them.

[238] By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the
devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing
soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent,
thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[239][238]

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u
Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[240] The Sultan's army was
defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in
ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole
city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war
prisoners were put to death in one day.[241] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of
Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the former.

Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din Aibak,
the first Sultan of Delhi.

Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din Aibak,
the first Sultan of Delhi.

Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi.

Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi.

The grave of Razia, the Sultana of Delhi, from 1236 CE to 1240 CE, the only female ruler of a major
realm on the Indian subcontinent until modern times.[citation needed]

The grave of Razia, the Sultana of Delhi, from 1236 CE to 1240 CE, the only female ruler of a major
realm on the Indian subcontinent until modern times.[citation needed]

Mausoleum of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq in Tughluqabad.

Mausoleum of Ghiyasuddin Tughluq in Tughluqabad.

Lodhi Gardens in Delhi.

Lodhi Gardens in Delhi.

Vijayanagara Empire

Main article: Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of
Sangama Dynasty,[242] which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya
Empire,[243] and the Pandyan Empire.[244] The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of
attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It
lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined
armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose
ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[245]

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the
area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara
("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had
defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained
control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[246][247]

Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna
River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.[248] The next ruler,
Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of
fortification and irrigation.[249] Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful
ruler of India.[250] Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable
of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[251] He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of
Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings
of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[252][253][254]

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors
show.[255] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of
cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their
intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court
ceremonials and dress.[256] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout
Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya
as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[257] Nobles
from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.[258] The later Saluva and Tuluva
kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as
well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati.[259] A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King
Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata
Empire").[260] The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of
Madhvacharya at Udupi.[261]
An 1868 photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site[262]

An 1868 photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World
Heritage Site[262]

Gajashaala or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.[263]

Gajashaala or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.[263]

Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna
temple

Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna
temple

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi

Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is
the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the
Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural
innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection
of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama
founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which
produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and
Jyeṣṭhadeva.[264] Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies
such as water management systems for irrigation.[265] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts
and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music
evolved into its current form.[266]

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of
Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved
and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to
reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.[267] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the
remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The
Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains
ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[268][269][270] During
this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara.
These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas
of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to
have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[268]

Other kingdoms

Main articles: Guhila dynasty and Kingdom of Mewar

Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory)

Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory)

Temple inside Chittorgarh fort

Temple inside Chittorgarh fort

The Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort

The Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort

Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys
in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China.

Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys
in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China.

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the
centre of religious as well as secular education.

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the
centre of religious as well as secular education.

15th century copper plate grant of Gajapati king Purushottama Deva

15th century copper plate grant of Gajapati king Purushottama Deva

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by
the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other
regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from 12th CE to 18th CE.[271][272][273] The Reddy dynasty
successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to
Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[274]

In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The
Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the
Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands.
After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-
established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north
into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar
reconstructed the Gwalior Fort.[275] During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state;
and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and
Gujarat.[275][276] The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in
Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the
Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[275] The Mewar dynasty under
Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor
being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of
the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent
many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the
Chittor Fort.[277]

In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created
difficulties for the Vijayanagara.[278] In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar
Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power,[279] resulting it being split into five
small Deccan sultanates.[280] In 1490, Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and
Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.[281] Although
generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening
Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.

In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with
a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis
became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.[282] In
Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[283][284] led by Lachit
Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the
Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[285] Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which
ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya
Vaishnavite culture.[286][287][288]

The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network
of mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab,
Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-