materials

Review
Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys—A Review
Ailing Zhang 1 and Yanxiang Li 1,2, *

1 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
zal19@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
2 Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials Processing Technology, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100084, China
* Correspondence: yanxiang@tsinghua.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-10-62773640

Abstract: Aluminum alloys have been extensively used as heatproof and heat-dissipation compo-
nents in automotive and communication industries, and the demand for aluminum alloys with
higher thermal conductivity is increasing. Therefore, this review focuses on the thermal conductivity
of aluminum alloys. First, we formulate the theory of thermal conduction of metals and effective
medium theory, and then analyze the effect of alloying elements, secondary phases, and temperature
on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. Alloying elements are the most crucial factor,
whose species, existing states, and mutual interactions significantly affect the thermal conductivity
of aluminum. Alloying elements in a solid solution weaken the thermal conductivity of aluminum
more dramatically than those in the precipitated state. The characteristics and morphology of
secondary phases also affect thermal conductivity. Temperature also affects thermal conductivity
by influencing the thermal conduction of electrons and phonons in aluminum alloys. Furthermore,
recent studies on the effects of casting, heat treatment, and AM processes on the thermal conduc-
tivity of aluminum alloys are summarized, in which processes mainly affect thermal conductivity
by varying existing states of alloying elements and the morphology of secondary phases. These
analyses and summaries will further promote the industrial design and development of aluminum
alloys with high thermal conductivity.

Keywords: aluminum alloys; thermal conductivity; alloying elements; secondary phases;

temperature; processes

Citation: Zhang, A.; Li, Y. Thermal

Conductivity of Aluminum
Alloys—A Review. Materials 2023, 16, 1. Introduction
2972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Aluminum has a thermal conductivity of 237 W m−1 K−1 . Its density is 2.7 g cm−3 ,
ma16082972 about one-third of the densities of steels and cast irons [1–3]. Aluminum alloys usually
Academic Editors: Tomasz Tański contain Si, Cu, Mg, Zn, and other alloying elements. They have the advantages of
and Przemysław Snopiński being lightweight, having good electrical and thermal conductivity, and having excellent
mechanical properties [4,5]. Concerning the increasing crisis of global warming, most
Received: 9 March 2023
automotive companies manufacture auto applications using lightweight aluminum
Revised: 2 April 2023
alloys to reduce the weight of automobiles, thereby reducing energy consumption and
Accepted: 6 April 2023
pollution [3,6,7]. In communication, base station radiators are commonly made of
Published: 8 April 2023
lightweight die casting aluminum alloys [8]. The thermal conductivity of aluminum
alloys is an important performance parameter in these fields. Automotive heatproof
components, such as engine blocks and cylinder heads, must possess high thermal
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. conductivity to transfer heat quickly and uniformly to ensure the regular operation of
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. automobiles [9]. With the development of communication systems from 4G to 5G, the
This article is an open access article heat generated in base stations increases dramatically, and the temperature of chips rises
distributed under the terms and rapidly. If the heat does not dissipate quickly, it will reduce the performance and service
conditions of the Creative Commons life of base stations [10]. Based on current demands, it is significant to study the thermal
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// conductivity of aluminum alloys to fabricate high thermal conductivity aluminum alloys
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ that fit mechanical property requirements simultaneously.
4.0/).

Materials 2023, 16, 2972. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16082972 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 2972 2 of 21

Based on alloying elements, cast aluminum alloys can be divided into six main series:
Al-Si, Al-Cu, Al-Cu-Si, Al-Mg, Al-Zn-Mg, and Al-Sn alloys [2]. Cast Al-Si alloys are the
most widely used aluminum alloys, whose production output accounts for 80~90% of the
world’s aluminum castings [11]. Based on the Si content, cast Al-Si alloys can be classified
as hypoeutectic, eutectic, and hypereutectic Al-Si alloys [4]. Table 1 presents the compo-
sition, thermal conductivity, and tensile strength of typical cast Al-Si alloys at 298 K [2].
Automotive engine blocks and cylinder heads are commonly made of 319 and 380 alloys
with excellent mechanical properties, and they have a low thermal conductivity of 109
and 96 W m−1 K−1 , respectively. Table 1 shows that higher tensile strength corresponds to
lower thermal conductivity in Al-Si alloys. This is because all of the strengthening methods
of aluminum alloys impair thermal conductivity to some extent, including work hardening,
solid solution strengthening, precipitation and dispersion strengthening, and second-phase
strengthening [12–21]. Therefore, aluminum alloys should be fabricated with strengthening
methods that minimize the detrimental effect on thermal conductivity to satisfy industrial
demands for thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.

Table 1. Thermal conductivity and tensile strength of cast Al-Si alloys at 298 K [2].

Thermal
Tensile Strength
Alloys (wt.%) Temper Conductivity
(MPa)
(W m−1 K−1 )
308 (Al-5.5Si-4.5Cu) F 195 142
319 (Al-6Si-3.5Cu) T6 280 109
354 (Al-9Si-1.8Cu-0.5Mg) T6 380 128
355 (Al-5Si-1.3Cu-0.5Mg) T6 240 152
356 (Al-7Si-0.3Mg) T6 230 151
357 (Al-7Si-0.5Mg) T6 262 152
359 (Al-9Si-0.6Mg) T6 276 138
360 (Al-9.5Si-0.5Mg) As-cast 305 113
380 (Al-8.5Si-3.5Cu) As-cast 330 96
383 (Al-10.5Si-2.5Cu) As-cast 310 96
384 (Al-11.2Si-3.8Cu) As-cast 330 92
390 (Al-17Si-4.5Cu-0.6Mg) T7 250 134
413 (Al-12Si) As-cast 300 121

The addition of alloying elements to aluminum can enhance the strength of pure
aluminum, followed by reducing thermal conductivity [4]. Alloying elements in aluminum
can exist in two states: solutions and/or precipitated compounds. The solid solubilities in
the aluminum of all alloying elements are limited. When the content of an alloying element
exceeds its solid solubility limit, the excess will exist in the form of precipitated dispersions
or secondary phases. Alloying elements cause lattice distortion in a solid solution and
introduce new interfaces in the precipitated state. For instance, Al-Si alloys contain solid
solution Si and eutectic Si phases. The morphology of eutectic Si may be lamellar, acicular,
or fibrous [22]. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys depends on alloying
elements and their existing states.
Temperature is another critical factor influencing the thermal conductivity of alu-
minum alloys. During heat transfer of aluminum alloys, carriers consist of predomi-
nant electrons and phonons, and there are barriers of electron–phonon, electron–impurity,
phonon–electron, phonon–phonon, and phonon–impurity scatterings [23]. Temperature
affects scattering levels and thus the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys [24].
The theory of thermal conduction of metals can investigate the effect of alloying
elements and temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. Moreover,
aluminum alloys can be regarded as composites composed of an aluminum matrix and
secondary phases. Thus, the effective medium theory (EMT) can be utilized to analyze the
effect of the characteristic and morphology of secondary phases on the thermal conductivity
of aluminum alloys [25,26]. Compared to experiments, theoretical research is efficient, low-
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 3 of 21

cost, and systematic [27,28]. It is beneficial to the composition and structure design of
aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity.
Industrially, casting and heat treatment processes are important ways to regulate the
thermal conductivity and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys [29–31]. Chen et al. [29]
reported that gravity casting Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Zn alloys have higher thermal conductivity than
die castings. Heat treatments include solution treatment, aging treatment, and annealing
treatment. Lumley et al. [30,32,33] demonstrated that aged Al-Si alloys have finer and more
spherical eutectic Si particles and higher thermal conductivity than as-cast alloys. After
annealing, the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys increases significantly, which is
associated with a noticeable decrease in mechanical strength [34–37]. Additionally, additive
manufacturing (AM) is an advanced and essential process in fabricating aluminum alloys,
whose parameters play an important role in the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys.
These processes affect the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys by varying existing
states of alloying elements and the morphology of secondary phases.
This review formulates theories of thermal conduction of metals and EMT and then
analyzes and summarizes the effect of alloying elements, secondary phases, and tempera-
ture on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. Based on the two factors of alloying
elements and secondary phases, the influence mechanism and law of casting, heat treat-
ment, and AM processes on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys are summarized.
This review will provide practical references for developing aluminum alloys with high
thermal conductivity.

2. Theories of Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys

2.1. Theory of Thermal Conduction of Metals
Heat transfer depends on conduction, radiation, and convection [38]. The heat transfer
mechanism of metals is mainly thermal conduction, whose carries include predominant
electrons and phonons [39]. Thermal conductivity is a parameter that measures the thermal
property of materials and is usually denoted as k in W m−1 K−1 . The thermal conductivity of
metals is composed of electronic thermal conductivity k e and phononic thermal conductivity
k p [23].
k = ke + k p (1)
Electrons dominate heat and electricity transfer of metals, and electronic thermal
conductivity and electrical conductivity are shown in Equations (2) and (3) [24].

1 e 2
ke = C v τE (2)
3 v F

ne2
σ= τE (3)
m
where τE is electronic energy relaxation time, representing the average time an electron
loses excess energy. Cve is the contribution of electrons to the specific heat per unit volume.
Cve = 32 nk B and k B are the Boltzmann constants. v F is electron group velocity and τE v F is
mean free path. σ is electrical conductivity, reciprocal of the resistivity ρ. e, m, and n denote
the electronic charge, mass, and density, respectively.
The Wiedemann–Franz law proposed the relationship between electronic thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and temperature [23].

ke
= L0 T (4)
σ
where T is the absolute temperature and L0 is the Lorentz constant.
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 4 of 21

According to Equations (1) and (4), the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys is
formulated as Equation (5). Hatch et al. [4] proposed that the Lorentz constant of aluminum
alloys is 2.1 × 10−8 W Ω K−2 , and c is 10.5~12.6 W m−1 K−1 .

L0 T
k = σL0 T + c = +c (5)
ρ

The resistivity of aluminum alloys consists of the intrinsic resistivity ρ( T ) and residual
resistivity ρ0 , ρ( T ) depends on temperature, and ρ0 is related to solid solution alloying
elements, precipitates, grain boundaries, dislocations, and vacancies [23].

ρ = ρ( T ) + ∑ Csi ∆ρis + ∑ Cip ∆ρip + ρ g + ρd + ρv (6)

i i

where Csi and Cip are the content of the ith solid solution and precipitated alloying element,
respectively. ∆ρis and ∆ρip are resistivity increments caused by 1% of the ith solid solution and
precipitated alloying element, respectively. ρg , ρd , and ρv are resistivities of grain boundaries,
dislocations, and vacancies, which are much smaller than other resistivities [40–43].
Many researchers have measured the resistivity increment of pure aluminum gener-
ated by 1% alloying elements in a solid solution, as shown in Table 2 [1,44–46]. Alloying
elements increase the resistivity of pure aluminum to varying degrees, attributed to dif-
ferences in the outer electronic structure and atom radii between aluminum and alloying
elements [4,47]. According to the Wiedemann–Franz law [23], alloying elements reduce the
thermal conductivity of pure aluminum to varying degrees. Van horn et al. [44] investigated
the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution and precipitated state on the resistivity of
pure aluminum. Therefore, after determining the species and content of alloying elements,
Equations (5) and (6) are available to predict thermal conductivity and investigate the effect
of temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys.

Table 2. Increments in resistivity of pure aluminum per 1% alloying elements in a solid solution
(µΩ cm/wt.%).

References Si Cu Mg Mn Fe Zn Cr Ti V Ni Zr
Van Horn [44] 1.02 0.344 0.54 2.94 2.56 0.09 4.00 2.88 3.58 0.81 1.74
Sacharow [45] 0.4 0.51 2.6 0.41 0.15 3.65 4.56 0.38 1.58
Gauthier [45] 0.47 0.31 0.63 3.8 0.14 0.01 4.7 3.75 3.94 0.09
CRC-handbook [46] 0.67 0.32 0.5 3.2 0.9 4.42 3.14 4.16 0.05 1.35
Bohner [46] 2 0.4 0.5 3 0.2 0.01 4 / 4 0.2 /
Gauthier [46] 0.37 0.22 0.4 3.3 0.26 0.09 3.6 2.8 4 0.04 /
Willey [1] 1 0.34 0.5 2.9 2.6 0.1 4 2.9 3.6 0.8 1.7
Harrington R.H. [1] / 0.5 0.6 2.5 0.1 / 3.8 1.8 / 0.1 0.5

The theory of the thermal conduction of metals can be applied to study the effect of
alloying elements and temperature on thermal conductivity and to design the composition
of aluminum alloys based on the thermal conductivity requirement. However, cast alu-
minum alloys contain multiple species of alloying elements whose mutual interaction is
challenging to quantify. Abundant alloying elements form secondary phases in aluminum
alloys, the effect of which the theory of thermal conduction of metals cannot analyze.

2.2. Effective Medium Theory for Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum alloys contain various secondary phases, such as eutectic Si and Al2 Cu [1].
Commonly used 380 and 319 alloys mainly have eutectic Si and Al2 Cu phases with volume
fractions of about 5~8% and 5%, respectively. So, aluminum alloys can be regarded as
composites composed of aluminum matrix and secondary phases. EMT can investigate
the thermal conductivity of composites. Therefore, EMT can be applied to analyze the
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 5 of 21

effect of the type, volume fraction, and morphology of secondary phases on the thermal
conductivity of aluminum alloys.
Series, parallel, and Maxwell–Eucken models are the most fundamental of the two-
phase composite theoretical models [25]. Series and parallel models correspond to two-
phase arrangements perpendicular and parallel to the heat flow direction. The two models
determine the lower and upper boundaries of effective thermal conductivity, formulated as
Equations (7) and (8), respectively. Thus, the effective thermal conductivity of two-phase
composites relates to the fraction of the two phases in series and parallel.
  −1
v1 v
ks = + 2 (7)
k1 k2

k p = v1 k 1 + v2 k 2 (8)
where k s and k p represent effective thermal conductivities of series and parallel models
and v1 , v2 , k1 , and k2 represent volume fractions and thermal conductivities of two
phases, respectively.
The eutectic Si phase in Al-Si alloys is mainly lamellar [48]. Helsing et al. [49] proposed
that the effective thermal conductivity of lamellar eutectic relates to series and parallel
models, as formulated in Equation (9). Based on Helsing’s model, Chen et al. [50] calculated
the thermal conductivity of eutectic Al-Si alloys to be 161.5 W m−1 K−1 .
 
1
q
k= k p + k p 2 + 8k p k s (9)
4

The Maxwell–Eucken model assumes that spherical particles are isolated and dis-
tributed throughout the continuous matrix, and the thermal conductivity is formulated
in Equation (10). Hamilton [51] introduced an empirical shape factor into the Maxwell–
Eucken model to investigate the effect of discontinuous phase morphology on the thermal
conductivity of composites, as shown in Equation (11).

k d + 2k m − 2Vd (k m − k d )
 
k = km (10)
k d + 2k m + Vd (k m − k d )

k d + (n − 1)k m − (n − 1)Vd (k m − k d )
 
k = km (11)
k d + (n − 1)k m + Vd (k m − k d )
where k m , k d , vm , and vd are thermal conductivities and volume fractions of the matrix and
discontinuous phase, respectively. n = 3/ϕ and ϕ are the sphericity of discontinuous phases.
Series and parallel models define a wide range of thermal conductivity for two-
phase composites. Hashin and Shtrikman [52,53] proposed a modified model for the
theoretical thermal conductivity limit of two-phase composites, referred to as the H-S
model. Supposing k2 > k1 , the upper and lower thermal conductivity of composites are
formulated in Equations (12) and (13) according to the H-S model. The upper boundary
corresponds to the dispersion of the low-conductive phase in the high-conductive phase,
and the lower boundary is the opposite.

1 − v2
k up = k2 + 1 v2 (12)
k1 −k2+ 3k 2

v2
k lo = k1 + 1 1− v2
(13)
k2 −k1 + 3k1

In the literature, several studies have investigated the effect of Si content on the thermal
conductivity of Al-Si alloys using the Maxwell–Eucken model [50,54]. Furthermore, Stadler
et al. [55] employed the H-S model to analyze this effect. However, calculated values of the
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 6 of 21

Maxwell–Eucken and H-S models deviate from experiments greatly, and neither model
considers the morphology of eutectic Si.
EMT can be used to study the effect of the characteristic and morphology of secondary
phases on thermal conductivity, facilitating the structure design of aluminum alloys. Nev-
ertheless, it is difficult to determine the thermal conductivity with complex morphology
secondary phases in aluminum alloys. For example, the morphology of eutectic Si in Al-Si
alloys can transform from lamellar to fibrous by melt modification treatment.
The unit cell model can explore the thermal conductivity of composites with com-
plex structural features through the thermal resistance network method [56]. Based on
the unit cell model, Wang et al. [57] calculated the effective thermal conductivity of gray
cast iron with a locally interconnected graphite structure. Additionally, many researchers
investigated the effective thermal conductivity of composites with cylindrical particles [58],
reinforced particles [59], and embedded H-shaped fractal-like tree networks [60]. Accord-
ingly, the unit cell model is very appropriate for exploring the effect of various complex
morphologies of secondary phases on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys.

3. Factors Affecting the Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys

3.1. Alloying Elements
Whether alloying elements in aluminum alloys dissolve in the matrix or exist in the
precipitated state, they will hinder the movement of dislocations, enhancing mechanical
properties and simultaneously scattering electrons, reducing thermal conductivity [12].
The effect of alloying elements on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys relates to
their species, existing states, and mutual interaction.

3.1.1. Species of Alloying Elements

Common alloying elements in aluminum alloys include Si, Cu, Mg, Zn, Mn, Ti, Cr,
V, Zr, Fe, etc. They can be classified as major alloying elements (Si, Cu, Mg, Zn) and trace
alloying elements (Mn, Ti, Cr, V, etc.). Table 3 summarizes the maximum solid solubilities
of alloying elements in aluminum and the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution
and precipitated state on the resistivity of pure aluminum [4,44].

Table 3. Solid solubilities of alloying elements in aluminum and the effect of alloying elements on the
resistivity of pure aluminum [4,44].

Increase in Resistivity
Maximum Solubility
Elements (µΩ cm/wt.%)
T/°C wt.% Solid Solution ∆ρis Precipitated ∆ρip
Si 577 1.65 1.02 0.088
Cu 548 5.67 0.344 0.03
Mg 451 14.9 0.54 0.22
Zn 382 82.8 0.09 0.023
Mn 660 1.82 2.94 0.34
Ti 665 1.15 2.88 0.12
Cr 660 0.77 4.00 0.18
V 662 0.37 3.58 0.28
Zr 661 0.28 1.74 0.044
Fe 655 0.052 2.56 0.058
Ni 640 0.05 0.81 0.061
The data of Mg is limited to 10% of the maximum solid solubility, and Zn is about 20%.

It is evident in Table 3 that the maximum solid solubilities of alloying elements in

aluminum are less than 2%, other than Zn, Mg, and Cu. Alloying elements increase the
resistivity of aluminum differently. They increase the resistivity in the solid solution more
than in the precipitated state. According to Equations (5) and (6), alloying elements weaken
the thermal conductivity of aluminum to varying degrees. In a previous study, the authors
investigated the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution on the thermal conductivity
 It is evident in Table 3 that the maximum solid solubilities of alloying elements in
aluminum are less than 2%, other than Zn, Mg, and Cu. Alloying elements increase the
resistivity of aluminum differently. They increase the resistivity in the solid solution more
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 than in the precipitated state. According to Equations (5) and (6), alloying elements
7 of 21
weaken the thermal conductivity of aluminum to varying degrees. In a previous study
the authors investigated the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution on the therma
conductivity
of aluminum and of aluminum and
demonstrated demonstrated
that that
the weakening theisweakening
order Cr > V > Mnorder
> Ti >isZrCr >V
> Si > > Mn >
Ti > Zr > Si > Mg > Cu > Zn, as shown
Mg > Cu > Zn, as shown in Figure 1 [61]. in Figure 1 [61].

Figure1.1.The
Figure Therelationship between
relationship the the
between thermal conductivity
thermal of aluminum
conductivity and theand
of aluminum content
the of solid of solid
content
solution
solutionalloying
alloyingelements [61].
elements [61].

Major alloying elements (Zn, Cu, Mg, and Si) in solid solutions are the least detrimental
Major alloying elements (Zn, Cu, Mg, and Si) in solid solutions are the least detri-
to the thermal conductivity of aluminum. A total of 1% of Zn, Cu, Mg, and Si in a solid
mental to the thermal conductivity of aluminum. A total of 1% of Zn, Cu, Mg, and Si in a
solution decreases the thermal conductivity of aluminum by about 6, 17, 36, and 54 W
solid
m −1 Ksolution decreases
−1 , respectively [61].the thermal
Among conductivity
them, Si is the mostof aluminum
common inby about 6, alloys
aluminum 17, 36, and 54
W m −1 K−1, respectively [61]. Among them, Si is the most common in aluminum alloys and
and essential in improving fluidity, reducing casting defects, and enhancing mechanical
essential in
properties improving
[1,62]. Cu is the fluidity,
primary reducing
alloying casting
element,defects,
which can andenhance
enhancing mechanical
the strength of prop-
erties [1,62]. Cu is the primary alloying element, which can enhance the strength of alu-
aluminum alloys [4]. Al-Si-Cu alloys commonly used for heatproof components contain
plenty
minumofalloys Si and[4]. Cu Al-Si-Cu
[63]. The alloys
thermalcommonly
conductivity of binary
used Al-Si and components
for heatproof Al-Cu alloys contain
decreases
plenty ofsignificantly
Si and Cu [63]. with the
Theincreasing
thermal content of alloying
conductivity elements
of binary [8,50,64].
Al-Si and Al-Cu alloys de-
It can be found in Tables 2 and 3 that Zn causes the minimum increment in resistivity
creases significantly with the increasing content of alloying elements [8,50,64].
of aluminum, i.e., Zn weakens the thermal conductivity of aluminum to the slightest
It can be found in Tables 2 and 3 that Zn causes the minimum increment in resistivity
extent. In a solid solution, Mg increases resistivity more than Zn and Cu, and less than
Si. Additionally,i.e.,
of aluminum, MgZn and weakens
Zn havethe largethermal conductivity
solid solubilities of aluminum
in aluminum to the
and can slightest ex-
thereby
tent. In a solid
substantially solution,
dissolve in theMgmatrix
increases resistivity
and enhance more [65,66].
strength than ZnHowever,
and Cu, and less than Si
the large
Additionally,
content Mg and
of dissolved Zn have
Mg and Zn willlarge
leadsolid
to thesolubilities
worse thermal in aluminum
conductivityand can thereby sub-
of aluminum
stantially
alloys dissolve in the matrix and enhance strength [65,66]. However, the large content
[4,61].
Trace alloying
of dissolved Mg and elements
Zn will such
leadas to
Cr,theV, Mn,
worse and Ti in a conductivity
thermal solid solution of significantly
aluminum alloys
increase
[4,61]. the resistivity of aluminum, demonstrating that trace alloying elements weaken
the thermal conductivity of aluminum seriously [4,61]. Ti is usually added to aluminum
Trace alloying elements such as Cr, V, Mn, and Ti in a solid solution significantly
as Al-Ti or Al-Ti-B alloys to refine grains and enhance strength [67], where Al-5Ti-1B is
increase the resistivity of aluminum, demonstrating that trace alloying elements weaken
the most effective [68]. Zhou et al. [69] investigated the effect of trace alloying elements
the thermal
(Mn, Cr, V) onconductivity of aluminum
the thermal conductivity seriously
of Al-9Si [4,61].
alloys. TheyTifound
is usually added
that 0.1% of Mn,to Cr,
aluminum
as VAl-Ti
or or Al-Ti-B
decreases alloysconductivity
the thermal to refine grains and enhance
of approximately 12~19strength
W m−1[67],K−1 .where Al-5Ti-1B is
It has been
reported that boron treatment would make Ti, Cr, V, Zr, and other trace alloying elementselements
the most effective [68]. Zhou et al. [69] investigated the effect of trace alloying
(Mn, Cr, V)
precipitate to on the thermal
reduce conductivity
their content in aluminum of Al-9Si alloys. They found that 0.1% of Mn, Cr
alloys [70].
or VAll alloying elements’
decreases the thermal additions weaken the
conductivity thermal conductivity
of approximately 12~19ofW aluminum.
m−1 K−1. In It ahas been
solid
reported that boron treatment would make Ti, Cr, V, Zr, and other trace alloyingVelements
solution, the weakening order of alloying elements on thermal conductivity is Cr >
> Mn > Ti > to
precipitate Zr reduce
> Si > Mg > Cu
their > Zn, and
content trace alloying
in aluminum elements
alloys [70]. Cr, V, Mn, and Ti have
the strongest weakening effect. Therefore, fabricating aluminum alloys with high thermal
All alloying elements’ additions weaken the thermal conductivity of aluminum. In a
conductivity should strictly restrain the content of trace alloying elements.
solid solution, the weakening order of alloying elements on thermal conductivity is Cr >
 V > Mn > Ti > Zr > Si > Mg > Cu > Zn, and trace alloying elements Cr, V, Mn, and Ti have
the strongest weakening effect. Therefore, fabricating aluminum alloys with high thermal
conductivity should strictly restrain the content of trace alloying elements.
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 8 of 21

3.1.2. Existing States of Alloying Elements

In Table 3, the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution on the resistivity of alu-
3.1.2. Existing States of Alloying Elements
minum is 2~44 times that in the precipitated state. It indicates that solid solution alloying
In Table 3, the effect of alloying elements in a solid solution on the resistivity of
elements weaken the thermal conductivity of aluminum more significantly than those in
aluminum is 2~44 times that in the precipitated state. It indicates that solid solution
the precipitated
alloying elementsstate.
weakenThis
theisthermal
because alloying elements
conductivity in a solid
of aluminum more solution generate
significantly than lattice
distortion while introducing new interfaces in the precipitated state, which
those in the precipitated state. This is because alloying elements in a solid solution generate scatter elec-
trons
latticein different
distortion ways.
while Therefore,
introducing newthe thermalinconductivity
interfaces of aluminum
the precipitated state, whichalloys
scatteralso de-
pends
electronsoninthe existing
different states
ways. of alloying
Therefore, elements.
the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys also
depends
Theon the existing
authors havestates of alloying
explored elements.
the effect of major alloying elements (Si, Cu, Mg, Zn) in
two The authors
states on thehave explored
thermal the effect of of
conductivity major alloying elements
aluminum, (Si, Cu,
as depicted Mg, Zn)2in[61]. We
in Figure
two states on the thermal conductivity of aluminum, as depicted
found variations in thermal conductivities of Al-1.65Si, Al-5.67Cu, Al-1.5Mg,in Figure 2 [61]. Weand Al-
found variations in thermal conductivities of Al-1.65Si, Al-5.67Cu, Al-1.5Mg, and Al-12Zn,
12Zn, which can reach 73, 73, 21, and 36 W m−1 K−1, respectively, due to the existing state
which can reach 73, 73, 21, and 36 W m−1 K−1 , respectively, due to the existing state
transformation
transformation ofofalloying
alloying elements.
elements.

Figure 2.
Figure 2.The
Therelationships
relationshipsbetween the thermal
between conductivity
the thermal of aluminum
conductivity and the content
of aluminum and theof content
alloying of alloy-
elements in a solid solution and the precipitated state. (a) Al-Si, (b) Al-Cu, (c) Al-Mg,
ing elements in a solid solution and the precipitated state. (a) Al-Si, (b) Al-Cu, (c) Al-Mg, (d) Al-Zn [61].(d) Al-Zn
[61].
Cast Al-Si alloys with Cu and a small amount of Mg are the most commonly used
commercial aluminum alloys for heatproof applications [61,71]. At room temperature,
Cast Al-Si alloys with Cu and a small amount of Mg are the most commonly used
the equilibrium solid solubility of Si is approximately 0.05% in aluminum, so Si is mainly
commercial
present as the aluminum
second phasealloys for heatproof
in aluminum applications
alloys [61,71]. Attemperature,
[4]. With increasing room temperature,the the
equilibrium
solid solubility solidof solubility of Si isincreases,
Si in aluminum approximately and Si0.05%
phasesindissolve
aluminum, into so
theSimatrix,
is mainly pre-
sent
decreasing the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys significantly [72]. Mulazimogluthe solid
as the second phase in aluminum alloys [4]. With increasing temperature,
solubility of Si in aluminum
et al. [73] reported increases,
that the difference in and Si phases
thermal dissolveofinto
conductivity the matrix,
an Al-1.6Si alloydecreasing
is
approximately
the 36 W m−1 K−of1 when
thermal conductivity aluminumSi is either
alloysin significantly
a solid solution or inMulazimoglu
[72]. the precipitated et al. [73]
state. Therefore,
reported that the thedifference
solid solution and precipitation
in thermal conductivity of Siof
affect the thermal
an Al-1.6Si conductivity
alloy is approximately
of aluminum alloys significantly.
36 W m−1 K−1 when Si is either in a solid solution or in the precipitated state. Therefore, the
Cu usually exists as the Al2 Cu phase in aluminum alloys [1]. The maximum solid
solid solution and precipitation of Si affect the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys
solubility of Cu is approximately 5.67% in aluminum, so the solid solution and precipitation
significantly.
of Cu are visible [4,36]. The dissolution of Al2 Cu in the matrix enhances strength but
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 9 of 21

decreases the thermal conductivity of Al-Si-Cu alloys [74,75]. Choi et al. [36] investigated
the effect of the dissolution of Al2 Cu on the thermal conductivity of an Al-4.5Cu alloy.
They found that the variation in thermal conductivity can reach 45 W m−1 K−1 due to the
dissolution of Al2 Cu. Therefore, the solid solution and precipitation of Cu have an essential
effect on the thermal conductivity of Al-Cu alloys.
In Al-Si-Mg alloys, Mg and Si will combine and form the Mg2 Si phase, whose maxi-
mum solid solubility is approximately 1.4% in the aluminum matrix [72,76]. Choi et al. [77]
found that the dissolution and precipitation of Mg2 Si in the matrix affect the thermal
conductivity of Al-Si-Mg alloys.
The solid solution and precipitation transformation of Si, Cu, and Mg affect the
thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. When alloying elements in a solid solution
precipitate from the matrix, the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys will increase,
whereas the dissolution of alloying elements will decrease the thermal conductivity.
Therefore, when fabricating aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity, we can
reduce the solid solution content of alloying elements to mitigate their weakening effect
on thermal conductivity.

3.1.3. Mutual Interaction of Alloying Elements

Multiple alloying elements are usually added to aluminum alloys to meet the mechan-
ical property requirements. Cast Al-Si alloys usually contain Cu, Mg, and trace alloying
elements, such as Fe and Mn.
Maximum solid solubilities of major alloying elements such as Si, Cu, and Mg in
aluminum are 1.65%, 5.67%, and 14.9%, respectively [4]. However, the maximum solid
solubilities of Si and Cu are 1.1% and 4.8% in Al-Si-Cu alloys, respectively [78], and those of
Si and Mg are 1.1% and 0.9% in Al-Si-Mg alloys, respectively [79]. The variation indicates
that solid solubilities of Si, Cu, and Mg affect each other in aluminum alloys.
In Al-Si-Mg and Al-Mg-Si alloys, Si and Mg will form the Mg2 Si phase, and the
simultaneous presence of Cu will create Al4 Cu2 Mg8 Si5 [80]. The Mg/Si ratio of Al-Mg-Si
alloys will affect the solid solution content of Mg and Si, as well as the volume fraction and
morphology of Mg2 Si, both of which influence mechanical and thermal properties [81].
Fe is the main impurity element in cast Al-Si alloys, which usually combines with Si
to form needle or flaky β-Al5 FeSi and script-shaped α-Al15 Fe3 Si2 , α-Al8 Fe2 Si, α-Al12 Fe3 Si2
phases [82]. The β-Al5 FeSi phase potentially generates stress concentration and harms the
mechanical properties of aluminum alloys [83]. After adding an appropriate amount of Mn,
a needle β-Al5 FeSi will transform to a script-shaped α-Al15 (Fe, Mn)3 Si2 , thereby reducing
the harmful effect [84].
Gan et al. [85] investigated the effect of Fe on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys.
They found that with increasing Fe content, the thermal conductivity of pure aluminum
decreases monotonously, while that of Al-Si alloys initially increases and then decreases.
More Si content corresponds to higher peak values in the thermal conductivity of Al-Si
alloys with 0.3% Fe. The relationship is attributed to combining a small amount of Fe with
Si to form β-Al5 FeSi, which reduces the solid solution content of Si in the matrix and thus
improves the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys.
Coexisting multiple alloying elements in aluminum alloys will affect the solid solu-
bilities of each element and interact to form intermetallic compounds [4]. Variations in
the type and morphology of intermetallic compounds affect the thermal conductivity and
mechanical properties of aluminum alloys to some extent.

3.2. Secondary Phases

Alloying elements above their solid solubilities will form secondary phases, whose
characteristics, volume fraction, and morphology affect the thermal conductivity of alu-
minum alloys.
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 10 of 21

3.2.1. Thermal Conductivity of Secondary Phases

Cast Al-Si alloys commonly contain the eutectic Si phase formed during solidifica-
tion [1]. At 300 K, the thermal conductivity of single crystal Si is 145 W m−1 K−1 [86], and
that of the polycrystalline Si is approximately 15~30 W m−1 K−1 [87,88]. The value of the
polycrystalline Si is always adopted when theoretical deduction or computation concerns
the thermal conductivity of eutectic Si [50,55].
Stadler et al. [55] investigated the effect of Cu and Ni on the thermal conductivity of Al-
Si alloys. They found that the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys decreases monotonously
with the increasing content of Cu and Ni. The weakening effect of Ni is greater than that of
Cu, which relates to secondary phases formed by Cu and Ni.
Cu is usually present as the Al2 Cu phase in aluminum alloys. At room temperature,
the thermal conductivity of Al2 Cu is approximately 126 W m−1 K−1 and decreases to about
108 W m−1 K−1 with increasing temperature to its melting point [89,90]. The solid solubility
of Ni in aluminum is minimal, and Ni usually exists in the form of Al3 Ni, whose thermal
conductivity is about 35 W m−1 K−1 [91,92]. The thermal conductivity of Al3 Ni is much
lower than that of Al2 Cu. According to EMT [25], the weakening effect of Al3 Ni on the
thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys is more significant than that of Al2 Cu. Thus, the
weakening effect of Ni is more pronounced than Cu.
A large amount of Cu in aluminum alloys may result in microporosity [93]. The adding
range of Cu in Al-Si alloys is commonly less than 3%, which forms a low volume fraction
of Al2 Cu [16]. Aluminum alloys also have small amounts of dispersed Mg2 Si, α/β-AlFeSi,
and so on. These dispersed secondary phases are low-content, small-size, and granular, the
effect of which on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys can be investigated by the
Maxwell model, which does not need to consider morphology. Furthermore, small amounts
of dispersed secondary phases have less effect, but their dissolution and precipitation affect
the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys significantly [36,75].

3.2.2. Morphology of Secondary Phases

Aluminum alloys may have a high-volume fraction and large size of secondary phases,
whose morphology significantly affects thermal conductivity. In common cast Al-Si alloys, the
Si content and volume fraction of eutectic Si range from 4.5~13% and 3~12%, respectively [5].
Therefore, the morphology of eutectic Si affects the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys.
Several researchers have demonstrated that adding chemical modifiers (Na, Sr) can
modify the morphology of eutectic Si and improve the thermal conductivity and mechanical
properties of Al-Si alloys [73,94,95]. The authors investigated the effect of Sr content on the
eutectic modification level of Al-7Si alloys [85]. We found that the eutectic modification
level increases with increasing Sr content, with 56 ppm Sr leading to the fully modified
structure. The microstructure of unmodified and modified eutectic Si of Al-7Si alloys is
shown in Figure 3. Eutectic Si in unmodified Al-Si alloys is lamellar and/or acicular, which
will transform into fibrous after modification treatment [48,96–98].
Gan et al. [8] investigated the effect of Sr modification on the thermal conductivity
of Al-Si alloys. They revealed that Sr modification could transform eutectic Si from flaky
to fibrous, which was beneficial to improve the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys.
After modification treatment, the increment in thermal conductivity increased with
increased Si content, and the increment of Al-9Si alloys can reach 30 W m−1 K−1 . The
increment of an A356 alloy (Al-7Si-0.35Mg) is approximately 20 W m−1 K−1 [99]. These
results signify that the morphology of eutectic Si has an essential effect on the thermal
conductivity of Al-Si alloys.
Figure 4 shows the hindrance mechanism of lamellar and fibrous eutectic Si to heat
transfer electrons. Lamellar eutectic Si obstructs most electrons, while abundant electrons
can pass through fibrous eutectic Si gaps. The heat transfer efficiency of electrons can
be improved significantly with eutectic Si transforming from lamellar to fibrous after
modification treatment. Thus, the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys with fibrous eutectic
Si is higher.
Materials2023,
Materials 2023,16,
16,2972
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11
11 of 22
of 21

Figure 3. The microstructure of eutectic Si in Al-7Si alloys. (a) Unmodified, (b) modified [96].

Gan et al. [8] investigated the effect of Sr modification on the thermal conductivity of
Al-Si alloys. They revealed that Sr modification could transform eutectic Si from flaky to
fibrous, which was beneficial to improve the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys. After
modification treatment, the increment in thermal conductivity increased with increased
Si content, and the increment of Al-9Si alloys can reach 30 W m−1 K−1. The increment of an
A356 alloy (Al-7Si-0.35Mg) is approximately 20 W m−1 K−1 [99]. These results signify that
the morphology of eutectic Si has an essential effect on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si
alloys.
Figure 4 shows the hindrance mechanism of lamellar and fibrous eutectic Si to heat
transfer electrons. Lamellar eutectic Si obstructs most electrons, while abundant electrons
can pass through fibrous eutectic Si gaps. The heat transfer efficiency of electrons can be
improved significantly with eutectic Si transforming from lamellar to fibrous after modi-
fication treatment. Thus, the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys with fibrous eutectic Si
Figure
is 3. The
higher.
Figure 3. The microstructure
microstructure of
of eutectic
eutecticSi
Siin
inAl-7Si
Al-7Sialloys.
alloys. (a)
(a) Unmodified,
Unmodified,(b)
(b)modified
modified[96].
[96].

Gan et al. [8] investigated the effect of Sr modification on the thermal conductivity of
Al-Si alloys. They revealed that Sr modification could transform eutectic Si from flaky to
fibrous, which was beneficial to improve the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys. After
modification treatment, the increment in thermal conductivity increased with increased
Si content, and the increment of Al-9Si alloys can reach 30 W m−1 K−1. The increment of an
A356 alloy (Al-7Si-0.35Mg) is approximately 20 W m−1 K−1 [99]. These results signify that
the morphology of eutectic Si has an essential effect on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si
alloys.
Figure 4 shows the hindrance mechanism of lamellar and fibrous eutectic Si to heat
transfer electrons. Lamellar eutectic Si obstructs most electrons, while abundant electrons
can pass through fibrous eutectic Si gaps. The heat transfer efficiency of electrons can be
improved significantly with eutectic Si transforming from lamellar to fibrous after modi-
Figure 4. The hindrance of (a) lamellar and (b) fibrous eutectic Si to electrons.
fication treatment. Thus, the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys with fibrous eutectic Si
is higher.
Additionally, hypereutectic
hypereutectic Al-Si
Al-Si alloys
alloys contain
contain eutectic
eutectic Si
Si and
and primary
primary Si,Si, the
the mor-
mor-
Additionally,
phology of which can also be changed by modification treatment [4]. The
phology of which can also be changed by modification treatment [4]. The primary Si can primary Si can be
obviously refined using P as the modifier [100]. Jia et al. [101] revealed that the
be obviously refined using P as the modifier [100]. Jia et al. [101] revealed that the variation variation
in morphology
in morphology and and size
size of
of primary
primary SiSi improves
improves thethe thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity of of hypereutectic
hypereutectic
Al-Si alloys after modification treatment.
Al-Si alloys after modification treatment.
Series and
Series and parallel
parallelmodels
modelscan canbe
beapplied
appliedtotoanalyze
analyze the effect
the of of
effect various morphologies
various morpholo-
of the Si phase on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys, enabling the
gies of the Si phase on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys, enabling the strategicstrategic structure
struc-
design of aluminum alloys. Industrially, modifying the eutectic Si morphology
ture design of aluminum alloys. Industrially, modifying the eutectic Si morphology is cru- is crucial to
fabricate Al-Si alloys with high thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.
cial to fabricate Al-Si alloys with high thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.
3.3. Temperature
Temperature affects the heat transfer efficiency of electrons and phonons, thereby
affecting the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys [24]. The thermal conductivity of
pure aluminum changes slightly with temperature [2,23,102]. When increasing temperature
Figure 4. The hindrance of (a) lamellar and (b) fibrous eutectic Si to electrons.
from 250 K, the thermal conductivity of aluminum slightly rises to 240 W m−1 K−1 at 400 K
and steadily declines
Additionally, to 220 W m−Al-Si
hypereutectic
1 K−1 at approximately 800 K.
alloys contain eutectic Si and primary Si, the mor-
Within
phology the range
of which canofalso
25~400 °C, the thermal
be changed conductivity
by modification of as-cast
treatment [4]. and
The annealed 2A12,
primary Si can
2A50, 6066, and ZL107 (Al-Si-Cu) alloys rise with increasing temperature [103]. There
be obviously refined using P as the modifier [100]. Jia et al. [101] revealed that the variation is a
similar trend forand
in morphology as-cast and
size of aged A319
primary (Al-Si-Cu)
Si improves the and A356
thermal (Al-Si-Mg) of
conductivity alloys [104,105].
hypereutectic
Lumley et al. [30] demonstrated that when the temperature rises from 25 to 150 °C, the
Al-Si alloys after modification treatment.
thermal conductivity of an A380 (Al-Si-Cu) alloy increases in as-cast, T6, and T7 con-
Series and parallel models can be applied to analyze the effect of various morpholo-
ditions. Choi et al. [71] reported increased thermal conductivity of Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys
gies of the Si phase on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys, enabling the strategic struc-
with increased temperature. However, the thermal conductivity of eutectic Si [106–108],
ture design of aluminum alloys. Industrially, modifying the eutectic Si morphology is cru-
Al2 Cu [109], and Mg2 Si [110] of Al-Si-Cu, Al-Si-Mg, and Al-Si-Cu-Mg alloys declines with
cial to fabricate Al-Si alloys with high thermal conductivity and mechanical properties.
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 12 of 21

increasing temperature. Therefore, the change rule of the thermal conductivity of aluminum
alloys with temperature depends on the matrix significantly.
Choi et al. [36] demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of Al-4.5Cu alloys varies
with increasing temperatures from 25 to 300 °C in two ways, attributed to the transformation
of existing states of Cu in aluminum. With increasing temperature, the thermal conductivity
of an Al-4.5Cu alloy decreases with the solid solution of Cu in the matrix and increases
with the precipitation of Cu from the matrix. The thermal conductivity of an Al-4.5Cu alloy
is the lowest when Cu is entirely in a solid solution after solution treatment and the highest
when Cu is almost completely in the precipitated state after annealing treatment. Therefore,
the effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys relates to the
solid solution and precipitation transformation of alloying elements in the matrix.
The effect of temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys depends
on the matrix and secondary phases, predominantly the former. Temperature affects the
electrons’ scattering and existing states of alloying elements in aluminum. However, the
influence mechanism and rule of temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum
alloys are still unclear.

4. The Effect of Processes on the Thermal Conductivity of Aluminum Alloys

4.1. Casting Process
The casting processes of aluminum alloys can be divided into gravity casting and die
casting, and gravity casting includes sand casting, investment casting, permanent mold
casting, and so on [5]. Compared to gravity casting, die casting has the advantages of
high efficiency and low cost and can mass-produce large-volume, highly integrated, and
complex-shaped castings [33].
The cooling rate of aluminum alloys varies under different casting processes. Many
researchers have found that the cooling rate of aluminum alloys affects the microstructure
and thermal conductivity significantly [111,112]. For example, the cooling rate of Al-Si
alloys influences the size and morphology of eutectic Si [113]. The cooling rate in die casting
is higher than in gravity casting, and the secondary phases of die casting Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Zn
alloys are noticeably finer than those of gravity casting alloys, as shown in Figure 5 [29].
High cooling rates can reduce the porosity in aluminum alloys [13]. Chen et al. [29] reported
that the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys decreases monotonously with increasing
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
porosity. Vandersluis et al. [9] demonstrated that higher cooling rates lead to lower porosity,
finer eutectic Si, and higher thermal conductivity of 319 alloys.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. The microstructure
microstructure of
of (a)
(a) gravity
gravity casting
casting and
and (b)
(b) die
die casting
casting Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Zn
Al-Si-Cu-Fe-Zn alloys
alloys[29].
[29].

Today,
Today,over
over50%
50%of ofcast
castaluminum
aluminum alloys
alloys are
are fabricated
fabricated by
by die
die casting
casting [5,33].
[5,33]. Higher
pressure
pressureinindie
diecasting
castingleads
leadstoto
lower porosity
lower and
porosity andhigher thermal
higher conductivity
thermal of aluminum
conductivity of alumi-
alloys
num alloys [114]. Cao et al. [115] found that a higher vacuum in high-pressure die casting
[114]. Cao et al. [115] found that a higher vacuum in high-pressure die casting
contributes
contributes to
to lower porosity
porosity and
and smaller
smaller pores
pores inin Al-9Si-3Cu
Al-9Si-3Cu alloys.
alloys. Therefore, adjusting
die
die casting
castingpressure
pressureand andvacuum
vacuumcan canimprove
improve thethe
thermal conductivity
thermal conductivityof aluminum
of aluminum alloys
al-
by
loysmodifying the microstructure.
by modifying the microstructure.

4.2. Heat Treatment

Heat treatments of aluminum alloys mainly include solution treatment, aging treat-
ment, and annealing treatment. Aging treatment mainly contains T4–T7, whose proce-
dures are shown in Table 4 [4,116]. Heat treatments can improve the microstructure and
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 13 of 21

4.2. Heat Treatment

Heat treatments of aluminum alloys mainly include solution treatment, aging treat-
ment, and annealing treatment. Aging treatment mainly contains T4–T7, whose procedures
are shown in Table 4 [4,116]. Heat treatments can improve the microstructure and release
stress, thus enhancing the properties of aluminum alloys [33,76].

Table 4. Commonly used aging treatment for aluminum alloys [4,116].

Designation Process Procedure

T4 Solution treatment, natural aging
T5 Solution treatment, artificial aging at a low temperature or for a short time
T6 Solution treatment, artificial aging
T7 Solution treatment, overaging/stabilizing

4.2.1. Solution Treatment

Solution treatment is one of the most essential strengthening processes of aluminum
alloys. Solution treatment is the process of heating aluminum alloys to a pre-set high
temperature and maintaining them for some time, and then quenching the alloys to achieve
uniform over-saturated solids [76].
Vandersluis et al. [117] demonstrated that the Al2 Cu phase of an Al-6Si-3Cu alloy dis-
solves noticeably after solution treatment, and the fraction decreases from 2.5% to 0.5%. In
Al-Si-Mg alloys, Mg2 Si dissolves in the aluminum matrix during solution treatment [72,76].
Therefore, solution treatment will reduce the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys signifi-
cantly due to the dissolution of secondary phases into the matrix.
During solution treatment, Al-Si-Cu and Al-Si-Mg alloys show not only the dissolution
of secondary phases but also the evolution of fracture, spheroidization, and coarsening
of eutectic Si [75,76,118]. Li et al. [118] found that after solution treatment, the thermal
conductivity of an Al-7Si alloy increases by about 10% compared to an as-cast alloy, with
increased sphericity of eutectic Si. The increased sphericity of eutectic Si will reduce the
resistance to heat transfer electrons in aluminum alloys.
With increasing solution treatment time, the thermal conductivity of Al-Si-Cu alloys
initially decreases and then increases [75]. In contrast, the thermal conductivity of Al-Si-Mg
alloys first increases and then falls [72]. The difference is attributed to the synergistic effect
of the dissolution of secondary phases and variation in the morphology of eutectic Si. The
former will reduce the thermal conductivity, and the latter (increased sphericity of eutectic
Si) will increase the thermal conductivity.
Therefore, the effect of solution treatment on the thermal conductivity of aluminum
alloys depends on the dissolution and variation in the morphology of secondary phases.

4.2.2. Aging Treatment

Aging treatment is essential for fabricating high-performance aluminum alloys, in-
cluding natural and artificial aging [76]. Artificial aging employs higher temperatures
and shorter times than natural aging [119]. Aging treatment aims to precipitate out over-
saturated alloying elements in the aluminum matrix to form fine dispersions [4,120]. These
precipitated dispersions significantly hinder the movement of dislocations, so aging treat-
ment can enhance the hardness and strength of aluminum alloys [14].
After aging treatment, the precipitation of alloying elements mitigates the lattice
distortion and reduces the resistance to electrons, thereby increasing the thermal conduc-
tivity of aluminum alloys [32]. Kim et al. [121] found that after aging at 180 °C for 5 h, the
thermal conductivity of an Al-6.5Si-0.4Mg alloy is higher than that of the as-quenched
alloy due to the precipitation of Si and Mg2 Si. Lumley et al. [30] demonstrated that the
thermal conductivity of an aged A380 alloy is approximately 20% higher than that of the
as-cast alloy. Chen et al. [29] reported that after solution treatment at 500 °C and aging
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 14 of 21

for 4 h, the thermal conductivity of a die casting Al-10Si-0.6Fe-0.7Zn alloy increases from
126.8 to 151.6 W m−1 K−1 .
The artificial aging temperature of aluminum alloys ranges from 150 to 250 °C, and
the time varies from about 6 to 12 h [116]. With increasing aging time, the hardness and
tensile strength of aluminum alloys first rise and then decrease, and peaks depend on the
aging temperature [122–124]. The change rule is attributed to the temperature affecting
precipitation rates of alloying elements. Choi et al. [77] demonstrated that high aging
temperature for Al-6Si-0.4Mg alloys contributes to the depletion of Si and Mg in a solid
solution. They found that the thermal conductivity of an aged Al-6Si-0.4Mg alloy is higher
at an aging temperature of 220 °C than that at 180 °C. Esmaeili et al. [125] demonstrated that
aging treatment decreases the resistivity of an AA6111 alloy and higher aging temperature
results in a faster reduction. According to the Wiedemann–Franz law [23], the thermal
conductivity of aluminum alloys increases with increasing aging time, and a higher aging
temperature corresponds to a faster increase.
Aging treatment can precipitate out alloying elements in a solid solution, reducing incre-
ments in the resistivity of aluminum. Aging treatment can improve the thermal conductivity of
aluminum alloys. Furthermore, appropriate aging temperature and time enable the fabrication
of aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity and good mechanical properties.

4.2.3. Annealing Treatment

Annealing treatment of aluminum alloys causes a noticeable depletion of alloying
elements in a solid solution to form stable precipitated dispersions [126].
Lin et al. [34] found that after annealing treatment, the tensile strength and yield
strength of 5058 aluminum alloys decreased, and the reduction in tensile strength can
reach 200 MPa. Similarly, annealing treatment reduces the hardness and tensile strength
of Al-Er-Y [35], AA2219 (Al-Cu-Mn) [127], and Al-Er-Yb-Sc alloys [128]. Al-Mg-Si alloy
cables show a decrease in yield strength and a significant increase in thermal conductivity
after annealing treatment [129]. The thermal conductivity of annealed Al-Er-Yb-Sc alloys
increases, which is related to the reduction in dislocations and precipitation of alloying
elements in the matrix [128].
Annealing treatment can improve the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. It
has been reported that the thermal conductivity of annealed Al-Si, Al-Cu, Al-Si-Cu, and
Al-Fe-Co alloys is higher than as-cast and solution-treated alloys [36,37,103,130]. Rauta
et al. [126] demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of annealed Al-12Si and Al-9Si-3Cu
alloys are 60 and 51 W m−1 K−1 higher than as-cast alloys, respectively. After annealing
treatment, the content of solid solution Si decreases in Al-Si alloys [37,131], and Cu in a
solid solution precipitates out to form Al2 Cu in Al-Cu alloys [36]. After annealing, the
precipitation of Si and Cu from a solid solution will reduce the resistance to heat transfer
electrons and improve the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys.
Annealing temperature and time affect the thermal conductivity and mechanical
properties of aluminum alloys, and the annealing temperature is more significant [34].
Higher annealing temperature and longer time result in lower hardness and tensile strength
of aluminum alloys [34,132]. With increased annealing temperature, alloying elements
in a solid solution precipitate out faster and form more dispersions, which significantly
improves the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys [129,132].
Annealing treatment can precipitate out almost all over-saturated alloying elements
in the aluminum matrix, which dramatically reduces the resistance to electrons. Thus, it
can improve the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys to the greatest extent. However,
annealing treatment impairs the strength of aluminum alloys, so it should be avoided when
confronting requirements of high strength and high thermal conductivity.

4.3. Additive Manufacturing

Recently, AM has attracted much attention in fabricating aluminum alloys with out-
standing properties based on layer-by-layer manufacturing [133,134]. The high thermal
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 15 of 21

conductivity of aluminum benefits AM for aluminum alloy applications [135]. So far,

Al-10Si-Mg and Al-12Si alloys have dominated AM-fabricated aluminum alloys [136].
Among AM techniques, selective laser melting (SLM) is prevalent for metals [136].
SLM parameters will affect the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. The high cooling
rate of SLM leads to the oversaturation of alloying elements in the aluminum matrix,
significantly reducing the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys [137,138]. Additionally,
pores generated during SLM decrease the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys [139].
Kim [136] demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of an Al-10Si-Mg alloy increases
with the increased polar angle of the specimen, shorter hatch spacing, and decreased scan
speed during SLM.
SLM-fabricated aluminum alloys possess a very fine microstructure and high mechani-
cal strength [140]. The tensile strength of SLM-fabricated Al-12Si and Al-10Si-Mg alloys are
140 and 80 MPa higher than as-cast alloys, respectively [133,140]. Many researchers have
attempted to precipitate alloying elements from the matrix and improve the properties of
aluminum alloys through heat treatment [140,141]. Ming et al. [142] demonstrated that
the thermal conductivity of an SLM-fabricated Al-7Si-Mg alloy increased after aging and
annealing treatments. Butler et al. [139] reported that the annealing treatment contributed
to an increment in thermal conductivity of 18~11% for SLM-fabricated Al-10Si-Mg alloys.
Therefore, combining the SLM process and heat treatments is beneficial for fabricating
aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity and strength.
Although AM can only utilize limited types of aluminum alloys, it is promising in
fabricating aluminum alloys that fit industrial requirements.

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

Related theories of thermal conduction in aluminum alloys are first formulated, and the
effect of alloying elements, secondary phases, and temperature on the thermal conductivity
of aluminum alloys is analyzed. Additionally, the effect of casting, heat treatment, and AM
processes on the microstructure and thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys are discussed
and summarized.
(1) The theory of thermal conduction of metals helps to study the effect of alloying
elements and temperature on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. EMT can be
applied to investigate the effect of the characteristic and morphology of secondary phases
on the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. The two theories can facilitate the strategic
design of the composition and structure of aluminum alloys with high thermal conductivity.
(2) Alloying elements are the most critical factor affecting the thermal conductivity of
aluminum alloys and reduce thermal conductivity to varying degrees. Alloying elements in
a solid solution weakens the thermal conductivity more significantly than in the precipitated
state. Coexisting multiple alloying elements affect the solid solubility of each element and
interact to form intermetallic compounds. The mutual interaction affects the thermal
conductivity of aluminum alloys to some extent.
(3) The characteristic and morphology of secondary phases affect the thermal conduc-
tivity of aluminum alloys, and secondary phases with higher thermal conductivity have
less impact. The variation in morphology affects the thermal conductivity significantly.
Experimentally, modification treatment can dramatically improve the thermal conductivity
of Al-Si alloys by adjusting the eutectic Si morphology.
(4) Temperature affects the heat transfer efficiency of electrons and phonons in alu-
minum alloys. The change rule of the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys with
temperature depends on the matrix and secondary phases, predominantly on the former.
However, the influence mechanism and rule of temperature on the thermal conductivity of
aluminum alloys are still unclear.
(5) Casting, heat treatment, and AM processes can adjust the microstructure and
thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys. Die casting may result in a finer microstructure
than gravity casting. Solution treatment can lead to the dissolution and variation in the
morphology of secondary phases. Aging and annealing treatments can precipitate out
Materials 2023, 16, 2972 16 of 21

over-saturated alloying elements in the aluminum matrix. Furthermore, an annealing

treatment improves the thermal conductivity of aluminum alloys more significantly than
an aging treatment while impairing mechanical strength more strongly. SLM-fabricated
aluminum alloys show a very fine microstructure. Combining SLM and heat treatment is
beneficial for fabricating aluminum alloys with excellent thermal conductivity and strength.
As reviewed above, there are three main factors influencing the thermal conductivity
of aluminum alloys. The effect of alloying elements in a solid solution and precipitated
state on the thermal conductivity of aluminum has been explored quantitatively [61].
However, the research on the effect of temperature and mutual interaction of alloying
elements is still insufficient. Furthermore, it is very urgent to investigate the effect of
eutectic Si morphology on the thermal conductivity of Al-Si alloys, which transform from
lamellar to fibrous after modification treatment. After determining the effect of these factors
on thermal conductivity, industries can better fabricate aluminum alloys with both high
thermal conductivity and high strength.

Author Contributions: A.Z.: conceptualization, visualization, writing—original draft preparation,

and writing—review and editing; Y.L.: supervision, writing—review and editing, and project admin-
istration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data are available in the main text.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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