Scandinavian Influence on English Language

As a result of the contacts with the Vikings (Scandinavian invaders are known as Vikings; Scandinavia is
today’s Norway, Sweden and Denmark), the Old English language underwent Scandinavian influence
towards the end of the Old English period. Originally, on the continent, the Anglo-Saxons and the
Scandinavians were intimately related in a common racial and linguistic bond. This explains why the first
English epic Beowulf, had for its setting one of the Scandinavian countries; even the main characters in
the poem are Scandinavian. But when the Vikings began to attack and plunder England, the relationship
between the Germanic races worsened. Ultimately, many Scandinavians settled down in different parts
of England, and as a result of this co-existence, the language of the Anglo-Saxons was considerably
influenced by the language of the invaders.

Since the two peoples lived very intimately, and the similarity between old English and the language of
the Scandinavian invaders makes it at times very difficult to decide whether a given word in Modern
English is a native or a borrowed word. Enormous similarity is found between these two languages in
nouns like ‘man’, ‘wife’, ‘father’, ‘folk’, ‘mother’, ‘house’, ‘life’, ‘winter’, ‘summer’; verbs like ‘will’, ‘can’,
‘meet’, ‘come’, ‘bring’, ‘hear’, ‘see’, ‘think’, ‘smile’, ‘ride’, ‘spin’; and adjectives and adverbs like ‘full’,
‘wise’, ‘better’, ‘best’, ‘mine’, ‘over’ and ‘under’.

Some words, however, can be identified as of Scandinavian origin. Thus the word ‘awe’ is certainly of
Scandinavian origin; so is the modern word, ‘egg’. Often, a word of Scandinavian origin can be identified
by the fact that it does not occur in Old English, but does occur in Scandinavian. An example is the verb,
“to take”, which is Scandinavian ‘taka’. When we work with Scandinavian loan words, the word ‘loan’
itself seems to declare its descent from the Scandinavian.

Scandinavian influence gave a fresh lease of life to obsolete native words. For instance, the preposition
‘till’ is found only once or twice in Old English texts belonging to the pre Scandinavian Period, but after
that, it becomes common in Old English. Further, some native words lost their original meaning the
moment they encountered their Scandinavian counterpart. For example, the word ‘dream’ originally
meaning joy changes its meaning into ‘an experience of viewing images in sleep’, the meaning is derived
from Scandinavian sources. Similarly, ‘bread’ changes its meaning from ‘fragment’ to ‘an item of food’.
There exist a large number of places that bear Scandinavian names. More than 600 places in English
have names ending in - by which is a clear evidence of Scandinavian influence. Numerous examples can
be cited: Grimsby, Whitby, Derby, Rugby etc. (the Danish word –‘by’ means town or farm) Names like
Althorp, Bishopsthorpe, Linthrope contain the Scandinavian word ‘thorp’ which means village. Similarly
we have Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Langthwaite, ‘thwaite’ meaning an isolated piece of land; while
Brimtoft, Eastoft, and Nortoft ending in ‘toft’meaning a piece of ground. Such examples can easily be
multiplied. A similar high percentage of Scandinavian personal names is found in English. Names ending
in -son, like Stevenson or Johnson, conform to a characteristic Scandinavian custom.

In the earlier period of borrowing, the number of Scandinavian words that appear in Old English is small
due to the hostile relations of the invaders with the English people. Gradually, with the cease of tension,
we find a number of words relating to law or social and administrative system entering in the English
language. The ‘law’ itself is of Scandinavian origin. Many such words were later on replaced by French
words after the Norman Conquest.

The English and the Scandinavian were accustomed to much the same kind of rural life and the fusion of
the two peoples was a very close one. Many of the words taken over in consequence were homely and
everyday ones. Thus the word ‘sister’ is taken from Scandinavian. So are the names of parts of the body
— ‘leg’ and ‘neck’. Other common names include ‘window’, ‘sky’, ‘knife’, ‘skin’, ‘dirt’, ‘skill’, ‘bag’, ‘cake’
and ‘fellow’. Everyday adjectives include ‘wrong’, ‘low’, ‘loose’, ‘odd, ‘flat’ and ‘ugly’’. Among the
everyday verbs are ‘get, ‘give’, ‘call’, ‘want’, ‘take’, ‘drag’, ‘smile’, ‘thrive’, ‘die’ etc. the conjunction
‘though’ is also from Scandinavian.

In the case of grammar, many of the pronominal forms like ‘they’, ‘them’, ‘their’ etc are of the
Scandinavian origin. The use of ‘shall’ ,’will’ , prepositional use of ‘to’ ‘fro’, use of relative clause without
any pronoun are due to Scandinavian influence.

As we have seen, the Scandinavian legacy left in Britain by the Vikings is still evident today.

The borrowing and assimilation of language was continuous throughout the Viking period, and the
character of the Scandinavian words implies that the invading Norse peoples interacted with and
married Anglo-Saxons. The new vocabulary was more general than anything else, and many of the most
common English words of today are often derived from Old Norse.
French Influence on English Language

Introduction

One of the most significant influences on English has been the French language, dating back to the
Norman Conquest of England in 1066, and which made a notable impact on English vocabulary and
structure. We'll explore how this historical fusion has shaped the way we communicate in English today.

The Norman Conquest

In 1066, William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, invaded England and subsequently became King of
England. This event, known as the Norman Conquest, marked the beginning of a linguistic union
between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons. Old English, the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons, was
profoundly altered by the introduction of Norman French. As a result, Middle English was born, a
language that combined elements of Old English and Norman French.

The Vocabulary of Administration

One of the major aspects of the French influence on English is the addition of a multitude of French
words to the English vocabulary. French and Latin words, often used in the courts, government, and
higher education, became a symbol of sophistication and culture. In the 19th century, French not
English, was the leading language in Europe. Examples of French-origin words in English administration
include "government," "parliament," "justice," and "beauty."

The Influence on Food and Cooking

Firstly, the word used to describe cooking and eating styles “cuisine” is itself French. In addition, the
French introduced English speakers to a variety of dishes, including "beef," "pork," "mutton," and
"poultry." These culinary terms were derived from the French words for the animals themselves.
“Sauté” potatoes are lightly fried, while “omlette” is another French word in daily use. Not surprisingly
perhaps, the accepted language of wines is French too with “sec” (dry) and “demi-sec” (half dry) leading
the way. “Rosé” is the French word for pink, which is of course between red wine and “blanc” (white),
while “cognac” is the French word for brandy produced in the Cognac region in the west of France.

Legal Terminology

The French influence on English extended into the realm of law and administration. Many legal and
administrative terms used today are of French origin, such as "court," "judge," "jury," "lawsuit," and
"evidence", which all found their way into English through the Norman connection. This demonstrates
how the French impact on the language reached into the fundamental structures of society and
governance.

Grammatical Changes

In addition to vocabulary, French also influenced English grammar. For example, the use of definite and
indefinite articles ("the" and "a/an") can be traced back to French influences. Additionally, the order of
adjectives before nouns, now a distinct feature of English syntax, has its origins in the French language.
Example: “A good deal for both parties” is “Une bonne affaire pour les deux parties” in French. In Old
English, the noun would have come before the adjective.

Conclusion

The Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century was a moment in history that transformed English
into a language enriched by the elegance, culture, and complexity of French. The coexistence of Old
English and Norman French gave rise to a new, more sophisticated language known as Middle English.
Today, this linguistic blend still echoes in the English we speak, demonstrating how the past continues to
shape our present.
Latin Influence on English Language

Latin has influenced the English language tremendously. Most of the influence, however, has been
indirect. The indirect effect of Latin on English came mainly after the Normans invaded England in 1066.
Their language, not suprisingly, influenced English. Since their language (French) was a Romance
language descended from Latin, this gave Latin an indirect influence on English.

Latin also influenced Old English directly because of the Roman Conquest of England. But this influence
was not as great or as lasting as the indirect influence.

In between the end of Roman occupation and the Norman invasion, Latin also influenced English
because Latin was the language of the Catholic Church (which was then the only Christian church).

About 70% of our english words come from Latin. This alone make Latin the most important language to
influence English. For example, the word, promise, comes from “pro-mitto,” meaning to send before.
Here are some more examples: word = verbum; canine = canis; college =collegium. I think you get the
picture. Also Latin has influenced our grammar. For example, the distinction between “I” and “me” is
based on cases. I equals nominative case in Latin and me equals dative, ablative and accusative cases.
Even little things like the improper use of split infinitives come from Latin, since in Latin infinitives
cannot be split. For example, to love is amare (one word) in Latin. So, in short, Latin continues to play a
huge role.

Among the three great influences, –Latin, French, Scandinavian, -Latin is the oldest. There three
influences have changed the content and characteristic of the Keltic language, the original language of
English. Before 499, -the period of the settlement of the Anglo-Saxon, in ‘Briton’, -the present England
had Roman occupation. It was a pre-historical period. Since then, Latin element began to enter into the
then language of England. Again, in the remote past, Greek-language was the highest cultural language.
Some of the Greek-words, after being converted into Latin found inception into the English language. So,
by the classical linguistic influence is meant, the simultaneous influence of the two classical languages, –
Greek and Latin Word coinage from Latin is a prolonged continuation. It had started from the pre-
historical period ,and had been continuing in greater and less extent till the renaissance, and it is still
continuing. To have a comprehensive resultant of the influence , the philologists and the scholars have
marked the span of the influence into three distinguished and decisive phases .
These three stages are, -(a) pre-Christian-period (b) the period of conversion of the English people
Christianity(597A.D.) (c) the period covering the Renaissance and the post Renaissance ,-in the 16th
century.

As subrataray says, the Latin influence on English vocabulary has been 3-fold. Moreover, the Latin words
were mixed up with the Greek in most cases, and hence it should be called the Latin and Greek
influence.

The 1st phase of importing Latin words into English began long before the Angles and Jutes came to
England, and the Germanic forefarthers of the English were still living in the Continent. The words that
were imported during this phase were mainly related to plants, fruits, food; eg. wine, pea, plum, cheese,
mint, street, cook, kitchen, milk. These did not necessarily exist in these forms, and the original words
have undergone many changes.

The 2nd phase of Latin loan words came to England with the Christian Missionaries in the late 6th and
7th centuries A.D. They brought in with them ideas related to religion, the Church and monastic living.
Eg:minster(L. monesterium), monk(L. monachus), bishop(L. episcopus), priest(L. presbyter),
church(L.cyriacum). Most of these words were Greek, which entered English via Latin. During this phase
the following words came from Latin to English :- apostle, disciple, Pope, archbishop, provost, abbot;
shrine, cowl, pall, rule, mass, offer, altar, anthem, martyr, incarnate, pulpit, rosary, scripture.

With Christianity, clasical & scientific learning, concepts of law were also introduced. Eg: legal,
prosecute, custody, zenith, index, mechanical, allegory, ornate, scripture.

The 3rd phase came with the great revival of classical scholarship in England in the 16th century. The
words came over through the medium of writing, and were first absorbed and used by the learned,
before filtering to the other classes.

1. Some words which had come from French were latinized:

verdit – verdict, perfet – perfect, doute – doubt, dette – debt, langage – language, avis – advice,
aventure – adventure, al-amir(Arabic) – amiral(Fr & Mid E) – admiral, avril – april.

2. Many new words were invented on classical analogies.

a. native words + L. suffix : starvation, heathenism, talkative,etc

b. Gk word + L. suffix : climactic

c. L. prefix + native word : ex-king, interchange, preview, rebirth.

d. Eng proper names with latinized adjectives : Oxford – Oxonian, Shakespeare – Shakespearean.

3. Many Latin words and English synonyms which exist side by side

a. with same meaning : fire – conflagaration, ask – interrogate, truth – veracity.

b. have acquired slightly different connotations and are used in different contexts : same – identical,
youthful – juvenile, readable – legible, manly – masculine, greatness – magnitude.

4. Some native nouns have English and/or Latin adjectives : father – fatherly, paternal; king – kingly,
royal, regal; mouth – oral, nose -nasal, heaven – heavenly, celestial; water – watery, acquatic; mind –
mental; moon – lunar; sun – solar; son/daughter – filial, eye – ocular; home – domestic.

Greek Influence on English Language

The Greek language has wielded a profound and enduring influence on the evolution of numerous
languages over the course of history, notably English. Now, let’s delve into an overview highlighting how
the ancient Greek language, in a somewhat clandestine manner, stands as one of the most spoken
languages globally.

The alphabet

Although Greek letters might seem different from the English ones, Greek has contributed to the
development of the English alphabet. The ancient Greeks were the first to establish a true alphabet,
around the 8th century B.C.. Later, this alphabet was adopted by the Romans who, in turn, passed it on
to Western Europe. Therefore, the modern English contains many of the same letters as the ancient
Greek alphabet did. Moreover, even the name alphabet shows the Greek influence, as the first two
letters of the Greek alphabet are Alpha and Bet(a).

Greek words in English

One of the most obvious ways in which Greek has influenced English is through the many words that
have been borrowed from the Greek language. These words (often passed on through Latin) have
become an integral part of the English vocabulary. For example, words such as “philosophy,”
“democracy,” “telephone,” and “typhoon” are all of Greek origin. Greek has also contributed to the
technical vocabulary of English, with words such as “mathematics,” “biology,” “geography,” and
“psychology” being derived from Greek roots.

Grammar

In addition to the borrowed words, Greek has also had a significant impact on the grammar and syntax
of English. The Greek language has an inflected structure. This means that the grammatical function of a
word is indicated by its ending rather than by its position in the sentence. This structure has influenced
the way in which English forms its verb tenses and noun declensions.
Besides, Greek prefixes and suffixes are commonly used in English to create new words or modify
existing ones. Examples include “tele-” (distant), “micro-” (small), “anti-” (against), “ology” (study of),
and “ism” (belief in).

Mythology

Furthermore, Greek mythology and literature have had a major influence on Western culture. Many
words and phrases from Greek mythology have become part of the English language. For example,
words such as “nemesis,” “hubris,” and “eureka” come from Greek mythology and are used in English to
convey specific meanings. Also, the Greek epic poem “Iliad” and “Odyssey” were considered the
foundation of Western literature, and many phrases and idioms from these works, such as “Achilles
heel” and “Trojan horse,” have been passed down through the generations and are still in use today.

Science and medicine

Moreover, Greek has also played a crucial role in the field of science and medicine. Many scientific and
medical terms in English have derived from Greek roots. For instance, words such as “anatomy,”
“physiology,” and “pathology” come from Greek roots and are commonly used in the medical field.
Greek letters are commonly used as symbols in mathematics and science as well. Examples include
“alpha,” “beta,” and “gamma,” which are used in mathematical equations and scientific formulas.

Additionally, the Greek physician Hippocrates, known as the “Father of Medicine,” has had a profound
impact on the development of the medical field. Even until today his teachings are still widely studied.