12-year-old children, find the range of
their mental ages
5. If an individual aged 65-69 continues to work after social security benefits start, benefits
will be reduced when earnings exceed an earning limitation. In 1989, benefits were reduced
by GH¢1 for every GH¢2 earned in excess of GH¢8,880. Find the range of benefit
reductions for individuals earning between GH¢13,000 and GH¢16,000.
Linear inequalities in Two Variables
A linear inequality in two variables is an inequality of the form:
ax + by  c , ax + by  c, ax + by  c, or ax + by  c
A graph is often the most convenient way to represent the solution set of inequality in two
variables.
Half-planes
The graph of a linear equation is a straight line which divides a plane into two halves called
half-planes. A vertical line divides a plane into left and right half-planes while a non vertical
line divides a plane into upper and lower half-planes
Left half-plane Right half-plane
Upper half-plane
Lower half-plane
Graphing Linear Inequalities in Two Variables

The graph of a linear inequality
ax + by  c or ax + by  c
with b  0 , is either the upper half-plane or lower half-plane (but not both) determined by the
line ax + by = c
If b = 0 , then the graph of
ax  c or ax  c
is either the left half-plane or the right half-plane (but not both) determined by the line ax = c
To draw the graph of any inequality ( ax + by  c ) the following steps are taken:
1. the graph of the corresponding equation of the inequality is drawn
2. choose a test point anywhere in the plane not on the line and substitute the coordinates
into the inequality. The origin ( 0, 0 ) is often used if the line is not passing through it.
3. the graph of the original inequality includes the half-plane containing the test point if
the inequality is satisfied by that point, or the half-plane not containing that point if the
inequality is not satisfied by that point.
Example
Solve the inequality 2 x − y  4
Solution
The graph of 2 x − y = 4 is drawn
-1 0 1 2 3
-1
-2
-3
-4
Convenient test point is chosen; here the best test point is origin ( 0, 0 ) . Substituting ( 0, 0) into
the inequality 2 x − y  4
2(0) − 0 = 0  4
The half-plane containing the test point ( 0, 0) satisfies the given inequality, hence is the solution
set.
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities Graphically

Solving system of linear inequalities graphically is to find the graph of all ordered pairs of real
numbers ( x, y ) that simultaneously satisfy all the inequalities in the system. The region that
satisfies all the inequalities in the system is called Solution Region (solution set or feasible
region). It is the intersection of all the graphs of the inequalities in the system.
Example
Solve the following system of linear inequalities graphically
x+ y 6
2x − y  0
Solution
First, draw the line x + y = 6 and shade the region that satisfies the inequality x + y  6 .
Then draw the line 2 x − y = 0 , on the same graph sheet, and shade the region that satisfies the
inequality 2 x − y  0 . The solution region is the intersection of the two regions.
y
10
Solution region
5
A (2, 4)
x
0 2 4 6 8 10
Corner point
A corner point of a solution region is the intersection of the lines that form the boundary of a
solution region.
The point A (2, 4) is the only corner point of the solution region of example above.
Example
Solve the following system of linear inequalities graphically, and find the corner points.
2 x + y  22
x + y  13
2 x + 5 y  50
x0
y0
30
20
10A B
Solution set C
x
0 E 10 D 20 30
The corner point are A ( 0, 10 ) , B(5, 8), C (9, 4) , D(11, 0) and E ( 0, 0 ) .
Bounded and Unbounded Solution Regions
A solution region of a system of linear inequalities is bounded if it can be enclosed within a
defined region, otherwise it is unbounded.
EXERCICES
1. A furniture manufacturing company manufactures dining room tables and chairs. A table
requires 8 labour-hours for assembling and 2 labour-hours for finishing. A Chair requires
2 labour-hours for assembling and 1 labour-hour for finishing. The maximum labour-hours
available per day for assembly and finishing are 400 and 120, respectively. If x is the
number of tables and y is the number of chairs produced per day, write a system of
inequalities that indicates appropriate restraints on x and y. Find the set of feasible solutions
graphically for the number of tables and chairs that can be produced.
2. A farmer can buy two types of plant food, mix A and mix B. Each cubic yard of mix A
contains 20 pounds of phosphoric acid, 30 pounds of nitrogen, and 5 pounds of potash.
Each cubic yard of mix B contains 10 pounds of phosphoric acid, 30 pounds of nitrogen,
and 10 pounds of potash. The minimum requirements are 460 pounds of phosphoric acid,
960 pounds of nitrogen, and 220 pounds of potash. If x is the number of cubic yards of max
A used and y is the number of cubic yards of mix B used, write a system of inequalities that
indicates appropriate restraints on x and y . Find the set of feasible solutions graphically for
the amount of mix A and mix B that can be used.
3. A dietician in a hospital is to arrange a special diet using two foods. Each ounce of food
M contains 30 units of calcium, 10 units of iron, and 10 units of vitamin A. Each ounce of
food N contains 10 units of calcium, 10 units of iron, and 30 units of vitamin A. If x is the
number of ounces of food M used and y is the number of ounces of food N used, write a
system of inequalities that reflects the conditions indicated. Find the set of feasible
solutions graphically for the amount of each kind of food that can be used.
4. A city council voted to conduct a study on inner-city community problems. A nearby
university was contacted to provide sociologists and research assistants. Each sociologist
will spend 10 hours per week collecting data in the field and 30 hours per week analyzing
data in the research centre. Each research assistant will spend 30 hours per week in the
field and 10 hours per week in the research centre. The minimum weekly labour-hour
requirements are 280 hours in the field and 360 hours in the research centre. If x is the
number of sociologist hired for the study and y is the number of research assistants hired
for the study, write a system of linear inequalities that indicates appropriate restrictions on
x and y . Find the set of feasible solutions graphically.
CHAPTER SIX
LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programming is a mathematical process that has been developed to help management
in decision making. It has become one of the most widely used and best-known tools of
management science and industrial engineering.
Linear programming problems involve formulation of mathematical model for the problem and
then solve it using graphical methods.
Objective Function
The objective of management is to decide how many of each of their products should be
produced in order to maximize profit (or minimize cost) etc.
Constraints
Every manufacturing company has manufacturing limitations imposed on it by available
resources, plant capacity, demand, etc. these limitations are referred to as problem constraints.
Example
An electronics firm manufactures two types of personal computers, a desktop model and a
portable model. The production of a desktop computer requires a capital expenditure of
GH¢400 and 40hours of labour. The production of a portable computer requires a capital
expenditure of GH¢250 and 30 hours of labour. The firm has GH¢20,000 capital and 2,160
labour-hours available for production of desktop and portable computers.
If each desktop computer contributes a profit of GH¢320 and each portable computer
contributes a profit of GH¢220, how many of each model in order to maximize profit. What is
the maximum profit?
Solution
We formulate mathematical model for the problem.
The objective of the management is to decide how many of each model should be produced to
maximize profit.
Let x = number of desktop computers
y = number of portable computer
These variables are called decision variables
Total profit = profit from desktop computer plus that of portable
P = 320 x + 220 y
The objective of the management is to maximize this profit.
Hence, our objective function is
Maximize P = 320 x + 220 y
Constraints
A desktop computer requires a capital expenditure of GH¢400
Hence, for x desktop computers the amount requires 400x . A portable computer requires a
capital expenditure of GH¢250
Hence, for y portable computers amount require 250 y .
The firm has GH¢20,000 capital, and therefore cannot spend more than this amount (i.e. the
firm can spend maximum of GH¢ 20, 000 ). Hence
400 x + 250 y  20, 000
A desktop computer requires 40hours of labour
Hence, for x desktop computer the labour hours require 40x .
A portable computer requires 30 hours of labour
Hence, for y portable computer the labour hours require 30 y .
The available labour-hours for production of desktop and portable computers is 2,160.
Hence
40 x + 30 y  2,160
It is not possible to produce negative computers; we thus have non negative constraints
x0
y0
The mathematical model for the above problem is
Maximize P = 320 x + 220 y objective function
Subject to (constraints)
400 x + 250 y  20, 000
40 x + 30 y  2,160
x0
y0
Solving this system of linear inequality constraints graphically, we obtain the feasible region.
By choosing a point from the feasible region, a profit can be determined using the objective
function P = 320 x + 220 y . The point that gives us the maximum profit (if it exists) is called the
optimal solution.
If the feasible region is bounded, then one of the corner points of the feasible region is an
optimal solution to the problem.
80
B(0, 72)
70
60
50
40
30
feasible region
20
10
A(0, 0) D(50, 0)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
The corner points are A(0, 0), B(0, 72), C (29, 33), and D(50, 0),
A B C D
x 0 0 29 50
y 0 72 33 0
p = 320 x + 220 y 0 15840 16540 16000
From the table above Maximum profit = GH¢16540
This occur when the firm produces 29 desktop computers and
33 portable computers
Example
A furniture company manufactures dining room tables and chairs. Each table requires 8 hours
from the assembly department and 2 hours from the finishing department and contributes a
profit of GH¢90.00. Each chair requires 2 hours from the assembly department and 1 hour
from the finishing department and contributes a profit of GH¢25.00. The maximum labor-
hours available each day in the assembly and finishing departments are 400 and 120,
respectively.
How many chairs should be manufactured each day to maximize the daily profit? What is the
maximum daily profit?
Solution
Let x = number of tables y = number chairs
The mathematical model for the above problem is
Maximize P = 90 x + 25 y objective function
Subject to (constraints)
8 x + 2 y  400
2 x + y  120
x0
y0
B(0, 120)
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30 feasible region
20
10
A(0, 0) D(50, 0)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
The corner points are A(0, 0), B(0, 72), C (29, 33), and D(50, 0),
A B C D
x 0 0 40 50
y 0 120 40 0
p = 90 x + 25 y 0 3000 4600 4500
From the table above Maximum profit = GH¢4600

This occur when the company produces 40 tables and
40 chairs
EXERCICES
1. Solve the following linear programming problem
i) Maximize z = 3x + 2 y ii) Maximize z = 4 x + 5 y

Subject to x + 2 y  10 Subject to 2 x + y  12
3x + y  15 x + 3 y  21
x  0, y  0 x  0, y  0
iii) Maximize z = 25 x + 15 y iii) Minimize C = 7 x + 9 y

Subject to 4 x + 5 y  100 Subject to 10 x + 5 y  350
3x + 4 y  240 8 x − 124 y  840
x, y  0 9 x + 6 y  630
x, y  0
v) Minimize and Maximize z = 5 x + 15 y

Subject to x + 3 y  60
x + y  10
x− y0
x  0, y  0
2. The officers of a high school senior class are planning to rent buses and vans for a class
trip. Each bus can transport 40 students; requires 3 chaperons, and costs GH¢1,200 to rent.
Each van can transport 8 students, requires 1 chaperone, and costs GH¢100.00 to rent. The
officers want to be able to accommodate at least 400 students with no more then 36
chaperons. How many vehicles of each type should they rent in order to minimize the
transportation costs? What are the minimal transportation costs?
3. A dietician in a hospital is to arrange a special diet composed of two foods, M and N. Each
ounce of food M contains 16 units of calcium, 5 units of iron, and 6 units of cholesterol,
and 8 units of vitamin A. Each ounce of food N contains 4 units of calcium, 25 units of
iron, 4 units of cholesterol, and 4 units of vitamin A. The diet requires at least 320 units of
calcium, at least 575 units of iron, and at most 300 units of cholesterol. If the dietician
always selects a combination of foods M and N that will satisfy constraints for calcium,
iron, and cholesterol, discuss the effect that this will have on the amount of vitamin A in
the diet.
CHAPTER SEVEN
PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

The principle of Induction (also known as Mathematical Induction or Induction for short) is a
technique for proving general propositions.
Proposition (Conjecture): The sum of the first n odd natural numbers equal to 𝑛2
N Sum of the first n odd natural numbers 𝒏𝟐

1 1 1
2 1+3 4
3 1+3+5 9
4 1+3+5+7 16
5 1+3+5+7+9 25
. .
. .
. .
N 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ... + (2 n − 1) 𝑛2
Note that the first five terms, the sum of the first n odd numbers really does add up to 𝑛2 .
We also notice that these first five lines indicate that the nth odd natural numbers (i.e. the last
number in each sum) is 2𝑛 − 1
For instance, when 𝑛 = 2, the second natural number is 2 ∙ 2 − 1 = 3; when 𝑛 = 3, the third
odd natural number is 2 ∙ 3 − 1 = 5, etc.
So the question is:
Does the sum
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ... + (2n − 1)
Really always equals 𝑛2 ?
In order words, is the proposition true?
Mathematical induction is designed to answer just this kind of question.
Let’s rephrase the above as follows:
For each natural number n, we have
P (1) : 1 = 12
P (2) : 1 + 3 = 2 2
P (3) : 1 + 3 + 5 = 32
.
.
.
P ( n) : 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + ... + (2 n − 1) = n 2
A proof by mathematical induction that P ( n ) is true for every positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 𝑎
Consist of two steps;
I. Basic Step (Base case). The proposition P (a ) is shown to be true
II. Inductive Step (Inductive case). The implication P (k )  P (k + 1) is shown to be
true for every positive integer n
III. The statement 𝑃(𝑛) for a fixed positive integer n is called the inductive hypothesis. When we
complete both steps of the proof, we have proved that 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all positive integer n.
EXAMPLES
1. If 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛2
Solution
The prove consists of step
I. We verify that the result is true for 𝑎 particular 𝑎 ∈ 𝑁 which is often one
If 𝑛 = 1
𝑃(1) = 1
II. We then verify that the result is true for any value 𝑛 say 𝑛 = 𝑘 then it is true for 𝑘 + 1
That is, we must show that if
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 2 then
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) + {2(𝑘 + 1) − 1} = (𝑘 + 1)2
i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) = 𝑘 2
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1) + {2(𝑘 + 1) − 1} = 𝑘 2 + {2(𝑘 + 1) − 1}
= 𝑘 2 + {2𝑘 + 2 − 1}
= 𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
= (𝑘 + 1)2
Hence if it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 then it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
The combination of (i) and (ii) shows that the proposition is true for all positive integers.
2. If n is any positive integer, then

𝑛(𝑛+1)
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯+ 𝑛 = 2
Solution
𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑃(𝑛): 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 2
i. For 𝑛 = 1
1(1 + 1)
𝑃(1) = 1 =
2
2
=2 =1
ii. Assuming that 𝑛 = 𝑘 is true

𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
𝑃(𝑘) ∶ 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 𝑘 =
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
𝑃(𝑘 + 1): 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = +𝑘+1
2
𝑘(𝑘+1) 2(𝑘+1)
= +
2 2
(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
= 2
(𝑘+1){(𝑘+1)+1}
= 2
Hence, if it is true for 𝑘, then it is true for 𝑘 + 1 therefore it is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁.
n
1
3. Prove by induction that r
r =1
2
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Solution
n
1
r
r =1
2
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1
12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n 2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
(i) if 𝑛 = 1
L.H.S = 12 = 1
1
R.H.S = (1)(2)(2(1) + 1)
6
1
=
×2×3 =1
6
L.H.S = R.H.S It is therefore true for 𝑛 = 1
(ii) Assuming the proposition holds for (or true) for 𝑛 = 𝑘.

n
1
Then r
r =1
2
=
6
k (k + 1)(2k + 1)
k +1 k
r
r =1
2
=  r 2 + (k + 1) 2
r =1
1
= 6 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2
𝑘(𝑘+1)(2𝑘+1)+6(𝑘+1)2
= 6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)[𝑘(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1)]
6
1
= 6 (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 6]
1
= 6 (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6]
1
= 6 (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)]
1
= 6 (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 1) + 1][(2𝑘 + 2) + 1]
1
= 6 (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 1) + 1][2(𝑘 + 1) + 1]
If the result holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 then it holds for 𝑘 + 1
n
1 n
4. Prove by induction that  r (r + 1) = n + 1
1
Solution
The prove consist of two part (or steps)
(i) if 𝑛 = 1
1 1
L.H.S = 1+(1+1) = 2
1 1
R.H.S = 1+1 = 2
The result is true for 𝑛 = 1
(ii) Assuming that the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘
k
1 k
 r (r + 1) = k + 1
1
Then for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
k +1 k
1 1 1
 r (r + 1) =  r (r + 1) + (k + 1)(k + 2)
1 1
𝑘 1
= 𝑘+1 + (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
𝑘(𝑘+2)+1
= (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
𝑘 2 +2𝑘+1
= (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
(𝑘+1)2
= (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
𝑘+1
= 𝑘+2
𝑘+1
= (𝑘+1)+1
If the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 it follows that it is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
It is therefore true for all positive integers
5. Prove that 8𝑛 − 2𝑛 is divisible by 6 for every positive integer 𝑛
Solution
The prove consist of two part
(i) We prove the base case (basic step) for 𝑛 = 1
81 − 21 = 6
Which is divisible by 6 hence true for 𝑛 = 1
(ii) Assume that the proposition holds for some positive integer 𝑘 that is 8𝑘 − 2𝑘 is divisible
by 6
Let us examine 8𝑘+1 − 2𝑘+1
8𝑘+1 − 2𝑘+1 = 8 ∙ 8𝑘 − 2 ∙ 2𝑘
= 6 ∙ 8𝑘 + 2 ∙ 8𝑘 − 2 ∙ 2𝑘
= 6 ∙ 8𝑘 + 2 ∙ (8𝑘 − 2𝑘 )
Now since 8𝑘 − 2𝑘 is divisible by 6 and 6 ∙ 8𝑘 is also divisible by 6
8𝑘+1 − 2𝑘+1 is divisible by 6
Therefore 8𝑛 − 2𝑛 is divisible by 6 for every positive integer n.
EXERCISE
Prove the following by induction

𝑛(3𝑛−1)
(a) 1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑛 − 2) =
2
(b) For any positive integer 𝑛

6𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 5
𝑛(2𝑛+1)(4𝑛+1)
(c) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑛)2 =
3
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
A binomial is an algebraic expression that consist of exactly two terms separated by a ‘+’ or ‘
– ‘; such as x + y or ab – cd. The binomial theorem assists us to expand a binomial such as (x
+ y)n. Lets consider the following expansion of (a + b)n, where a + b is binomial and n is a
whole number.
(a + b) 0 = 1 (any number to the power zero = 1)
(a + b) = a + b
1
(any number to the power one the same number)
(a + b) 2 = (a + b)(a + b) (a square of a number is the number times itself)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2

(Any number to the power three is the
number times its square).
= (a + b)(a + 2ab + b )
2 2
= a 3 + 2a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b + 2ab 2 + b 3
= a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3
(a + b) 4 = (a + b)(a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 )
(Any number to the power four is the number times its cube).
(a + b) 4 = a 4 + 3a 3b + 3a 2b 2 + ab3 + a 3b + 3a 2b 2 3ab3 + b 4
= a 4 + 4a 3b + 6a 2 b 2 + 4ab 3 + b 4
etc.
( a + b) 0 = 1
( a + b) =
1
a+b
( a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
( a + b) 3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3
( a + b) 4 = a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6a 2 b 2 + 4ab 3 + b 4
Note that each expansion is a polynomial. It is also a series, though not AP or GP. There are
some patterns to be noted.
1. In each term, the sum of the exponents is n.
2. The exponents of ‘a’ start with n and decrease to 0.
3. The exponents of b start with 0 and increase to n
4. The expansion of (a + b)n has n + 1 terms.
The binomial theorem states that for any positive integer n,
n  n  n  n
(a + b) n =   a nb0 +   a n −1b1 + ... +   a n − r b r + ... +   a n −nb n
0 1 r  n
= a nb0 + na n −1b1 + ... + a 0b n
 n n!
Where   = and it is the coefficient of a n−r b r
 r  (n − r )!r!
The coefficients of a binomial expansion are called binomial coefficients.
Pascal’s Triangle
The coefficients of a binomial may be found using the Pascal triangle. By arranging the
coefficients in a triangular pattern, you obtain the following array, which is called Pascal’s
triangle.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
The first and the last numbers in each row of Pascal’s triangle is 1. Every other number in each
row is formed by adding the numbers immediately above the number.
Example
Write the expansion for (x + 2y)4
Solution
The binomial coefficients for the power 4 of Pascal’s triangle are
1, 4, 6, 4, 1
Therefore, the expansion is as follows.
(1) x 4 + (4) x 3 (2 y)1 + (6) x 2 (2 y) 2 + (4) x1 (2 y) 3 + (1)(2 y) 4
= x 4 + 8x 3 y + 24 y 2 + 32xy 3 + 16 y 4
We may also use the definition of the binomial theorem,
n  n  n  n
(a + b) n =   a nb0 +   a n −1b1 + ... +   a n − r b r + ... +   a n −nb n
0 1 r  n
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n −3 3
= a n b 0 + na n −1b1 + a b + a b + .... + a n − n b n
2! 3!
n
 n
=   a n − k b k
k =0  k 
Example
Write the expansion for ( x + 2 y)4
Solution
The expansion is as follows.
43 2 4  3 2 1 4  3  2 1 0
( x + 2 y)4 = x 4 + 4 x3 (2 y)1 +
x (2 y) 2 + x (2 y)3 + x (2 y) 4
2! 3! 4!
= x + 8x y + 24x y + 32xy + 16 y
4 3 2 2 3 4
(r + 1)th term of Binomial Expansion
The (r + 1)th term of binomial could be used to find any particular term of a binomial
expansion. The (r + 1)th term of a Binomial Expansion (a + b)n is given by
n
(r + 1)th term of (a + b) n =   a n − r b r
r
 n
where   is the coefficient of (r + 1)th term (or the term with a n − r or the term with b r ).
r
Example
Write down the 18th term of (2 – x)20
Solution
 20 
20 −17
18th term of ( 2 − x) 20 = 
 17 
( 2) ( − x) 17
 
20!
= (2) 3 (− x)17
(20 − 17)!(17)!
20(19)(18)
= ( 2) 3 ( − x )17
3!
= 20(19)(3)(8)(− x)17
= −9120x 17
Example
Find the ratio of the term with x5 to the term with x6, in the expansion of
(2x + 3)20
Solution
We first find the two terms

 20 
The term with x5 of (2 x + 3) 20 =  (2 x) 20−15 (3)15
 15 
20!
= (2 x) 5 (3)15
(20 − 15)!(15)!
20(19)(18)(17)(16)
= (2 x) 5 (3)15
5!
20(19)(18)(17)(16) 5
= (2 )( x) 5 (3)15
5!
The term with x6 of (2 x + 3) 20 =  20 (2 x) 20−16 (3)16
 16 
20!
= (2 x) 4 (3)16
(20 − 16)!(16)!
20(19)(18)(17)
= (2 x) 4 (3)16
4!
20(19)(18)(17) 4
= (2 )( x) 4 (3)16
4!
The ratio of the term with x5 of (2x + 3)20 to the term with x6
of (2x + 3)20
20(19)(18)(17)(16)
( 2 5 )( x ) 5 (3) 15
= 5!
20(19)(18)(17)
( 2 4 ) x 4 (3) 16
4!
32x
=
15
Example
What is the coefficient of x 12 y 13 in the expansion of ( x + y) 25 ?
Solution
From the binomial theorem it following that the coefficient is
 25  25! 25!
 = =
 13  13!( 25 − 13)! 13!(12 )!
= 5, 200,300
Example
12 5
What is the coefficient of x y in the expansion of (2 x − 3 y)17 ?
Solution
First note that
(2 x − 3 y)17 = {2 x + (−3 y)}17
 
17 17
=   (2 x)17− n (−3 y ) n
n =0  j 
Consequently, the coefficient of x12 y 5 in the expansion is obtained when n= 5 namely,
17  12 17!
  (2) (−3) = −
5
(2)12 (3)5
5 12!( 5)!
To use (a + αx)k to approximate bk
(a + αx)k may be used to approximate bk by solving for x and substituting it into the expansion
of (a + αx)k.
x is solved by equating a + αx and b (i.e. a + αx = b)
Example
Write down the first four terms of the expansion (2 + 14 x)10 in ascending powers of x. Hence
find the value of 2.02510 , correct to the nearest whole number.
Solution
The first four terms
10  9 8 1 2 10  9 7 1 3
(2 + 14 x)10 = 210 + 10(2)9 ( 14 x) + (2) ( 4 x) + (2) ( 4 x) + ...
2! 3!
= 1024 + 1280 x + 720 x 2 + 240 x3 + ...
We then solve for x
2 + 14 x = 2.025
 14 x = 2.025 − 2
 x = 0.025  4
x = 0.1
Substitute 0.1 for x in the expansion we obtain
2.02510 = 1024 + 1280  0.1 + 720  0.12 + 240  0.13
= 1024 + 1280  0.1 + 720  0.01 + 240  0.001
= 1024 + 128 + 7.20 + 0.240

= 1159.44
= 1159 (correct to the nearest whole number )
Example
Write down the expansion (1 + x)5, simplifying all the terms.
Use your expansion to evaluate (1.01)5 correct to four decimal places.
Solution
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + .... + x n
2! 3!
5(5 − 1) 2 5(5 − 1)(5 − 2) 3 5(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3) 4

(1 + x)5 = 1 + 5 x + x + x + x + x5
2! 3! 4!
(1 + x) = 1 + 5x + 10 x + 10 x + 5x + x
5 2 3 4 5
Equating 1 + x = 1.01  x = 0.01

 1.015 = 1 + 5(0.01) + 10(0.01)2 + 10(0.01)3 + 5(0.01)4 + (0.01)5
= 1 + 0.05 + 0.001 + 0.00001 + 0.00000005 + ...
= 1.05101005
= 1.0510 (to four decimal place).
Example
Using the binomial theorem, write down and simplify the first five terms of the expansion
(1 + 2 x)10 in ascending powers of x. Use your expansion to show that 1.210 6.13.
Solution
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + .... + x n
2! 3!
The first seven terms is given by
10  9 10  9  8 10  9  8  7
(1 + 2 x)10 = 1 + 10(2 x) + (2 x) 2 + (2 x)3 + (2 x) 4 +
2! 3! 4!
= 1 + 20 x + 180 x + 960 x + 3360 x + ...
2 3 4
Equating 1 + 2 x = 1.2  2 x = 0.2

x = 0.1
1.210 = 1 + 20  0.1 + 180  0.12 + 960  0.13 + 3360  0.14
1.210  1 + 2 + 1.80 + 0.960 + 0.3360
= 1 + 2 + 1.8 + 0.9 + 0.3360 + 0.08064 + …..

= 6.13008  6.13
Example
Using the binomial theorem, write down and simplify all the terms of the expansion
6
 a
1 +  Given that 3.15 = 3 b, use your results to estimate the value of b, correct to four
6 6
 2 
decimal places.
Solution
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + .... + x n
2! 3!
6 2 3 4 5 6
 a  a  6(5)  a  6(5)(4)  a  6(5)(4)(3)  a  6(5)(4)(3)(2)  a  6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)  a 
1 +  = 1 + 6  +   +   +   +   +  
 2 2 2!  2  3!  2  4! 2 5! 2 6! 2
2 3 4 5 6
a a a a a a
= 1 + 6  + 15  + 20  + 15  + 6  +  
 2  
2  
2  
2  
2 2
15a 2 20a 3 15a 4 6a 5 a6
= 1 + 3a + + + + +
4 8 16 32 64
= 1 + 3a + 3.75a 2 + 2.5a 3 + 0.9375a 4 + 0.1875a 5 + 0.015625a 6
Now 3.15 6 = (3 + 0.15) 6

= {3(1 + 0.05)}6
= 36 (1 + 0.05) 6
If 3.156 = 36 (b)
3 6 (1 + 0.05) 6 = 3 6 (b)
 b = (1 + 0.05) 6
6
 a
Using the expansion of 1 + 
 2
Equating
a
1+ = 1 + 0.05
2
a
= 0.05
2
a = 0.1
Putting a = 0.1 into the expansion, we have

(1 + 0.05)6 = 1 + 3a + 3.75a2 + 2.5a3 + 0.9375a4 + 0.1875a5 + 0.015625a6
= 1 + 3(0.1) + 3.75(0.1)2 + 2.5(0.1)3 + 0.9375(0.1)4 + 0.1875(0.1)5 + ...
= 1 + 0.3 + 0.0375 + 0.0025 + 0.00009375 + 0.000001875 + ....
= 1.340096
 1.3401 (to 4d . p )
Example
Using the binomial theorem, write down and simplify the first four terms of the expansion (2
+ x)8, in ascending powers of x.
Use your expansion to approximate the value of 1.988.
Solution
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n −3 3
(a + b) n = a n + na n −1b + a b + a b + .... + a n − n b n The first four
2! 3!
terms is given by
8(7) 8(7)(6)
(2 + x) 8 = 2 8 + 8(2) 7 x + (2) 6 ( x) 2 + (2) 5 x 3 + ....
2! 3!
= 256 + 1024 x + 1792 x 2 + 1792 x 3 + ....
Equating,
2 + x = 1.98  x = −0.02
1.98 = 256 + 1024(−0.02) + 1792(−0.02) 2 + 1792(−0.02) 3 + ....
8
 256 − 20.48 + 0.7168 − 0.014336

= 236.222464
= 236.2225 (to 4d . p.)
EXERCICE
1. Write down, and simplify the terms indicated in the expansions of the following in
ascending powers of x.
i. (1 + x)9 , 4th term
ii. (2 − 3x)12 , 5th term
iii. ( x + 12 )15 , 6th term
iv. ( 2 + 2x ) 8 , 3rd term
2. Using the binomial theorem, write down and simplify the first four terms of the expansion
(2 + x) 8 in ascending powers of x.
8
Use your expansion to approximate the value of 2.998 .
3. Find the ratio of the term in x7 to the term in x8 in the expansion of

(3 x + 34 )17
4. Write down the expansion of (1 + 2 x) 7 in ascending powers of x, simplifying all the

terms. Use your expansion to evaluate (0.98) 7 correct to four decimal places.
5. Write down the first four terms of the expansion of ( 2 + 14 x)10 in ascending powers of
x. Hence find the value of 2.02510 , correct to the nearest whole number.
Expansion of (1 + x)n where n is negative integer or a fraction

a) Expansion of (1 + x)n in ascending powers of x .
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) 4
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + x + ...
2! 3! 4!
n n  n  n
= 1 +   x +   x 2 +   x3 +   x 4 + ...
1  2  3  4
This expansion is an infinity series. It is therefore valid provided −1  x  1 .

n n
The general term in x r is   x r or (r + 1)th term is   x r
r r
Example
Find the first four terms and the general terms in the expansions of the following in ascending
powers of x . State the ranges of values of x for which the expansions are valid.
i) (1 + x)−1 ii) (1 + 3x)−2 iii) (2 + x)−3
Solution
(−1)(−2) 2 (−1)(−2)(−3) 3
i) (1 + x)−1 = 1 + (−1) x + x + x + ...
2! 3!
= 1 + (−1) x + x2 + (−1) x3 + ...
The general term in x r = (−1)r x r
Validity x  1
(−2)(−3) (−2)(−3)(−4)
ii) (1 + 3x)−2 = 1 + (−2)(3x) + (3x) 2 + (3x)3 + ...
2! 3!
= 1 + (−2)(3x) + 3(3x)2 + (−4)(3x)3 + ...
It is easier at this stage to state the general term before final simplification
The general term in x r = (−1)r (r + 1)(3x)r
1
Validity 3x  1 that is x 
3
−1 −1
  x   x
iii) (2 + x) = 2 1 +   = 2 −1 1 + 
−1
  2   2
1 x (−1)(−2)  x  (−1)(−2)(−3)  x  
2 3
 
= 1 + (−1) +   +   + ...
2
 2 2!  2  3! 2 

1 
2 3
 x  x  x 
= 1 + (−1) + (−1)2   + (−1)3   + ...
2
 2 2 2 

It is easier at this stage to state the general term before final simplification
r
The general term in x r = (−1)r  

1 x
2 2
x
Validity  1 that is x  2
2
b) Expansion of (1 + x)n in descending powers of x .

The expansion of (1 + x)n in ascending powers of x is valid for x  1 . However, if x  1
the expansion of (1 + x)n is not convergent
CHAPTER NINE
SERIES AND SEQUENCES
Sigma Notation
The Greek letter (called sigma) can be used to simplify a series when it has a formula for the
general term.
The sum of the first n terms of a sequence is represented by
n
 ai = a
i =1
1 + a 2 + a3 + ...... + a n
This is read as “the sum ai as i goes from 1 to n”;

where i is called the index of summation, n is the upper limit of summation, and 1 is the lower
limit of summation. ai is the general term of the series.
Example
6
 (1 + k ) = (1 + 3 ) + (1 + 4 ) + (1 + 5 ) + (1 + 6 )
k =3
2 2 2 2 2
= (1 + 9) + (1 + 16) + (1 + 25) + (1 + 36)

= 10 + 17 + 26 + 37
= 90
Example
5
2
j =1
j
= 21 + 2 2 + 2 3 + 2 4 + 2 5
= 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32
= 62
Example
5
j
j =1
2
= 12 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 2 + 5 2
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25
= 55
Example
5
 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 10
j =1
Example
8
 (−1)
k =4
k
= (−1) 4 + (−1) 5 + (−1) 6 + (−1) 7 + (−1) 8
=1−1+1−1+1
=1
Example
Write the sum of the series 23 + 33 + 43 + …. + n3 in sigma notation.
Solution
Note: There is no unique way of writing a sum in sigma notation. We could write
n
23 + 33 + 43 + ... + n 3 =  i 3
i =2
n −1
or 2 3 + 33 + 43 + ... + n 3 =  (i + 1) 3
i =1
n−2
or 2 3 + 33 + 43 + ... + n 3 =  (i + 2) 3
i =0
Properties of Sums
If c is any constant (ie it does not depend on k), then
n n
a)  cak = c  a k
k =m k =m
n n n
b)  (a
k =m
k + b k ) =  a k +  bk
k =m k =m
n n n
c)  (a
k =m
k − b k ) =  a k −  bk
k =m k =m
Example
Find the sum of the first ten terms of the sequence defined by
n −1
 3
U n = 4  −n
2
Solution
The sum of the first ten terms is given by
10  n −1
 n −1
  3  10  3  10
 4 
1 
− n =  4 

− n
 2  1 2 1
n −1
 3
10 10
= 4   − n
1  2 1
 3  0 1
 3  3
2
 3  
10
= 4  +   +   + ... +    − 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + 10

 2  2 2  2  
  3 1  3  2  3  
10
= 41 +   +   + ... +    − 1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + 10

  2   2   2  
3
A G.P with r = , a =1 an A.P with a = 1, d = 1
2

= 4
(
 (1) 1 − ( 2 )
3 10
) − 10 (2 + 9)
 1 − (2 )
  2
 
3
  59049     58025  
 1 − 1024   10   − 1024  
    ( )    
= 4  −  11  = 4  − 55
 −
1   2   −
1 

 2 
 
 2 

 58025   58025 
= 4  − 55 =  − 55
 512   128 
50985
=
128
Double Summations
m n
 U
k i
ki
To evaluate the double sum, we first expand the inner summation and then continue by
computing the outer summation.
4 5 4
 2ki =  (24k + 25k )

k =2 i =4 k =2
4 4
=  2 4 k +  25 k
k =2 k =2
= 2 42
+2 43
+ 244  + 252 + 253 + 254 
= 28 + 212 + 216  + 210 + 215 + 220 
= 28 + 212 + 216  + 210 + 215 + 220 
Sequence
In everyday life we think of a sequence as a set of items with order or pattern. In mathematics,
a sequence is a set of numbers (or items) written in a definite order.
Example 7.1
(i) 3, 5, 7, 9,............. (ii) 1, 5, 8, 11,.........,29
(iii) 1, 3, 5, 7,......... (iv) 1 1 1 1
, , , ,..........
3 6 12 24
(v) 1, 4, 9, 16,.........,100 (vi) 1, 2, 4, 8,...........
The dots in the examples above mean that there are more numbers in there which were not
written.
The numbers in the sequence are known as the terms.

Example
1, 2, 4, 8, ….
1st term, U1 = 1
2nd term, U2 = 2
3rd term, U3 = 4
etc.
Finite Sequence
A sequence is said to be finite when it has definite number of terms (i.e. it has an end) otherwise
it is an infinite sequence.
Example
1, 5, 8, 11,.........,29 finite
1, 3, 5, 7,......... infinite
Some sequences have rules which describes the nth term. In this example
3, 5, 7, 9,...,2n + 1,..... , 2n + 1 is the nth term. We write
U n = 2n + 1
We can find the terms of the sequence by consecutively substituting the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
….,n, etc into Un = 2n + 1. The nth term is also called the general term.
Example Find the first two terms of the sequence whose general term is given by
U n = n2 + n
Solution
The nth term is given by
U n = n2 + n
1st term, U1 = 12 + 1 =1 + 1 =2
2nd term, U2 = 22 + 2 = 4 + 2 = 6
Example
Find the general term of a sequence whose first four terms are
a) 5, 6, 7, 8,.............
b) 2, − 4, 8, − 16,........
Solution
Since the terms of the sequence 5, 6, 7, 8,............. are consecutive integers, one solution
is
U n = n, where n  5.
But the best solution is to use the terms, starting from
n =1. ie
U1 = 5 =1+ 4
U2 = 6 =2+4
U3 = 7 =3+ 4
U4 = 8 =4+4
.
.
Un = n + 4
Hence the general term (or nth term) is U n = n + 4
Each of the terms of the sequence 2, − 4, 8, − 16,........ can be written as the product of a
power of 2 and a power of -1
U1 = 2 = (−1) 0 21
U 2 = −4 = (−1) 1 2 2
U3 = 8 = (−1) 2 2 3
U 4 = −16 = (−1) 3 2 4
.
.
 U n = (−1) n −1 2 n
Arithmetic and Geometric Sequence

Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence U 1 , U 2 , U 3 ,.....,U n is an arithmetic sequence if there is in existence a constant
d, called the common difference, such that each term after the first is obtained by adding d
to the preceding term.
For example, 5, 9, 13, 17,........ each term is obtained by adding 4 to preceding term.
Hence the sequence is Arithmetic and the common difference,
d=4
If a sequence is Arithmetic then the common difference is given by d = U r − U r −1
i.e. a term minus its preceding term
U1 = a
U 2 = U1 + d = a + d
U 3 = U 2 + d = ( a + d ) + d = a + 2d
...
......
U n = a + (n − 1)d
th
The n term of an Arithmetic sequence is given by
U n = a + (n − 1)d
Geometric Sequence
A sequence U 1 , U 2 , U 3 ,.....,U n is a Geometric sequence if there is in existence a non zero
constant r, called the common ratio, such that each term after the first is obtained by
multiplying the preceding term by r.
For example, 5, 15, 45, 135,........ each term is obtained by multiplying the preceding
term by 3. Hence the sequence is Geometric and the common ratio, r = 3
U
If a sequence is Geometric then the common ratio is given by r = n
U n −1
i.e. a term divided by its preceding term
U1 = a
U 2 = ar
U 3 = ar 2
.
..
U n = ar n −1
The nth term (or the general term) of a geometric sequence is given by
U n = ar n −1
Example
A College student borrows ¢600,000 at 14% interest compounded annually. The student pays
off the loan at the end of 6 years. How much does the student pay?
Solution
For any principal P, at 14% interest, the student will owe P +0.14P (or 1.14P) at the end of the
first year. Then 1.14P is the principal for the second year. At the end of the second year the
student owes 1.14(1.14P). The principal for the third year is 1.14(1.14P). At the end of the third
year the student owes 1.14(1.141.14P).
U1 = P
U 2 = 1.14 P
U 3 = 1.14 2 P
U 4 = 1.14 3 P
..
..
U n = 1.14 n −1 P
At the end of 6 years, we have 7 terms.

From the above, a = 600,000, r = 1.14, n = 7
U 4 = 600,000  1.147 −1
= 600,000  1.146
= 600,000  2.19497
= 1316982
Hence the student will pay ¢1,316,982
{Amount the student is to paid in ‘ n’ years at rate of r% is given by P(1 + r )n }
SERIES
A series is obtained by adding the terms of a sequence. If U 1 , U 2 , U 3 , U 4 ,......, U n ,....

is a sequence, then the expression U1 + U 2 + U 3 + U 4 + ...... + U n + .... is the
corresponding series.
For example, the corresponding series for the sequence 5, 15, 45, 135,........ is
5 + 15 + 45 + 135 + ........
There are two main types of series, they are:
a. Linear sequence (Arithmetic Progression) A.P.

b. Exponential sequence (Geometrical Progression) G.P
1. Linear sequence (Arithmetic Progression) A.P.
A linear sequence is a series in which any term is obtained by adding a constant to the preceding
term. The constant is known as common difference. It is mostly denoted by d. (ie. the sum of
terms of an Arithmetic Sequence)
Examples
1 + 3 + 5 + .... ... + 99
7 + 11 + 15 + .....
3 − 2 − 7 − .... − 42
The common difference, d = Ur – Ur-1
(ie a term minus the preceding term).
The nth term (Un) of a Linear sequence (Arithmetic Progression) A.P
If the first term of AP is a and the common difference is d , then for the second term d is
added to the first term, for the third term d is added to the second term, etc
ie.
U1 = a
U 2 = U1 + d = a + d
U 3 = U 2 + d = ( a + d ) + d = a + 2d
...
......
U n = a + (n − 1)d
The nth term of a linear sequence is given by

U n = a + (n − 1)d
Example
Find the 14th term of the linear sequence 4+ 7 + 10 + 13 + …..
Solution
U n = a + (n − 1)d
First note U1= 4, n=14 and d = Ur – Ur-1 = 3
Using the formula above, we have
U14 = 4 + (14 – 1)3
= 4 + 13  3
= 4 + 39
= 43
Example
Of the linear sequence 4+ 7 + 10 + 13 + …., which term is 301?
Solution
That is, what is n if Un = 301?

U n = 301, a = 4, d = 13 − 10 = 3
U n = a + (n − 1)d
 301 = 4 + (n − 1)  3
 301 = 4 + 3n − 3
 301 = 3n + 1
 300 = 3n
 n = 100
Thus the 100th term is 301

In a similar manner we can find a if we know n, Un, and d. We can also find d if we know a,
n, and Un.
Example
The sum of the second and fourth terms of an arithmetical progression is 15, and the sum of
the fifth and sixth terms is 25. Find the first term and the common difference.
Solution
U2 = a + d
U 4 = a + 3d
U 2 + U 4 = (a + d ) + (a + 3d ) = 2a + 4d
= 15
 2a + 4d = 15 ..................(1)
U 5 = a + 4d
U 6 = a + 5d
U 5 + U 6 = (a + 4d ) + (a + 5d ) = 2a + 9d
= 25
 2a + 9d = 25 ..................(2)
(2) − (1); 5d = 10  d = 2
sub. 2 for d in (1) we have, 2a + 4(2) = 15
2a = 7
7
a=
2
The Sum of first n terms of Linear Sequence.
Suppose the sum of the first n terms of a series be Sn, then
S n = U1 + U 2 + U 3 + U 4 + ..... + U n−1 + U n
Let the first term = a, common difference = d, then
Sn = a +(a + d ) + ... +{a + (n − 2)d } +{a + (n − 1)d }
Sn = {a + (n − 1)d } +{a + (n − 2)d } + ... + (a + d ) +a
2Sn = {2a + (n −1)d} +{2a + (n −1)d} + ... +{2a + (n −1)d} +{2a + (n −1)d}
2 S n = n{2a + (n − 1)d }
n
S n = {2a + (n − 1)d }
2
n
= {a + l} where l is the last term and l = a + (n − 1)d
2
Example
Find the sum of the first 12 terms of a linear sequence 4 + 10 + 16 + …..
Solution
4 + 10 + 16 + …..
a = 4, d = 16 – 10 = 6, n = 12
n
S n = {2a + (n − 1)d }
2
12
S12 = {2(4) + (12 − 1)6}
2
S12 = 6{8 + 66}
= 444
Example
Find the difference between the sums of the first ten terms of the A.P.s whose first terms are
12 and 8, and whose common differences are 2 and 3 respectively.
Solution
We have two different series;
the first series has, the first term, a = 12
Common difference, d = 2
n
Sn = {2a + ( n − 1) d }
2
10
S 10 = {2(12) + (10 − 1)2}
2
S10 = 5{24 + 18}
= 210
The 2nd series has:
a = 8, d=3
n
S n = {2a + (n − 1)d }
2
10
S 10 = {2(8) + (10 − 1)3}
2
S10 = 5{16 + 27}
= 215
Difference between the sums of the 1st ten terms of the series
= 215 – 210
=5
Example
Find the sum of the even numbers, divisible by three, lying between 400 and 500.
Solution
The series is 402 + 408 + 414 +… + 498
The 1st term, a = 402
Common difference d = 408 – 402 = 6
U n = a + (n − 1)d
 498 = 402 + (n − 1)  6
 498 = 402 + 6n − 6
 498 = 396 + 6n
 102 = 6n
 n = 17
The number of terms = 17
Hence the sum of terms

S17 = 2  402 + (17 − 1)  6
17
2
= 804 + 16  6
17
2
= 900
17
2
= 17  450
= 7650
Example
An entrepreneur sells ¢160 million worth of his product in the first year of operation. The
entrepreneur has set a goal of increasing annual sales by ¢40 million each year for 9 years.
Assuming this goal is met; find the total sales during the first 10 years of business.
Solution
This is a linear sequence with:
First term, a = ¢160 million
Common difference, d = ¢40 million
Number of terms, n = 10
Total sales for ten years, S10 = 2(160) + (10 − 1)40
10
2
= 320 + (9) 40
10
2
10
= (320 + 360)
2
10
= (680)
2
= 3400
Hence the total sales for ten years is ¢3400 million
Example
A 16-team football league has GH¢800,000 to be awarded as prize money. If the last-place
team is awarded GH¢27,500 in prize money and the award increases by the same amount for
each successive finishing place, how much will the first-place team receive?
Solution
Let U 1 be the first-place team
U 2 the second-place team
……………………….
U16 be the last-place team
n
S n = (U1 + U n )
2
16
800,000 = (U1 + 27,500)
2
100,000 = U1 + 27,500
U1 = 72,500
EXERCISE
1. Find the sum of the following A.P.s as far as the terms indicated
a. 4 + 10 + …, 12th term b. 1 + 2 + …, 200th term
2. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 100 and 200.
3. The second term of an A.P. is 15 and the fifth term is 21. Find the common difference, the
first term and the sum of the first ten terms. The fourth term of an A.P is 18 and common
difference is – 5. Find the first term and the sum of the first sixteen terms.
4. Find the sum of the even numbers divisible by 3 between 100 and 200.
5. The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 5½ and the sum of the first twenty-one terms 94½.
Find the first term, common difference and the sum of the first thirty terms.
6. The twenty-first term of an A.P. is 37 and the sum of the first twenty terms is 320. What is
the sum of the first ten terms?
7. An advertisement for an appointment state that the post carries a salary of GH¢1760 per
annum rising by annual increments of GH¢80 to GH¢2880 per annum. What is the total
amount that a man would earn if he held the post for 20 years
8. A company makes a profit of GH¢18,000 during its first year. The director of the company
sets a goal of increasing profit by GH¢4,500 each year for 4 years. Assuming this goal is
met; find the total profit during the first 5 years of business.
9. Determine the seating capacity of an auditorium with 30 rows of seats if there are 20 seats
in the first row, 24 seats in the second row, and 28 seats in the third row, and so on.
Geometric progression
A geometric progression is a sequence which has a constant ratio between terms. It
a 2 a3 a 4
means = = = ... This ratio is written r .
a1 a 2 a 3
Examples:
e) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … is a geometric progression. It has a constant ratio between
terms (2, in this case), so r = 2 .
f) 1, -3, 9, -27, 81, … is a geometric progression with r = −3 .
1 1 1 1
g) 4,2,1, , , ,... is a geometric progression with r = .
2 4 8 2
In a geometric progression, each one of the terms can be obtained multiplying the
ratio by the preceding term, so:
a2 = a1 ·r
a3 = a 2 ·r = (a1 ·r )·r = a1 ·r 2
a 4 = a3 ·r = (a1 ·r 2 )·r = a1 ·r 3
a5 = a 4 ·r = (a1 ·r 3 )·r = a1 ·r 4
…
a n = a1 ·r n −1
This is the expression of the nth term in a geometric progression.
Example:
We write the nth term and a10 in the example e) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, … :
a n = a1 ·r n −1 , we substitute a1 = 1, r = 2 and calculate:
a n = 1·2 n −1
a n = 2 n −1
a n = a1 ·r n −1 , we substitute a1 = 1, r = 2 , n = 10 and calculate:
a10 = 1·210−1
a10 = 2 9
a10 = 512
The sum, S n = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an of the n first terms in a geometric progression,
can be calculated: a1 ·(r n − 1)

Sn =
r −1
Proof:
We write S n , S n ·r and we subtract these two expressions:
S n ·r = a2 + a3 + ... + an−1 + an + an ·r
- S n = a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an−1 + an
S n ·r − S n = −a1 + an ·r
S n ·(r − 1) = an ·r − a1 , so:
an ·r − a1
Sn = , using the expression of the nth term, we have:
r −1
(a1 ·r n −1 )·r − a1 a ·(r n − 1)
Sn = = 1
r −1 r −1
Example:
We want to know S10 in the same example (e)):
a1 ·(r n − 1)
Sn = , we substitute a1 = 1, n = 10, r = 2 and calculate:
r −1
1·(210 − 1)
S10 = = 1023
2 −1
Find the following sums
A. 1st 5 terms of -6 + 18 – 54 + ….
B. 5 + 10 + 20 + 40 + ... + 2560
Solutions:
A. We have a = -6, r = -3 and n = 5
5  1 − (−3)5 
So that  2(−3) n
= − 6  = −6 244  = −366
 1 − (−3)   4 
r =1
 
B. We have a = 5, r = 2, an = 2560
To find n we use an = a rn-1
2560 = 5(2)n-1
512 = (2)n-1
512 = 2n2-1
512 = 2n(1/2)
1024 = 2n
210 = 2n
n = 10
Now we are ready to use the formula
 1 − 210   1 − 1024 
S10 = 5  = 5  = 5(1023) = 5115
 1− 2   −1 
CHAPTER TEN
LIMITS OF FUNCTION
The Limits describe what happens to a function f(m) as its variable n approaches a particular
number c. to illustrate this concept, suppose you want to know what happens to the
x2 + x − 2
function f ( x) = as x approaches 1. Although f (x)
x −1
is not defined at x = 1, you can get a fell for the situation by evaluating f (x) using values of
x that get closer and closer to 1 from both the left and the right.
0.8 0.9 0.95 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.05 1.1
2.8 2.9 2.99 2.99 2.999 X 3.001 3.01 3.05 3.10
The function values in the table suggest that f (x) approaches the number 3 as x gets
closer and closer to 1 from either side. This behaviour may be described by saying the limit
of f (x) as x approaches 1 equals 3”.
Let us also consider f (x) numerically for a closer and closer to zero, we construct a table
sin x sin x
x x
x x
0.1 0.998334 - 0.1 0.998334
0.01 0.999983 - 0.01 0.999983
0.001 0.99999983 - 0.001 0.99999983
0.0001 0 .9999999983 - 0.0001 0 .9999999983
0.00001 0.999999999983 -0.00001 0.99999999999983
Sinx
We observed that as x get closer and closer to zero f ( x) = approaches 1
x
Sinx
Hence the limit of f ( x) = as x approaches 0 equals 1.
x
Sinx
That is lim =1
x →0 x
Limit
If f (x) get closer and closer to a number L as (x ) gets closer and closer to c from either
side, then L is the limit of f (x) as x approaches c.
This expressed by writing.
f ( x)
lim =L
xc
Properties of Limits
a) for any number c and constant k

lim k = k
xc
and
lim x = c
xc
That is, the limit of a constant is the constant itself and the limit of f (x) = x an x
approaches c is c.
b) Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
if p (c) and q (x) as polynomials, then
p ( x ) p (c )
lim p( x) = p(c) and lim = =, if q (c)  0.
q ( x ) q (c )
x → 0
x3 − 5 x + 4
Evaluate lim
x2 − 2
Solution
x 3 − 5 x + 4 33 − 5(3) + 4
Lim =
x2 − 2 32 − 2
327 − 15 + 4
=
9 −2
16
=
7
Evaluate
x 2 + 5 x − 14
lim
x→2 x −2
Solution
x 2 + 5 x − 14 p( x)
let lim = lim
x→2 x −2 x →2 q( x)
Where q (x) = x − 2  q(2) = 0
x 2 + 5 x − 14 ( x + 7)( x − 2)
Hence lim =
x→2 x −2 x −2
= lim( x + 7) = 2 + 7
x→2
= 9
Suppose that lim f (x) both exists and let c be any constant. The following then apply
(i) lim(cf ( x)) = c lim f ( x)

x→ a x→ a
(ii) lim f ( x) g ( x) = lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x →a x →a x→a
(iii) lim f ( x) + g ( x) = lim f ( x) + lim g ( x)
x →a x→a x→a
f ( x) lim f ( x)
(iv) lim = x→a ( if lim g ( x)  0 )
x→a g ( x) lim g ( x) x→a
 
x→a
n
(v) lim[ f ( x)]n = lim f ( x)
x→a x→a
Suppose that lim f (x) = L and n is any positive integer.

Then
lim n f ( x) = n lim f ( x) = n L
x →a x →a
Where for n even, we assume that L0
Evaluate lim 5 3 x n − 2 x
x→2
Solution
lim 5 3 x n − 2 x = 5 lim(3x n − 2 x )
x→2 x→a
= 5 12 − 4
=5 8
For any real number a, we have
(i) lim Sinx = Sina

x →a
(ii) lim Cosx = Cosa

x→a
(iii) lim e x = e a
x→a
(iv) lim ln x =In a, for a0

x→a
Cosx
Evaluate lim
x →0 Sinx
Solution
Cosx lim Sinx 0

lim
x →0
= x →0 = =0
Sinx lim Cosx 1
x →0
Evaluate the indicated limit.
1. lim( x 2 − 3 x + 1) 2. lim cos( x 2 + π) 3. lim x 2 + 2 x + 4

x →0 x →0 x →2
x−5 x+2
4. lim 2 x + 1 5. lim 6. lim
x→2 x→2 x2 + 4 x→2 x2 − 4
x−5− x−6 x−5− x−6 x2 − x − 2

7. lim 8. lim 9. lim
x →3 x−3 x→2 x−3 x→2 x2 − 4
x2 + x x3 −1 x −1
10. lim 11. lim 12. lim
x →0 x 2 − 3x x →1 x 2 + 2x − 3 x →3 x + 2x − 3
2
sin x xe −2+1
13. lim 14. lim ( x − π) tan x 15. lim
x →0 tan x x → ð/2 x →0 x2 +1
xe −2+1 tan 2 x
16. lim 17. lim 18. lim x 2 csc 2 x
x →0 x2 + x x →0 x x →0 +
x −1 x −2
19. lim 20. lim
x →1
x −1 x→4 x−4
Indeterminate Forms
Suppose f and g are different and g ( x)  0 on an open interval I that contains a (except
possibly at a ). Suppose that lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g ( x) = 0 or that lim f ( x) =  and
x→a x→a x →0
0 
lim g ( x) =  we have an indeterminate form of type or
x→a 0 
L’Hospital’s rule
f ( x)
If lim is an indeterminate form then the L’Hospital’s rule is saying
x→a g ( x)
f ( x) f ( x)
lim = lim if the limit on the right side exists (or is or −  ).
x →a g ( x) x → a g ( x )
Example
2x −1
Find lim
x →0 x
Solution: since lim x→0 (2 x − 1) = 0 and lim x→0 x = 0 , we can apply l’hopital’s rule.
2x −1 d
(2 x − 1) 2 x In2
lim = lim dx
= lim = In2
x →0 x x →0 d x →0
dx ( x ) 1
Example
ex
calculate lim
x → x2
Solution:
We have lim e x =  and lim x 2 =  so l’hopital’s rule gives
x → x →
ex ex
lim = lim since e x →  and 2x →  as x →  , the limit on the right side is also
x → x 2 x → 2 x
indeterminate, but a second application of l’hopital rule gives
ex ex ex
lim = lim = lim =
x → x 2 x → 2 x x → 2
Example
Inx
calculate lim
x → 3 x
Solution: since Inx →  and 3 x →  as x →  , l’hopital’s rules applies:

1
Inx 0
lim 3 = lim 1 x−2 notice that the limit on the right side is now indeterminate of type . But
x → x x→ 3 x 3
0
instead of applying l’hopital’s rule a second time as we did in example 2, we simplify the
expression and see that a second application is unnecessary:
1
Inx 3
lim 3 = lim 1 x−2 = lim 3 = 0
x → x x → 3 x 3 x → x
Example
tan x − x
lim
Find x →0 x3
Solution
Nothing that both tan x − x → 0 and x3 → 0 as x → 0 , we use the l’hopital’s rule:
tan x − x sec2 x − 1
lim 3
= lim 2
since the right hand side is still indeterminate of type 0 , we apply
x →0 x x → 0 3x 0
sec x − 1
2 2
2sec x tan x
the l’hopitals rule again: lim 2
= lim
x →0 3x x → 0 6x
Again both numerator and denominator approach 0, so the third application of l’hopitral’s rule
is necessary. Putting together all three steps, we get
tan x − x sec2 x − 1
lim = lim
x →0 x3 x →0 3x 2
2sec 2 x − tan x
= lim
x →0 6x
4sec 2 x tan 2 x + 2sec 4 x 2 1

= lim = =
x →0 6 6 3
Indeterminate products
If lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g ( x) = (or − ) , then it is not clear what the value of
x→a x→a
lim f ( x) g ( x), if any will beg. There is struggle between f and g . if f wins, the answer will
x→a
be 0; if g wins, the answer will be  ( or −  ) or there may be a compromise where the answer
is finite nonzero number. This kind of limit is called an indeterminate form of type 0.. we
could deal with it by writing the product fg as a quotient:
f g 0
fg = as fg = to convert the given limit in to an indeterminate form of type or  so
1
g
1
f 0 
that we can use l’hopital’s rule.
Example
Evaluate lim xInx.
x →0
Solution
1
The given limit indeterminate because x → 0 while Inx → − . Writing x = we have
( x)
1
1
1 →  as x → 0 so l’hopitals rule gives, lim xInx = lim Inx = lim x
= lim(− x) = 0
x x →0 x →0 1 x →0 −1 x →0
x x2
Indeterminate difference
If lim f ( x) =  and lim g ( x) =  ,then the limit lim ( f ( x) − g ( x) )
x→a x→a x →a
is called an indeterminate form of type  −  .
Example
Compute lim (sec x − tan x) .
 x →( 2 )
Solution
First notice that sec x →  and tan x →  as x → ( 2 ) , so the limit is indeterminate. Here we
use a common denomitor:
lim (sec x − tan x) = lim

x → 2 
( cos1 x − cos
x→ 2
x)
sin x
1 − sin x − cos x
= lim = lim =0
2 − sin x

x → 2 cos x x→ 
Indeterminate powers
There are several indeterminate form that arise from the limit lim  f ( x) g ( x )
x→a
1. lim f ( x) = 0 and lim g ( x) = 0 type 0 0

x→a x→a
2. lim f ( x) =  and lim g ( x) = 0 type  0

x→a x→a
3. lim f ( x) = 1 and lim g ( x) =  type 1

x→a x→a
Each of the three cases can be treated either by taking the natural logarithm:
Let y =  f ( x) 
g ( x)
, then Iny = g ( x) Inf ( x) or by writing the function as an exponential:
 f ( x)
g ( x)
= e g ( x ) Inf ( x )
in either method we are led to the indeterminate product g ( x) Inf ( x) , which will be type 0 .
Example
Calculate lim(1 + sin 4 x)cot x .
x →0
Solution
First notice that as x →  , so the given limit is indeterminate. Let
y = (1 + sin 4 x)cot x
Then
Iny = In (1 + sin 4 x)cot x  = cot xIn(1 + sin 4 x)
So l’hopiatl’s rule gives

In(1 + sin 4 x)
lim Iny = lim
x →0 x →0 tan x
4 cos 4 x
= lim 1+ sin 4 x
2
=4
x →0 sec x
So far we have computed the limit of Iny , but what we want is the limit the of y. to find this
we use the fact that y = e Iny :
lim (1 + sin 4 x)cos tx = lim+ y = lim+ e Iny = e4
x →0+ x →0 x →0
CHAPTER ELEVEN
DIFFERENTIATION
Given y = a + bx
a = intercept b = slope i.e. the impact of a unit change in x on the level of y
b = y = y2 − y1  y changes at a constant rate in response to changes in x

x x2 − x1
If the function is non-linear: e.g. if y = x2
40
30
y=x2
20
10
0
0 1 2 3
X 4 5 6
y y −y
= 2 1 gives slope of the line connecting 2 points (x1, y1) and (x2,y2) on a curve
x x2 − x1
(2,4) to (4,16): slope = (16-4)/(4-2) = 6
Alternative Notation for Differentiation
For y = f ( x) , all of the following may be used to represent the derivative:
dy d
f '( x), y ', , [ f ( x)]
dx dx
Differentiation from the First Principle

Definition: The derivative of a function f at a point a, denoted by f ′(a), is
f ( a + h) − f ( a )
f (a) = lim , provided that the limit exists.
h →0
h
If we denote y = f (x), then f ′(a) is called the derivative of f, with respect to (the independent
variable) x, at the point x = a.
Recall that the value of this limit is, if it exists, is the slope of the line tangent to the curve y = f
(x) at the point x = a. As well, it also represents the instantaneous rate of change, with respect to
x, of the function f at a.
Therefore, a positive f ′(a) means that the function f is increasing at a, while a negative f ′(a) means
that f is decreasing at a. If f ′(a) = 0, then f is neither increasing nor decreasing at a.
Derivative of f(x) = x Derivative of g(x) = x2 Derivative of h(x) = x3

f ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x + h) − g ( x) h ( x + h) − h ( x)
f '( x) = lim g '( x) = lim h '( x) = lim
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
( x + h) − ( x) ( x + h ) 2  −  x 2   ( x + h )3  −  x 3 
= lim
= lim       
h →0 h h →0
= lim 
h h →0 h
h
= lim  x + 2 xh + h 2  −  x 2 
2
 x + 3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h3  −  x3 
3
h →0 h = lim = lim
h →0 h
=1 h →0 h
2 xh + h 2
= 1 x 0 = lim 3x h + 3xh + h3
2 2
h →0 h = lim
h →0 h
= lim ( 2 x + h )
h →0 = lim ( 3x + 3xh + h 2 )
2
h →0
= 2x
= 3x 2
= 2x 1
Example
Let f (t) = t 5 + 6t , find f ′(a).
Solution
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) [(a + h)5 + 6(a + h)] − [a 5 + 6a]
f (a) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
[a 5 + 5a 4 h + 10a 3h 2 + 10a 2 h3 + 5ah 4 + h5 + 6a + 6h] − [a 5 + 6a]

= lim
h →0 h
5a 4 h + 10a 3h 2 + 10a 2 h3 + 5ah 4 + h5 + 6h

= lim
h →0 h
h(5a 4 + 10a 3h + 10a 2 h 2 + 5ah3 + h 4 + 6)

= lim
h →0 h
= lim (5a 4 + 10a3h + 10a 2 h2 + 5ah3 + h4 + 6) = 5a 4 + 6

h →0
Example.
Let f ( x) = 4 x 2 + 5 , find f ′(a).
Solution
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) 4(a + h) 2 + 5 − 4a 2 + 5
h →0 h h →0 h
4(a + h) 2 + 5 − 4a 2 + 5 4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5
= lim 
h →0 h 4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5
4(a + h) 2 + 5 − (4a 2 + 5) 4a 2 + 8ah + 4h 2 + 5 − 4a 2 − 5
= lim = lim
h →0
h ( 4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5 ) h →0
h ( 4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5 )
8ah + 4h 2 8a + 4h
= lim = lim
h →0
h ( 4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5 ) h →0
4(a + h) 2 + 5 + 4a 2 + 5
8a + 4(0) 8a 4a
= = =
4(a + 0) + 5 + 4a + 5
2 2
2 4a + 52
4a 2 + 5
Example.
1
Let f ( x) = , find f ′(a).
x +32
Solution
1 1
−
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) ( a + h) + 3 a +3 2 2
h →0 h h →0 h
1 1
−
( a + h) + 3
2
a + 3 ( a + h) 2 + 3 a 2 + 3
2
= lim 
h →0 h ( a + h) 2 + 3 a 2 + 3
a 2 + 3 − ( a + h) 2 + 3
= lim
h →0
h( (a + h) 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3)
a 2 + 3 − ( a + h) 2 + 3 a 2 + 3 + ( a + h) 2 + 3
= lim 
h →0
h( (a + h) 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3) a 2 + 3 + ( a + h) 2 + 3
(a 2 + 3) − (a 2 + 2ah + h 2 + 3)
= lim
h →0
h( (a + h) 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3 + (a + h) 2 + 3)
−2ah − h 2
= lim
h →0
h( (a + h) 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3 + (a + h) 2 + 3)
−2a − h −2a
= lim =
h →0
( (a + h)2 + 3)( a 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3 + (a + h) 2 + 3) ( a 2 + 3)( a 2 + 3)(2 a 2 + 3)
−a
=
( a + 3)3/ 2
2
Example
Differentiate f (x) = x3 − 7x + 4
Solution
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) [( x + h)3 − 7( x + h) + 4] − [ x 3 − 7 x + 4]
f ( x) = lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h
[( x3 + 3x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + h3 ) − 7 x − 7h + 4] − [ x 3 − 7 x + 4]
= lim
h →0 h
3x 2 h + 3xh 2 + h3 − 7h
= lim = lim (3 x 2 + 3 xh + h 2 − 7) = 3 x 2 − 7
h →0 h h →0
Rules for Differentiation
dy
1. The Constant Rule : If y = c where c is a constant, =0
dx
Derivative of a constant function
d
c = 0 for any constant c
dx
Proof: Let f(x) = c.
d f (x + h ) − f (x ) c−c 0
c = f ' ( x) = lim = lim = lim = 0
dx h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
Example.
y = 10
dy
=0
dx
2. The Linear Function Rule

Derivatives of Linear Combinations of Functions
1. The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives:
d
 f (x ) + g (x ) = d f (x ) + d g (x )
dx dx dx

Proof: Let k(x) = f(x) + g(x).
k (x + h ) − k (x )
d
 f (x ) + g (x ) = k ' ( x) = lim
h →0
dx h
= lim
 f (x + h ) + g (x + h ) −  f (x ) + g (x )
h →0 h
= lim
 f (x + h ) − f (x ) + g (x + h ) − g (x )
h →0 h
= lim
 f (x + h ) − f (x ) + lim g (x + h ) − g (x )
h →0 h h →0 h
= f ' (x ) + g ' (x )
2. The derivative of a difference is the difference of the derivatives:

d
 f (x ) − g (x ) = d f (x ) − d g (x )
dx dx dx
Proof: Let k(x) = f(x) - g(x).
k (x + h ) − k (x )
d
 f (x ) − g (x ) = k ' ( x) = lim→
dx h 0 h
= lim
 f (x + h ) − g (x + h ) −  f (x ) − g (x )
h →0 h
= lim
 f (x + h ) − f (x ) − g (x + h ) − g (x )
h →0 h
= lim
 f (x + h ) − f (x ) − lim g (x + h ) − g (x )
h →0 h h →0 h
= f ' (x ) − g ' (x )
If y = a + bx
dy
=b
dx
Example
y = 10 + 6x
dy
=6
dx
3. The derivative of the product of a function and a constant is the product of the
constant and the derivative of the function:

d
cf (x ) = c d f (x )
dx dx

Proof: Let k(x) = cf(x).
d k ( x + h) − k ( x)
cf ( x )  = k '( x) = lim
dx h →0 h
cf ( x + h ) − cf ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
 f ( x + h) − f ( x) 
= lim c  
h →0
 h 
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
= c lim
h →0 h
= cf ' ( x )
3. The Power Function Rule
If y = ax ,
n
a & n are constants
dy
= n.a .x n −1
dx
Power Rule (Derivative of a positive integer power function)

d n
x = nx n −1 for any integer n > 0
dx
Proof: Let f(x) = xn.

d n f ( x + h) − f ( x)
x = f '( x) = lim
dx h →0 h
( x + h) − xn
n
= lim
h →0 h
n(n − 1) n − 2 2
x n + nx n −1h + x h + ... + nxh n −1 + h n − x n
= lim 2
h →0 h
 n(n − 1) n − 2 
h  nx n −1 + x h + ... + nxh n − 2 + h n −1 
= lim  
2
h →0 h
 n(n − 1) n − 2 
= lim  nx n −1 + x h + ... + nxh n − 2 + h n −1 
h →0
 2 
= nx n −1

i) y = 4x
dy
= 4 x0 = 4
dx
ii) y = 4x2 => dy = 8 x
dx
iii) y = 4x3 => dy
= 12 x 2
dx
iv) y = 4x-2 => dy = −8 x −3
dx
v) y = 2t − t + t −2 + 9
3 π
y′ = 2(t3)′ − (t π)′ + (t −2)′ + (9)′ = 2(3t2) − πt π −1 + (− 2t −3) + 0
= 6t2 − πt π −1 − 2t −3
2
vi) s (t ) = 5 t − + 43 t
t
s(t ) = 5t 1/ 2 − 2t −1/ 2 + 4t 1/ 3 , then
 1 ( 12 −1)   − 1 ( −21 −1)   1 ( 13 −1)  5 −21 −23 4 −32

s(t ) = 5  t  − 2 t  + 4 t  = t +t + t
2   2  3  2 3
     
4. The Sum-Difference Rule
If y = f(x)  g(x)
dy d [ f ( x )] d [ g ( x )]
= 
dx dx dx
If y is the sum/difference of two or more functions of x: differentiate the 2 (or more) terms
separately, then add/subtract
(i) y = 2x2 + 3x then dy

= 4x + 3
dx
(ii) y = 4x2 - x3 - 4x then dy

= 8 x − 3x 2 − 4
dx
(iii) y = 5x + 4 then dy = 5
dx

5. The Product Rule
If y = u.v where u and v are functions of x
Then dy = u dv + v du
dx dx dx
i) y = (x+2)(ax2+bx)
= (x + 2)(2ax + b ) + (ax 2 + bx )
dy
dx
ii) y = (4x3-3x+2)(2x2+4x)
( ) (
dy =  4 x3 − 3x + 2  4 x + 4 + 2 x
dx 


2
+ 4x )(12 x 2
−3 )
Example
Find the derivative of f ( x) = (2 x 2 − 6)(3x 3 + 8)
Solution
Using the product rule as given by Theorem 5 where,
f ( x ) = u ( x )v ( x )
d d
f ( x) = u ( x) v( x) + v( x) u ( x)
dx dx
f ( x) = (2 x 2 − 6)(3x 3 + 8)
u ( x) = 2 x 2 − 6
v( x) = 3 x 3 + 8
Taking the derivative of u (x) ,
du d
= (2 x 2 − 6)
dx dx
d d
= (2 x 2 ) − (6)
dx dx
d 2
=2 (x ) − 0
dx
= 2( 2 x )
= 4x

Taking the derivative of v(x) ,
dv d
= (3x 3 + 8)
dx dx
d d
= (3x 3 ) + (8)
dx dx
d 3
=3 (x ) + 0
dx
= 3(3x 2 )
= 9x 2
Using the formula for the product rule
d d
f ( x) = u ( x) v( x) + v( x) u ( x)
dx dx
= (2 x 2 − 6)(9 x 2 ) + (3 x 3 + 8)(4 x)
= 18 x 4 − 54 x 2 + 12 x 4 + 32 x
= 30 x 4 − 54 x 2 + 32 x
6. The Quotient Rule
If y = u/v where u and v are functions of x
du dv
v −u
Then dy = dx dx
2
dx v
i) y = (x+2)/(x+4)
dy =  x + 4 −  x + 2 =
   
2
dx  x + 4 2
 
 x + 4 2
 
   
ii) y = (3x+2)/(x2+4)
 x2 + 4 (3) − (3x + 2 )(2 x )

dy  
=
dx  x2
2
 + 4 
 
dy − 3x 2 − 4 x + 12
=
dx  x2 + 4
2
 
 

Example
(2 x 2 − 6)
Find the derivative of f ( x) = .
(3x 3 + 8)
Solution
Use the quotient rule, if
u ( x)
f ( x) =
v( x)
then
d d
v( x) u ( x) − u ( x) v( x)
f ( x) = dx dx
(v( x)) 2
From
(2 x 2 − 6)
f ( x) =
(3x 3 + 8)
we have
u ( x) = 2 x 2 − 6
v( x) = 3x3 + 8
Taking the derivative of u (x) ,
du d
= (2 x 2 − 6)
dx dx
d d
= (2 x 2 ) − (6)
dx dx
d
= 2 (x 2 ) − 0
dx
= 2( 2 x )
= 4x
Taking the derivative of v(x) ,
dv d
= (3x 3 + 8)
dx dx
d d
= (3x 3 ) + (8)
dx dx
d
= 3 (x3 ) + 0
dx
= 3(3x 2 )
= 9x 2
Using the formula for the quotient rule,
(3x 3 + 8)(4 x) − (2 x 2 − 6)(9 x 2 )
f ( x) =
(3x 3 + 8) 2

12 x 4 + 32 x − 18 x 4 + 54 x 2
=
9 x 6 + 48 x 3 + 64
− 6 x 4 + 54 x 2 + 32 x
=
9 x 6 + 48 x 3 + 64
Example
The total Volume V (in thousands of gallons of water) for a contractor’s work t months after the
125t 2
water is introduced is given by V (t ) = 2
t + 100
Find
(i) V (t )
(ii) V (10) and V (10) . Write a brief interpretation of these results
(iii). Use the results from (ii) to estimate the total volume after 11 months.
Solution
125t 2
S (t ) =
t 2 + 100
(t 2 + 100)(125t 2 ) − (125t 2 )(t 2 + 100)
S (t ) =
(t 2 + 100) 2
250t 3 + 25000t − 250t 3 25000t
S (t ) = = 2
(t + 100)
2 2
(t + 100) 2
125(10) 2
S (10) = = 62.5 = 62500
(10) 2 + 100
25000(10)
S (10) = = 6.25 = 6250
(102 + 100) 2
The total sales after 10 months are 62500 gallons of water and sales are increasing at the rate of
6250 gallons of water per month.
The estimated total sales after 11 months are 62500 + 6250 = 68750 gallons of water.
7. The Chain Rule
If y is a function of v, and v is a function of x, then y is a function of x and
dy dy dv
= .
dx dv dx
i) y = (ax2 + bx)½
let v = (ax2 + bx) , so y = v½
1
= ( ax + bx ) 2 . ( 2ax + b )
dy 1 2 −
dx 2

ii) y = (4x3 + 3x – 7 )4
let v = (4x3 + 3x – 7 ), so y = v4
= 4 ( 4 x3 + 3x − 7 ) . (12 x 2 + 3)
dy 3
dx
8. The Inverse Function Rule
dy 1
If x = f(y) then =
dx dx
dy
The derivative of the inverse of the function x = f(y), is the inverse of the derivative of the function
(i) x = 3y2 then
dx dy 1
= 6y so =
dy dx 6 y
(ii) y = 4x3 then
dy dx 1
= 12 x 2 so =
dx dy 12 x 2
Example
x 2 + 3x + 2
Differentiate f ( x ) = 2
x − 3x + 2
( x 2 − 3 x + 2)( x 2 + 3 x + 2) − ( x 2 + 3 x + 2)( x 2 − 3 x + 2)

f ( x) =
( x 2 − 3 x + 2) 2
( x 2 − 3 x + 2)(2 x + 3) − ( x 2 + 3 x + 2)(2 x − 3)
=
( x 2 − 3 x + 2) 2
Example
2 x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 5
Differentiate g ( x ) =
x2
The easiest way to do this is to rewrite g(x) as

1 5
g ( x) = 2 x + 3 − + , then
x x2
g ( x) = 2( x) + (3) − ( x −1 ) + 5( x −2 ) = 2 + 0 − (− x −2 ) + 5(−2 x −3 )
1 10
= 2 + x −2 − 10 x −3 = 2 + −
x 2 x3
Example
Differentiate y = x ( x 2 − 5 x + 2)
Simplify first: y = x5/2 − 5x3/2 + 2x1/2.
5 3/ 2 3  1  5 15
y = x − 5 x1 / 2  + 2 x −1 / 2  = x 3 / 2 − x1 / 2 + x −1 / 2
2 2  2  2 2
The longer way to do this is by using the product rule:
1
y  = x ( x 2 − 5 x + 2) + ( x 2 − 5 x + 2)( x ) = x (2 x − 5) + ( x 2 − 5 x + 2)( x −1 / 2 )
2
1 1 5
= x1 / 2 (2 x − 5) + ( x 2 − 5 x + 2)( x −1 / 2 ) = 2 x 3 / 2 − 5 x1 / 2 + x 3 / 2 − x1 / 2 + x −1 / 2
2 2 2
5 3 / 2 15 1 / 2
= x − x + x −1 / 2
2 2
9. Differentiating Exponential Functions
y = exp(x) = ex
Features of y = ex
• non-linear
• always positive
• as  x get  y and  slope of graph
• exponential function can be differentiated

Rule :
dy
If y = ex then = e x where e = 2.71828….
dx
More generally,
dy
If y = Aerx then = rAe rx = ry
dx
Examples:
dy
1) y = e2x then = 2e2x using above rule
dx
dy
2) y = e-7x then = -7e-7x
dx
Differentiating Natural Logs
Thus, if y = ex then x = loge y = ln y
Logs to the base e are natural logs
Differentiating Natural Logs
dy
• If y = ex then = ex = y
dx
• From The Inverse Function Rule
dx 1
y = ex  =
dy y
• Now, if y = ex this is equivalent to writing x = loge y = ln y
dx 1
• Thus, x = ln y  =
dy y

10: Differentiating Natural Logs
dy 1
if y = loge x = ln x  =
dx x
NOTE: the derivative of a natural log function does not depend on the co-efficient of x
dy 1
Thus, if y = ln mx  =
dx x
Proof
• if y = ln mx m>0
• Rules of Logs  y = ln m+ ln x
• Differentiating (Sum-Difference rule)
dy 1 1
=0+ =
dx x x
Examples:
1) y = ln 5x
dy 1
(x>0)  =
dx x
2) y = ln(x2+2x+1)
let v = (x2+2x+1) so y = ln v
dy dy dv
Chain Rule:  = .
dx dv dx
dy 1
= 2 .(2 x + 2 )
dx x + 2x + 1
dy
= 2
(2 x + 2)
dx (
x + 2x + 1 )
3) y = x4lnx
Product Rule: 
dy 1
= x 4 + ln x .4 x 3
dx x
= x3 + 4 x3 ln x = x3 (1 + 4 ln x )
4) y = ln(x3(x+2)4)
Simplify first using rules of logs
 y = lnx3 + ln(x+2)4
 y = 3lnx + 4ln(x+2)
dy 3 4
= +
dx x x+2

Basic Differentiation Rules
Let C, a, and n be real numbers with a  0 . Let f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions.
Rules Examples
1. Constant rule: If y = C , then y ' = 0 . If y =  , then y ' = 0 .
2. Power rule: If y = x n , then y ' = n  x n −1 . If y = x7 , then y ' = 7 x 6 .
3. If y = C  f ( x) , then y ' = C  f '( x) . If y = 7 x 2 , then y ' = 7  2 x 2−1 = 14 x .
4. Sum and Difference rule:

If y = 3x 4 − 7 x , then y ' = 12 x3 − 7 .
If y = f ( x)  g ( x) , then y ' = f '( x)  g '( x)
5. If y = e x , then y ' = e x . If y = 3e x , then y = 3e x .
6. If y = a x , then y = a x ln a . If y = 3 , then y = 3x ln 3
x
If y = 3  ln x , then.
1
7. If y = ln x , then y ' = . 1 3
x y ' = 3 =
x x
Examples
Find the derivatives:
1
(a) f ( x) = 5 x3 + 7 x2.5 − 3x + 1 (b) y = 3t 2 − + e2
2t 2
4
(c) g ( x) = 5 5 x 2 − + 2 (d) y = 5  e x + 2  3x
x
(e) y = 3  ln x − 4  log 4 x
Solutions
(a)
d d d d d
[ f ( x)] = (5 x 3 ) + (7 x 2.5 ) − (3x) + (1)
dx dx dx dx dx
d d d d
=5  ( x 3 ) + 7  ( x 2.5 ) − 3  ( x ) + (1)
dx dx dx dx
3−1 2.5 −1 1−1
= 5  3  x + 7  2.5  x − 3  1 x + 0
= 15 x 2 + 17.5 x1.5 − 3

(b) If a power function involves negative powers, we must rewrite the function in the form of xn .
1
Then, we apply the power rule. Recall that n
= a − n . Hence,
a
1 1
y = 3t − 2 + e = 3t 2 − t −2 + e 2
2 2
2t 2
dy 1
= 3  2  t 2−1 − (−2)t −2−1 + 0
dx 2
1
= 6t + t −3 = 6t + 3
t
(c) If a power function involves radicals, we must rewrite each radical as a fractional power.
a n = a m . Hence,
m n
Again, we then apply the power rule. Recall that
4
g ( x) = 5  5 x 2 − + 2
x
= 5  x 5 − 4 x −1 + 2
2
2 2
g '( x) = 5  x 5 −1 − 4  (−1)  x −1−1 + 0
5
2 4
= 2 x − 5 + 4 x −2 = 3 + 2
3
x5 x
2 4
= + 2
5 3
x x
(d) Using rules 5 and 6, we have
y ' = 5  e x + 2  3x ln 3 . Note: 2  3x  6x
(e) By rules 7 , we have
dy 1 1 3 4
= 3 − 4  = −
dx x x  ln 4 x x  ln 4
Table of Derivatives
f (x) f (x)
xn , n  0 nx n −1
kx n , n  0 knx n −1
sin(x) cos(x)

cos(x) − sin(x)
tan(x) sec 2 ( x)
sinh(x) cosh(x)
cosh(x) sinh(x)
tanh(x) 1 − tanh2 ( x)
1
sin−1 ( x)
1− x2
−1
cos −1 ( x)
1− x2
1
tan −1 ( x)
1+ x2
csc(x) − csc( x)cot ( x)
sec(x) sec( x)tan( x)
cot (x) − csc 2 ( x)

csch(x) − coth( x)csch( x)
sech(x) − tanh( x) sech( x)
coth(x) 1 − coth2 ( x)
|x|
csc −1 ( x) −
x 2
x2 −1
|x|
sec −1 ( x)
x2 x2 −1
−1
cot −1 ( x)
1+ x2
ax ln(a)a x
1
ln(x)
x
1
log a (x)
xln(a )
ex ex

Implicit Differentiation
Sometimes, the function to be differentiated is not given explicitly as an expression of the
independent variable. In such cases, how do we find the derivatives? We will discuss this via
examples.
Example
dy
Find if x 2 + y 2 = 2 xy
dx
Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 2 xy
d 2 d
(x + y 2 ) = (2 xy)
dx dx
d 2 d d
(x ) + ( y 2 ) = (2 xy)
dx dx dx
dy dy
2x + 2 y = 2x + 2 y
dx dx
dy dy
2y − 2x = 2 y − 2x
dx dx
dy
(2 y − 2 x) = 2 y − 2x
dx
dy 2 y − 2 x
=
dx 2 y − 2 x
dy
=1
dx
Example
If x 2 − xy + y 2 = 5 , find the value of y  .

Solution
x 2 − xy + y 2 = 5
d 2 d
( x − xy + y 2 ) = (5)
dx dx
d 2 d d
( x ) − ( xy) + ( y 2 ) = 0
dx dx dx
dy dy
2x − x − y + 2 y = 0
dx dx

dy
(− x + 2 y ) = −2 x + y
dx
dy y − 2 x
=
dx 2 y − x
y − 2x
y =
2y − x
Higher order derivatives
So far, we have limited our discussion to calculating first derivative, f (x) of a function f (x) .
What if we are asked to calculate higher order derivatives of f (x) .
A simple example of this is finding acceleration of a body from a function that gives the location
of the body as a function of time. The derivative of the location with respect to time is the
velocity of the body, followed by the derivative of velocity with respect to time being the
acceleration. Hence, the second derivative of the location function gives the acceleration
function of the body.
Example
Given f ( x) = 3x 3 − 2 x − 7 , find the second derivative, f (x) and the third derivative, f (x) .
Solution
Given
f ( x) = 3x3 − 2 x − 7
we have
f ( x) = 3(3x 2 ) − 2
= 9x 2 − 2
d
f ( x) = ( f ( x))
dx
d
= (9 x 2 − 2)
dx
= 9(2 x)
= 18 x
d
f ( x) = ( f ( x))
dx
d
= (18 x )
dx
= 18

Example
If x 2 − xy + y 2 = 5 , find the value of y  .

Solution
From Example 15 we obtain
y − 2x
y = ,
2y − x
(2 y − x) y  = y − 2 x
d d
((2 y − x) y) = ( y − 2 x)
dx dx
d d d d
(2 y − x) ( y) + y (2 y − x) = ( y ) − (2 x)
dx dx dx dx
y(2 y − x) + y (2 y − 1) = y − 2
2 y − 2 − 2 y2
y  =
2y − x
After substitution of y  ,
2
y − 2x  y − 2x 
2 − 2 − 2 
2y − x  2 y − x 
y =
2y − x
6( y 2 − xy + x 2 )
=−
(2 y − x) 3

Some Applications of Differentiation

Velocity and Acceleration
Given a position function y = s(t )
Velocity: v(t ) = s (t )
Acceleration: Is the rate of change of velocity and is defined to be

a(t ) = v (t ) = s (t )
Try:
Suppose the equation of motion of a particle is given by the position function
s(t ) = 2t 3 − 7t 2 + 4t + 1 where s is in meters and t is in seconds.
a. Find the velocity and acceleration functions as functions of t.

b. Find the acceleration after 1 second.

How to Find a Tangent Line
Since the slope of a line tangent to a curve is given by the derivative, differentiation rules can
be used to find the equation of the tangent line. The steps for deriving a tangent line from a
function f(x) at x = a are summarized in the following table.
Assuming that f(x) is differentiable at x = a.
Step 1. Find the y coordinate of the point at x = a: y = f (a) (x and y are both given sometimes.)
Step 2. Find the slope of the tangent line at x = a: m = f '(a)
Step 3. Use the point-slope formula y − y0 = m( x − x0 ) to find the equation of the tangent line:
y − f (a) = f '(a)( x − a)
Example
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f ( x) = 2 x3 − 2 x 2 + 1 at x = 1. Sketch the
graph of f(x) and the tangent line on the same axes.
Solutions
When x = 1, we can get the y coordinate by finding f(1):
y = f (1) = 2  13 − 2 12 + 1 = 1 .
By taking the derivative, we can find a formula for the slope of a line tangent to any point of f
d
f '( x) = (2 x3 − 2 x 2 + 1)
dx
= 6x2 − 4x
In particular, the slope of the tangent line of f at x = 1 is
m = f '(1) = 6 12 − 4 1 = 2
By using the point-slope formula of the line equation with slope 2 and the point (1, 1), we have
y − 1 = 2( x − 1)
y = 2x − 1

The graph of f ( x) = 2 x3 − 2 x 2 + 1 and the tangent line y = 2 x − 1 at x = 1 can be seen in Figure
below
Figure Graph of Example
(1, 1)
Example
x
Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = at the point (3, 0.3).
x2 +1
Solution
To find the equation any line, including a tangent line, we need the slope and at least one
point. The point (3, 0.3) is given. To find a formula for calculating the slope of the tangent
line, we need to find the derivative of the function, which in this case is done using the
quotient rule. We calculate the derivative and simplify as follows:
Denom Derivative of Numer Numer Derivative of Denom

dy ( x + 1)
2
(1) − ( x) (2 x)
=
dx ( x + 1)
2 2
(Denom) 2
dy x 2 + 1 − 2x 2
= (Multiply x 2 + 1 and 1, x and 2 x)
dx ( x + 1)
2 2
dy 1− x2
= (Simplify)
dx ( x 2 + 1) 2
We now find the slope of the tangent line by substituting the x coordinate of the point (3,
0.3) into the derivative. This gives

Slope of tangent line
1 − (3) 2 1− 9 −8 8
at the point (3, 0.3) = m = = = =− = −0.08 .
(3 + 1)
2 2
(9 + 1) 2
(10) 2 100
x=3
Using m = −0.08 and the point (3, 0.3), we solve of the parameter b in the equation of the
tangent line as follows:
y = mx + b
y = −0.08 x + b
0.3 = −0.08(3) + b (For the point (3, 0.3), x = 3 when y = 0.3)
0.3 = −0.24 + b (Simplify_
b = 0.3 + 0.24 = 0.54 (Solve for b)
Hence, the equation of the tangent line is y = −0.08 x + 0.54 .
The derivative of a function can also be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change of
f(x). Hence, we can use the derivative to study rates of change.
Example
The population of a fire ant colony is growing according to the function N (t ) = 100 t + 1000 , where
2 3
t is time measured in days. What is the rate of change of the population with respect to time when t =
4? Give units and interpret the answer.
Solutions
The rate of change of the population with respect to time is given by N '(t ) . Therefore,
d d 3
N '(t ) = (100 2 t 3 + 1000) = (100  t 2 + 1000)
3
Rewrite 2 t 3 as t .
2
dt dt
3 3
= 100  t 2 −1 + 0 = 100  t 2 = 100 t
1
2 Power rule and simplify.
When t = 4, the rate is
N '(4) = 100 4 = 200 fire ants/day
dN
If N (t ) = f (t ) , N '(t ) also can be written as in what is called Leibniz’s notation. Leibniz’s
dt
notation is useful for determining the units of the derivative:
dN units of N
N '(t ) = 
dt units of t

Since N is measured in number of the fire ants and t is measured in days, N '(t ) must be
measured in number of fire ants per day. The statement N '(4) = 200 fire ants per day means
that on the fourth day, the colony is increasing in size at the rate of 200 fire ants per day. This
is an instantaneous rate of change, meaning that if the rate were remaining 200 fire ants
increasing per day for a whole day on forth day, there would be extra 200 fire ants on the fifth
day.
Example
Derek purchased a new car for $20,000 dollars and its value after t years is estimated by
V (t ) = 20,000(0.9)t . How much was the car decreasing in value per year when it was driven out
of the show room?
Solutions
This is asking for the rate of change of the car’s value at t = 0, or V '(0) . Since
V '(t ) = 20,000  (0.9)t  ln(0.9) ,
we have
V '(0) = 20,000  (0.9)0  ln(0.9)
 −2,107.2 dollars/year
The statement V '(0)  −2,107.2 dollars/year means that the value of the car decreased at a rate
of $2,107.2 per year when the car was driven out of the show room.

Element of Maths I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Element of Maths I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Element of Maths I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER ONE

INDICES AND LOGARITHMS

Exponents are used to indicate repeated multiplication

Example Simplify the following, i. 3 2  3 2 ii. 5 2  5 iii. 10000−

Example Simplify the following; 2

Solving Exponential function

 8(  4 n+1 9 −(  3n+ 2  81− 4

 12 n+1  27 −( 2 ) n  32( 2 ) n 10( 3 ) n  15( 2 ) n  6 ( 6 ) n  45( 3 ) n

2. Solve the equations:

i. log a ( m  n ) = log a m + log a n

= [log3 ( x) + log3 ( y 3 )] − log3 ( z 2 )

= log3 ( x) + 3 log3 ( y) − 2 log3 ( z)

Graph of Linear equation

Distance between two points

WITH COORDINATE PLANE

b. C(-3,15) and D(-6,0)

3. Find the distance of the point (15, 8) from the origin.

The tangent of the angle  is given by

Suppose lines L1and L2 above are parallel.

FORMING LINEAR EQUATION

3. Find if AB is parallel or perpendicular to PQ in the following cases:

3. Determine whether the following points lie on the given curve:

7. Find the intercepts on the axes made by the straight

8. Write down the equation of the straight line

SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

Equation with One Unknown

Solving a Linear Equation Containing Fractions

Linear Equation with No Solution

Linear Equation with infinitely many solutions

Original 1st 2nd Equal Final

x - 0.4x - 0.4( x − 0.4 x) = 648,000

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

ii) the constant is also zero, 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 +…… 0 xn = 0

Linear System of Equations in Two Variables

ii) Solving linear equations by substitution method

iii) Solving linear equations by elimination method

Consider the following system of equation;

Subtracting (2) from the new equation, we get

Hence the solution to the system of equation is

A system with infinitely many solutions

Equation to the type ax 2 + c = 0

Consider the equation

b) EXTRACTING SQUARE ROOTS

c) METHOD OF COMPLETING SQUARES

and then apply the square root method.

to complete square   = 9 is added to each side

Hence the solution x = − 1,2,−3,4

Sum and Product of Roots

Hence the equation

4. Find the quadratic equation whose roots are the following.

5. If the roots of equation 2 x 2 + 3x − 4 = 0 are  and  , find the values of

9. The roots of the equation x2 − 6 x + q = 0 are  and  - 1. Find the value of q.

11. The roots of the equation x2 + 2 px + q = 0 differ by 2. Show that p 2 = 1 + q.

Degree of the Polynomial Function

The expressions like

The degree of the polynomial = the highest degree of the terms

2. Determine the degree of the following polynomials

Arithmetic of Polynomial function

15x5 +9x 4 −2x 3 +0 +10