032 Performance

Aviationefflam
FIRST EDITION 224
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, including photocopying, recording, or
other electronic or mechanical methods, without the
prior written permission of the publisher, except in the
case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews
and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by
copyright law.
Aviationeâm
Copyright © 2022 Aviationexam
ISBN: 978-80-908583-4-3
Aviationexam s.r.o.
Kovarova 39/23
155 00 Praha 5
Czech Republic
READ DISCLAIMER L-
Contents
About This eBook Series
Foreword
1. Performance Legislation
1.1. Assurance of safety in commercial air transport
1.2. EASA certification specifications
1.3. Operational requirements
1.4. EASA performance classes
2. General Performance Theory

2.1. Definitions, terms and concepts
2.1.1. Stages of flight
2.1.2. Steady flight
2.1.3. The four basic forces
2.1.4. Horizontal flight
2.1.5. Climb
2.1.6. Descent
2.1.7. Thrust and power

2.1.8. Thrust available - jet engine >
2.1.9. Thrust available - propeller engine >
2.1.10. Thrust required >
2.2. Effect of variables on aeroplane performance >
2.2.1. Thrust vs. altitude >
2.2.2. Thrust vs. mass >
2.2.3. Power available >
2.2.4. Power required >
2.2.5. Power vs. altitude >
2.2.6. Power vs. mass >
2.2.7. Minimum and maximum speeds >
2.2.8. Effect of altitude >
2.2.9. Effect of mass >
2.2.10. Angle of climb >
2.2.11. Rate of climb >
2.2.12. Factors affecting climb performance >
2.2.13. Angle of descent >
2.2.14. Rate of descent >

2.2.15. Flight path angle
2.2.16. Ceiling
2.2.17. Range
2.2.18. Endurance
2.2.19. Take-off and landing
2.2.20. Aerodrome distances
3. Class B Single-Engine Airplanes

3.1. Airworthiness requirements
3.2. Speeds
3.3. Factors affecting performance
3.4. Take-off
3.4.1. Corrections and considerations
3.4.2. Take-off performance charts
3.5. Landing
3.5.2. Landing performance charts
3.6. Climb

3.6.2. Glide ratio vs. gradient
3.6.3. Climb performance charts
3.7. Cruise
3.7.2. Cruise performance charts
3.7.3. Glide distance calculations
4. Class B Multi-Engine Airplanes

4.1. Definitions of terms and speeds
4.1.1. Speeds
4.1.2. Critical engine
4.2. Take-off
4.3. Landing
4.4. Climb

4.5. Cruise
4.5.2. Drift-down procedure
5. Performance Class A - Airplanes

5.1. Certification specifications
5.2. Speeds
5.3. Take-off
5.3.1. Take-off distances
5.3.2. Effects of runway line-up
5.3.3. Effects of inappropriate rotation
5.3.4. Contaminated runways
5.3.5. Aircraft classification number
5.3.6. Engine flat-rating
5.3.7. Assumed or flex temperature
5.3.8. Take-off distance charts
5.3.9. Take-off distance (tables)

5.3.10. Take-off climb
5.3.11. Take-off climb obstacle clearance
5.3.12. Regulated take-off mass
5.3.13. Use of EFB performance calculations
5.3.14. Take-off speeds
5.4. Climb
5.4.1. Increased V2 procedure
5.5. Cruise
5.5.1. General
5.5.2. Maximum endurance
5.5.3. Maximum range
5.5.4. Long range cruise
5.5.5. En-route obstacle clearance
5.5.6. Optimum altitude
5.6. Descent
5.6.1. Descent techniques
5.6.2. Vertical speed modes

5.6.3. Level-off
5.7. Landing
5.7.1. Landing requirements
5.7.2. Factors affecting landing
5.7.3. Landing climb
5.7.4. Quick turnaround
A. Glossary
B. Abbreviations
C. Literature and Regulations
D. Formulae
E. Learning Objectives
About This eBook Series
Thank you for choosing Aviationexam as your study tool. The team of authors
that has collaborated on the content of this ebook was very carefully and
purposefully selected by Aviationexam to include both experts on the
respective subject matters as well as professional pilots with considerable
operational experience. The objective of the publisher, Aviationexam, is two
fold:
1. To provide you with a concise compilation of the study materials needed

to successfully prepare for your EASA theoretical knowledge
examination. All of the topics covered in this ebook are written in a
comprehensible style, making it suitable for private pilots as well as
students with no or little prior aviation experience.
2. To supply you with the means to establish a solid knowledge foundation,

both in terms of a theoretical knowledge background and the practical
use of the discussed concepts and their application in your future career
as a professional pilot. You will benefit from the presented information
not only in your quest to pass your knowledge examination, but also
during your airline job interviews and your subsequent flight operations.
Important notice - the eTextbooks are available in two versions:
• The eTexbooks with white covers follow the structure of the EASA Learning
Objectives AMC/GM to Part-FCL - Amendment 2, ED Decision
2016/008/R that were in effect before 2020.
• The eTexbooks with dark blue covers comply with the newest Learning
Objectives - Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED Decision
2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision 2019/017/R) that
came into effect in 2020.
If you are unsure which of the two is applicable in your case, please consult
with your flight school.
Aviationexam has been the leading provider of theoretical exam preparation
materials in Europe since 2004. Over the last decade, we have achieved
extensive expertise in the knowledge requirements of EASA exams, which we
have transferred into this study book series. This ebook covers every topic
outlined by the EASA ATPL, CPL and IR syllabi for this subject.
However, in many areas this ebook goes well beyond the minimum
information required by the syllabus to pass your exams. You will find many
practical tips from experienced airline pilots to aid you and to give you an
opportunity to reach a higher degree of proficiency in all relevant aspects of
flight operations. The goal of this ebook is simple - to help you become a
proficient and, more importantly, a safe professional pilot.
We wish you a pleasant and enlightening read.
Your Aviationexam team

April 2021
Foreword
The subjects Performance and Principles of Flight teach you the actual
theoretical basis of flying. It is essential for a pilot to know and understand
why and how aircraft are able to fly. This ebook covers the general
performance theory, different types of aircraft classes, and corresponding
regulations. Certain chapters of this subject overlap with flight planning,
especially the parts about graphs and diagrams. Many of them are used for
both subjects.
The first section of this ebook will help you understand a few basic
regulations and the general performance theory. It explains the phases of
flight like take-off, climb, cruise, descent and landing, and the associated
forces and variables. A significant part of this section is supported by graphs
for a better comprehension of the described relations.
The following section, strictly spoken part two, three and four, explains the
performance of aeroplanes in relation to specific aircraft classes.
Consequently, this section contains the following subparts:
• Performance Class B - Single engine aeroplanes

• Performance Class B - Multi engine aeroplanes
• Performance Class A - CS-25 aeroplanes
Each of these subparts explains the general performance theory and

appropriate regulation specifically with regard to its class. Individual phases of
flight are treated separately and accompanied by a section where you practice
performance data sheets and diagrams. This makes the whole subject more
tangible and gives an impression of the real world.
For your examination, it is important that you understand the theoretical

background of the aircraft performance and that you are able to work through
the graphs correctly, accurately and carefully, while considering the
appropriate regulations.
Performance
Legislation
The purpose of this introductory chapter is to make you aware of the legal
background governing performance requirements on aircraft. There is dual
responsibility of manufacturers to produce adequately powerful aircraft and of
operators to operate those aircraft only in suitable conditions where safe
altitudes, gradients and distances can be achieved. After reading this part, you
will understand that performance requirements are there not to make your life
as a pilot more complicated by endless calculations but to help you determine
when it is safe to fly even if you are not a perfect robot pilot and weather
changes quickly. The background on certification requirements, although of
probably little interest to you, is here to make pilots and operators aware of
the conditions under which data published in airplane manuals can be trusted.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• interpret the European airworthiness requirements according to CS-23 and

CS-25 and recognize the general differences between those two;
• interpret the European operating regulations according to Air OPS;
• name and define the performance classes for commercial air transportation.
1.1. Assurance of safety in
commercial airtransport
The minimum acceptable level of safety in commercial air transport is
achieved by a combination of aeroplane design requirements, which are
specified in the appropriate certification specification, and operational
requirements to be observed in daily flight. The more stringent the
certification specifications for a certain aircraft type, the wider the range of
safe operating conditions which will later be available to the customer.
1.2. EASA certification
specifications
Every country regulates aircraft design and production to ensure that a
product sold as an "aircraft" meets the general expectations, i.e. it is able and
safe to fly. Before an airplane is sold commercially, it undergoes rigorous
testing and the manufacturer has to show to the competent authority that it
does not behave unpredictably, it provides protection to its occupants in case
of fires or emergencies, it can withstand some rough handling and its
performance corresponds to the data presented to the user in the airplane
flight manual. To make life in Europe easier, EASA produces regulations and
guidelines that are binding to any manufacturer seeking market in Europe.
Instead of every single country testing and checking on a new airplane, an
EASA type certificate awarded to an aircraft means that such type is
considered safe and reliable enough to be operated in Europe.
There are two basic set of rules governing airplane’s capabilities, called
Certification Specifications (CS). CS-23 covers small airplanes with a
maximum passenger seating capacity (excluding the pilot) of 9 and a maximum
take-off mass of 5 700 kg. Those can be certified in three categories: normal
for general aviation and personal use, utility, useful for aerial work such as
flight schools, and aerobatic, for those want to have more fun flying an
airplane. This regulation also covers smaller airplanes commonly used in air
transport, called the commuter category, which are twin-engine propeller-
driven airplanes with a maximum passenger seating configuration of no more
than 19 seats (excluding the pilot) and a maximum take-off weight not
exceeding 8 618 kg. CS-25 provides requirements on large airplanes with
turbine engines, i.e. jets and turboprops.
Normal category airplanes are limited to common in-flight manoeuvres and

stalls, lazy eights, chandelles and steep turns up to a bank angle of 60°.
Airplanes certified in the utility category can further perform spins, if
approved for a particular type, lazy eights, chandelles and steep turns with
bank angles of up to 90°. There are no restrictions on manoeuvres in the
aerobatic category, unless a specific manoeuvre is prohibited for a particular
type because of undesirable and unsafe behaviour in flight tests. Commuter
aircraft are limited to normal flight, stalls and steep turns up to 60° with no
aerobatic or semi-aerobatic manoeuvres allowed, similarly to large airplanes
certified under CS-25.
An airplane certified in the commuter or large airplane category, cannot, by

definition of the categories, be certified in any other. However, small airplanes
can be certified in any combination of the two other categories if they meet
the requirements for each of them. Sometimes different limitations apply such
is the case of the Cessna 172, certified in the normal category with four
occupants (three passengers and a pilot) and, at the same time, in the utility
category with only two occupants permitted (one passenger and one pilot
sitting in the front seats).
Common certification requirements ensure that data and procedures

published in the airplane flight manual were thoroughly tested in conditions
such as more-than-reported tail or cross wind, slower pilot reactions, extreme
wind gusts, varying engine power and braking efficiency in older airframes or
harsh landings. Therefore the values shown to the pilot can be expected if
correct operating and maintenance procedures are followed.
1.3. Operational requirements
The manufacturer has no control over the conditions and environment in
which an airplane is operated, once it is handed to the customer (operator).
Therefore the fact that the manufacturer showed satisfactory performance in
tests within the flight envelope does not mean that the operator will always
operate the airplane in the same environment. Therefore EASA also imposes
rules on operators to ensure:
• compliance with limitations and procedures designed by the manufacturer.

• increased safety to account for deviations from weather forecast, average
fleet performance and variations in human behaviour and pilot reactions.
These rules are stated in EASA Commission Regulation (EU) No. 965/2012,
more commonly known as Air OPS. It is based on ICAO’s Annex 6, but it is
much stricter and more detailed, helping operators to establish robust
procedures that ensure everyday compliance and a high level of safety. This is
not the first document in Europe in this area. The first one was the JAA’s JAR
OPS, followed by all operators of commercial air transport in JAA member
states, which were not necessarily EU states. In 2008, with EASA taking over
the scope of competence and interest of JAA in all EU member states, a new
OPS, called EU-OPS, was published essentially copying most JAR-OPS
content. A new version was issued in 2012, now called Air OPS. If this is too
confusing for you, do not worry. Changes between those versions mainly deal
with organization’s management systems, safety systems and other
administrative requirements. There have been no changes to the requirements
on aircraft equipment, dealt with in subject 070 Operational Procedures, and
performance requirements, dealt with in this subject. Air OPS requirements
must be met by any commercial air transport operator registered in EASA even
if the airplane is dispatched on a flight out of Europe. However, the provisions
of this regulation do not apply to third-country operators, who plan and
perform their flights in European airspace according to their home country
procedures, possibly using different visibilities for landing or different fuel
calculation procedures.
MORE INFO
Air-OPS requires operators to observe the procedures and performance data

provided by the manufacturer in the flight manual, because this is the only
way to ensure that the aeroplane can, in actual flight, achieve the performance
demonstrated in flight testing.
Aeroplane performance depends on a number of different variables, some of

which cannot be influenced by the operator. These include environmental
conditions such as aerodrome pressure and temperature. Other variables
could theoretically be influenced but it may be undesirable to do so. An
example would be the selection of a departure or destination aerodrome of
lower elevation to increase aeroplane performance.
In order to reproduce the demonstrated performance data and achieve a

sufficient level of safety, the only option left to the operator is in many cases
to limit aeroplane mass to the highest mass value that complies with all
performance limits.
Some countries such as Turkey used to be JAA members but they can never be
EASA members if the country is not in the EU. They used to apply JAR-OPS and
they still maintain commonality with EU-OPS or more recently Air OPS and other
EASA regulations simply because they do not have to devise their own regulations
and pilots trained anywhere else or coming from other European operators are
well versed in the procedures. Therefore, any training experience or licences
obtained in EASA will be readily accepted by those countries but coming back to
an EASA state from such country might be a different matter as EASA does not
differentiate between those "affiliated" states and other ICAO signatories. Other
non-EU states such as Switzerland and Norway have become full EASA members
based on special agreements with the EU.
1.4. EASA performance classes
EASA distinguishes between three performance classes in commercial air
transport. This means that the same airplane can be operated privately or in
non-commercial operations, not meeting those requirements. At the same
time, the airplane is certified in any of the certification categories based on
CS-23 or CS-25 without any relation to its future use, whether in commercial
air transport or private.
This classification determines conditions such as types of operations

(VMC/IMC, day/night) allowed, planning procedures (distance to suitable
landing sites) and, more importantly for us now, performance requirements
such as calculation of runway distances and climb gradients.
Class A:
• Multi-engine turbo-prop airplanes with a maximum operational seating

configuration of more than 9 passengers or a maximum take-off mass of
more than 5 700 kg.
• All multi-engine turbo-jet airplanes.
Class B:
• Airplanes powered by propeller engines with a maximum operational

passenger seating configuration of 9 or less AND a maximum take-off mass
of 5 700 kg or less.
Class C:
• Airplanes with reciprocating (meaning piston) engines with a maximum

operational seating configuration of more than 9 passengers OR a maximum
take-off mass of more than 5 700 kg.
You are not required to know performance requirements for class C airplanes
for your ATPL. This includes aircraft such as the DC-3 Dakota, which are
hardly ever found in European airlines.
BEFORE EXAM
STUDY TEST
EASA publishes common certification requirements, documents CS-23 and CS-
25.
CS-23 is applicable to general aviation aircraft for 9 or less passengers and
5 700 kg or less of take-off mass, and to twin-engine commuter props for max.
19 passengers and 8 618 kg of take-off weight.
CS-25 applies to large airplanes.
Operators have to show compliance with Air OPS, formerly EU-OPS and JAR
OPS if registered in an EASA state irrespective of the actual place of operations.
Class A airplanes are multi-engine turbo-prop airplanes with a maximum
take-off mass of more than 5 700 kg and all multi-engine turbo-jet airplanes.
Class B airplanes are airplanes powered by propeller engines with a maximum
operational passenger seating configuration of 9 or less AND a maximum take
off mass of 5 700 kg or less.
Airplanes with reciprocating (meaning piston) engines with a maximum
take-off mass of more than 5 700 kg are certified under Class C.
General
Performance
Theory
The purpose of this chapter is to make you familiar with the forces acting on
an airplane, their relationship and their effect throughout the flight from take
off to landing. After reading this chapter, you will understand how natural
forces have to be overcome by engine thrust to achieve the desired flight path
as well as how they can help you in emergencies or to improve the economy
of flight. This chapter will take you through the various phases of flight and
show you the factors that influence aircraft performance. You will be able to
estimate the effect of numerous variables such as speed, mass or
configuration of your airplane on the length of runway you need for take-off
and landing, on reaching your cruising level in the shortest time or on
minimizing the fuel you burn on a given sector. You will also be able to
estimate quickly the effect of a hot day, an unusually high number of
passengers or changing wind on the usual performance of your airplane to
avoid making inappropriate decisions in time pressure or accepting clearances
that would have adverse effect on safety.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe the various stages of flight (take-off, climb, level flight, descent,
approach and landing);
• define steady flight;
• resolve forces in steady climbing, horizontal and descending flight;
• interpret the thrust/power required and thrust/power available curves;
• describe the meaning of thrust and power using appropriate graphs;
• describe the effect of excess thrust and power on speed and/or climb
performance;
• calculate the climb gradient given thrust, drag and aeroplane mass;
• explain climb, level flight and descent performance in relation to the
combination of thrust/power available and required;
• define the climb angle, climb gradient, flight path angle, flight path gradient,
descent angle and descent gradient and the differences between those
terms;
• define service and absolute ceiling;
define terms related to declared aerodrome distances (clearway, stopway,
take-off run available, take-off distance available, accelerate-stop distance
available, landing distance available, screen height);
define range and endurance;
define airplane specific fuel consumption and specific range;
estimate the effect of influencing variables on performance (temperature,
density, wind, airplane mass, configuration, anti-skid system, centre of
gravity position, runway surface and slope).
2.1. Definitions, terms and
concepts
2.1.1. Stages of flight
Every flight can be divided into several stages during which the basic power
setting (throttle) and aircraft attitude remain ideally unchanged and any pilot
inputs serve only to correct minor disturbances such as wind gusts. In
between those phases, there are short transition periods when pilot’s inputs
are needed to break the preceding phase and establish a new equilibrium,
such as to break the climb and manoeuvre the airplane into a straight and
level flight. The transition periods are of little interest to us as they only last a
short time, most flight parameters change and the changes do not always
happen at the same rate as they depend on the reactions of the pilot. What is
more interesting are the long periods of constant configuration and flight
parameters that an aircraft goes through from take-off to landing at its
destination. The different flight phases we are going to discuss here are:
• Take-off: A phase of flight when the airplane is on or near the ground and
accelerates from zero speed to a speed that allows it to fly.
• Climb: A phase of flight when the airplane is airborne and climbs to its
cruising level at a constant speed.
• Level flight: A phase of flight when the airplane maintains its speed and
level.
• Descent: A phase of flight when the airplane descends from its cruising
level to a point near the airport at a constant speed.
• Approach and landing: The final phase when the airplane nears the ground,
touches the runway and slows down to a complete stop.
Let’s first study each of the phases as a snapshot in time where the
surrounding environment does not change, i.e. temperature, pressure,
humidity and hence air density remain constant.
2.1.2. Steady flight
Except for take-off and landing, we will use the concept of "steady" flight to
simplify the matters. Steady flight refers to a situation when the speed of the
airplane does not change and any artificial (man-made) force acting on the
airplane is used to cancel out the effect of a natural force such as force of
gravity, i.e. not to change the speed of the aircraft.
2.1.3. The four basic forces

We can imagine an aircraft as an object represented by a point in space on
which only 4 forces act. If the forces are balanced, i.e. they cancel each other
out, the object moves in one direction at a constant speed. After a transition
period, when an extra force has to be temporarily applied to change the
direction of travel or speed, the object will continue moving in its new
direction or at a new speed.
Whenever the forces are not balanced, the airplane will be pulled in the
direction of the dominant force, i.e. it will accelerate in that direction.
Remember that force is a "vector", which means it has a size or magnitude but
also a direction. Therefore we have to consider not only the effect of the size,
but also the direction, and two forces cancel out only if they are equal in size
but acting in opposite directions.
The four basic forces acting on a flying airplane are:
• Weight (W) or the force of gravity (also called the g-force, G): This force is
caused by the proximity of Earth that pulls all objects to its centre. It always
acts to the centre of the Earth, perpendicularly to the Earth’s surface
irrespective of the direction of flight (level, climb or descent).
• Lift(L): This is the force that keeps the airplane flying and prevents it from
falling down from the skies. By definition, it always acts perpendicularly to
the direction of flight. The main source of lift is the wing, although some
other aircraft parts or even engines can contribute to it under some
circumstances.
• Drag (D): This is the resisting force trying to stop the forward motion of the
aircraft. It is caused mainly by friction of air particles being in contact with
the surface of the airplane and by aerodynamic forces acting in undesirable
directions. By definition, this force always acts opposite to the direction of
movement of the aircraft.
• Thrust (T): This is the force that powers the airplane forwards and it is
created by its engines. By definition, it acts in the direction of movement of
the aircraft.
Let’s now have a look at the forces in the different phases of flight.
2.1.4. Horizontal flight

The simplest case is the straight and level flight, also called the horizontal
steady flight. Horizontal means that the altitude does not change so the
distance between the ground and the airplane remains unchanged. Let’s
assume we study a flight over a very short distance so the fact that the Earth
is round and the airplane has to follow the curved path to stay level can be
ignored. Steady, as noted above, means that the speed is constant.
The basic condition for a flight to be steady is that the forces are balanced.
The force of gravity acts downwards to the ground and perpendicularly to the
direction of flight. It is opposed by lift, which has to be of the same size and of
opposite direction. These forces form a pair that results in zero force acting on
the airplane in the vertical direction so it continues to fly level without
climbing or descending. Drag acts against the forward movement so it has to
be opposed by thrust, otherwise the airplane would slow down. Therefore
drag and thrust are another pair to cancel each another out so that the
airplane does not change its speed in the horizontal direction. The forces are
illustrated in figure below.
Figure 2.1. The four basic forces
Note: The vertical difference between thrust and drag vectors (thrust acts through
the engines) is neglected for simplification purposes.
At first sight, it seems that the two pairs are independent. If the airplane is
heavier, one would only need more lift to cancel out the increased force of
gravity and drag and thrust would remain the same. However, this is not the
case. If you have already studied principles of flight, you surely remember that
both lift and drag are aerodynamic forces. They are essentially described by
the same basic formula:
Fa = jCApv2A
Where:
• Fa is any aerodynamic force caused by air flowing around and object (drag,
lift...)
• CA is the coefficient describing how much of the aerodynamic force is
created in given conditions (and differs for drag and lift depending on type
of wing, shape of aircraft, configuration...)
• p is the density of air (considered for now constant in our snapshots of level
flight)
• v is the speed at which the airplane flies relative to the surrounding air
• A is the surface area over which the air flows to create the force (wing area,
aircraft cross-section)
If you have not studied principles of flight yet, simply remember that both lift
and drag depend on the same factors (which are the speed of flight and
density), and differ in coefficients (CA becoming CD for drag and CL for lift) and
surface areas over which the air flows to create the corresponding force (A
being approximately the cross-section of the aircraft for drag and wing surface
area for lift).
The force of gravity, W (as for weight), is the product of the mass and the
acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2, or more simply 10 m/s2). Thus, the lift
we need to cancel out W is approximately 10 times the mass of the airplane. If
the mass is doubled, twice as much lift is needed, if the mass is halved, half of
the former lift is needed.
Let’s examine the case of double mass. To double the lift, we can:
a. Double the coefficient of lift CL. For a given wing, this can be done by
changing the camber (extending flaps) or changing the angle of attack.
b. Double the density. This does not depend on the pilot as it is given by
the surrounding environment so we practically cannot do that at our
discretion.
c. Double the square of speed, i.e. increase the speed by the square root of
2, which is 1.41 times.
d. Increase the area of wing. This is also virtually impossible in flight, the
only exception being flap extension.
Let’s see now what happens to drag if we try options a) to d). For options b
(doubling the density) and c (increasing the speed 1.41 fold), we can see that
drag doubles as well because it is equally proportional to those variables. As a
result, the thrust we need to maintain the airplane straight and level is also
doubled.
We could try to change the coefficient of lift or surface area in order to keep
the speed constant in unchanging air density and to prevent the increase of
drag and hence thrust.
If we extend flaps to increase the wing camber and/or surface area, we will
also slightly increase the frontal area of the airplane and the wing, altering the
coefficient of drag and therefore increasing the necessary thrust. If we try
flying at a different attitude with a higher angle of attack, we will again
increase the frontal area of the airplane and disturb a thicker layer of air by
setting the wing more into the air flow, making it less streamlined and causing
more drag. This is illustrated in figure below.
Figure 2.2. Flaps extension and AoA increase

MORE INFOl"
Figure 2.3. Angle of attack vs. drag coefficient
Looking back at Figure 2.1, we can see that the forces of each pair act along a
single line to be balanced. On a real airplane, this is hardly ever the case. Even
if lift acted only in a single point, we would have to carefully distribute the
load on the ground to place the centre of gravity just to the centre of pressure
(CP), the virtual point in which all lift is thought to act. Apart from that, we
would not be able to serve meals and allow passengers to use the lavatory as
any movement of mass within the airplane would displace the centre of
gravity. At the same time, we cannot ensure that CP remains in the same place
throughout the flight as it changes with the angle of attack and configuration.
Similarly, the thrust created by engines acts approximately along the axis of
the engine, which is not necessarily in line with drag caused by the shape of
fuselage. A more real illustration of the forces acting on an airplane is shown
in figure below.
For more details, see the graph below showing the increase of coefficient of lift
(CL) and coefficient of drag (CD) with an increasing angle of attack for a particular
aircraft. You can see that to increase lift twofold, we can move from an angle of
attack of 5° (CL = 0.4) to 10° (CL = 0.8). Moving along the drag curve between
these two points, the coefficient of drag increases from 0.0300 to 0.0700. Thus,
we have not only increased drag and the corresponding balancing thrust, but the
effect of doubling lift in this case increased drag more than two times.
Figure 2.4. The four basic forces
Imagine an object similar to the airplane Figure 2.1 or in the figure above
hanging by a thread located in its centre of gravity (where G is acting). If there
are no other forces, the thread acts instead of lift and holds the airplane in the
air. Now consider the thread is attached to the wing in the point where L acts
(CP) in figure above. What will happen? The model airplane will pitch nose
down until the point where G acts is aligned with CP. Similarly, looking at T
and D, drag acts slightly higher than thrust so the model airplane will have a
tendency to pitch slightly up due to those forces.
Figure 2.5. Turning effect
The turning effect of two forces not acting in line is called the moment of
force and it is proportional to the magnitude of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between them. We can cancel this effect by applying
another force which pulls the airplane in an opposite direction at such a
distance that the product of its magnitude and distance from the centre of
gravity (also called the arm of force) equals the sum of products of the two
initial turning forces and their arms. Such force can be provided by the
elevator, which is placed at the utmost end of the fuselage, to increase the
arm and hence to allow for less force to be applied in that position to achieve
the desired effect. As G (or W, weight as it is sometimes called) acts in the
centre of gravity by its nature, it is mainly the lift force that acts as to turn the
airplane over (nose down). The position of engines on this particular airplane
might counteract the nose-down pitching moment slightly, yet if you imagine
a high-wing airplane with underslung engines, their axes will be much higher
and their moment will add up to the effect of lift. Therefore the elevator force
has to counteract the difference between the moment caused by lift and
engines of low wing aircraft or the sum of those two on high wing aircraft.
However, to prevent the aircraft from moving downwards (as there is now one
more forces acting downwards), the lift has to be increased to equal the sum
of G and E, the elevator force.
Figure 2.6. Counteracting moment
MORE INFO
Earlier in this chapter, we have defined lift, thrust and drag as forces acting at
fixed angles to the direction of flight Lift is always perpendicular and the
remaining two are parallel to the direction of flight, i.e. the direction of air flow
relative to the aircraft. This is easy to achieve with lift and drag, which are in fact
two components of the resultant aerodynamic force acting on the airplane, so it is
up to us to choose any two axes and to resolve the resultant force into those
directions. However, engines are fixed to the aircraft and the direction of their
thrust is nearly constant with respect to the airframe but changes relative to the
surrounding environment. Imagine an airplane flying straight and level at different
speeds. As its mass is constant, the lift we need is constant but speed varies so we
need different angles of attack to compensate for the speed. At low speeds, the
angle of attack is high and the engine axis is sloped upwards, at a medium speed,
the engine thrust acts approximately in the direction of flight. At high speeds, the
airplane might be slightly pitched down and so is the engine axis. As a result, it
seems that thrust does not always act in the direction of flight. However, if we
stick to the former definition, we can always consider "the thrust of engine" as a
force that can be split into thrust acting in the direction of flight and another force
acting in a different direction, e.g. parallel to lift or the force of gravity. Such force
resolution has no effect on the general concept of thrust as what we are
essentially looking for is the force given by the engine times the cosine of the
pitch angle. Any increase or decrease in "engine thrust" (because of density, pilot
input or similar) will be proportionally reflected in the thrust as defined earlier.
Assuming that usual flight attitudes do not call for pitch angles exceeding 10-15°,
about 95 % of force developed by the engine still acts in the direction of flight in
the worst case.
Relative air flow
Relative airflow
Figure 2.7. Low, medium and high speed
2.1.5. Climb
In climb, the airplane has to overcome the g-force attracting it to the Earth’s
surface to gain a higher altitude. However, by definition, thrust, lift and drag
act in directions referenced to the climbing trajectory, i.e. not necessarily
perpendicular or parallel to the weight. Figure below shows the forces acting
on a climbing aircraft.
trajectory
Figure 2.8. Forces during climb
As shown in the picture, lift does not directly oppose the sum of the weight
and elevator force. Instead, it only counteracts the elevator force and a
component of weight which is perpendicular to the aircraft’s path. Therefore:
L = E + mg cos#
Where:
• Lis the lift

• E is the elevator downward lift
• m is the aircraft’s mass
• g is the acceleration due to gravity
• 0 is the angle of climb, or the angle between the local horizontal plane and
the aircraft’s path
Does it therefore mean that we need less lift to climb than to fly straight and
level? The answer lies in the definition of the forces, although mathematically
there is less lift than in level flight, the airplane needs thrust to overcome the
remaining part of weight (mg sin 0) and the thrust needed to climb will be
more than in level flight. The above mentioned weight component (mg sin 0) is
actually additional drag as it acts parallel but in opposite direction of flight.
The higher the angle of climb, the greater the extra thrust needed, otherwise
thrust would not fully compensate for drag and the airplane would slow down.
Aircraft
trajectory
Figure 2.9. Weight component is extra drag
2.1.6. Descent
Let’s look at a descending airplane now. Similarly to climb, lift, thrust and drag
keep their direction with respect to the aircraft axes, but weight acts down the
Earth. It is again the angle of descent, or the angle between the local
horizontal plane and the aircraft’s trajectory that determines how the vector of
weight can be aligned by the use of the other forces.
Figure 2.10. Forces during descent
Lift compensates equally the aircraft’s weight times the cosine of the angle of
descent (mg cos 0), but this time the other component of the g-force (mg sin
0) acts in the direction of flight, i.e. it pushes the aircraft forward together
with thrust. If drag is now opposed by thrust and a component of weight, the
aircraft will either accelerate or thrust needs to be reduced by an amount
equal to the weight component to maintain steady flight.
Figure 2.11. Weight component is extra thrust
2.1.7. Thrust and power

People often do not differentiate between thrust and power and they perceive
both as "something" that moves vehicles or airplanes forwards. Anyone can
easily guess that an airplane having more thrust or more power will fly faster
or climb "better". However, what does that "better" mean? Will it reach its
cruising altitude in shorter time or will it achieve a greater clearance from a
building close to the runway end?
Thrust is essentially a force, expressed in newtons (N). If applied indefinitely, it

will keep an object moving by overcoming the deceleration caused by drag.
Power, on the other hand, is energy spent in time, expressed in watts (W), or
in aviation, in horse power (hp).
Imagine you want to place several identical boxes from the ground to some
shelves at different heights. The boxes are quite heavy so you have to use all
your force to lift them up. You have to apply equal force to lift each of them.
However, lifting the last one to the upmost shelf is most difficult and tiring.
This is because the higher you lift it, the more energy you are expending.
Energy, or work, equals force times distance. The rate at which you do work,
i.e. the work done divided by the time it takes to lift the box equals power. If it
takes you twice as much time to lift a box to the upper shelf than to a lower
shelf which is just halfway through, you are giving out equal, or constant,
power because twice as much work (equal force over twice as much distance)
is done in twice as much time.
The same principle applies to airplanes. The engine provides thrust (a force),
which is determined by the mass of air accelerated through the engine in a
unit of time. If this force moves the airplane across a distance in a unit of time,
the engine has given out a corresponding amount of power. Therefore,
remember that:
Power (P) = Thrust (T) x Speed (v)

MORE INFO L"
2.1.8. Thrust available - jet engine

Thrust of a jet engine is given by the difference of speeds of air in front and
behind the engine. The more the air is accelerated, the more thrust must have
been developed. However, the outlet speed of air is limited by the properties
of the engine, by the maximum pressure the compressors can produce above
all. As a result, a jet engine is theoretically the most effective when stationary,
because the airspeed in front of the engine is zero and therefore the
difference between the outlet and inlet speed is maximal. When the engine
starts moving together with the airplane, the inlet speed increases and hence
the difference between the outlet and inlet speed decreases.
In reality, compressibility effects occur at high speeds. More air mass enters
the engine and is accelerated, resulting in more thrust. This is called the ram
effect and effectively compensates for the loss of thrust with increasing flight
speed. The thrust curve of a jet engine is therefore a concave curve, as shown
As you already know from your PPL course, there are many "speeds" used in
aviation. A pilot usually thinks of a speed as the value shown on the airspeed
indicator. However, remember that because of the way it is measured with the
Pitot tube, it is rather an indication of dynamic pressure. To calculate power, the
density of air, which partially determines dynamic pressure, is already accounted
for in thrust as the varying amount of mass sucked in in the same volume of air.
Therefore, the only thing that matters is the speed of the aircraft with respect to
the surrounding air. As a result, it is the true airspeed (TAS) that determines engine
power at given thrust.
in figure below.
Compared to the propeller engine, the change of thrust with speed is marginal
and thus it can be ignored and the jet thrust curve can be treated as a straight
line.
Figure 2.12. Ram effect
2.1.9. Thrust available - propeller engine

In contrast to the jet engine, the thrust of any engine mounted with a
propeller, i.e. both the piston and turboprop engine, is largely determined by
the properties of the propeller, which transforms the output power of the
engine as such into thrust by accelerating and pushing air backwards. The
propeller is an air foil and most effective at creating thrust at only one angle of
attack. However, the angle of attack of a propeller blade is the result of:
• The pitch of the propeller, which may or may not be variable depending on
the type of propeller.
• The rotational speed of the propeller, resulting at any point in a speed
vector tangential to the disc of the propeller.
• The forward (true air) speed of the airplane, which may or may not be
perpendicular to the plane of rotation, depending on the airplane’s attitude
(pitch).
Figure 2.13. Angle of attack with increasing speed
With increasing forward speed, the resultant airspeed vector gets more
aligned with the chord of the blade, leading to a lower angle of attack and
therefore less aerodynamic force creating thrust. As a result, thrust of prop
airplanes rapidly decreases with speed, as shown in figure below.
Thrust
available
Speed
Figure 2.14. Decreasing thrust of a propeller
2.1.10. Thrust required

Thrust required to maintain an aircraft in steady level flight equals drag.
Therefore it is the drag curve, shown in the figure below that determines the
minimum thrust required for an airplane to fly at least straight and level. Any
other manoeuvre except for descent, where weight is used to compensate for
the lack of thrust, will require more thrust and the ability to perform that
manoeuvre depends on the difference between the thrust required (or drag) in
steady level flight and excess thrust provided by the engine (Figure 2.12 and
figure above).
Figure 2.15. Drag curve
Note the shape of the drag curve. Assuming constant weight, drag initially
decreases and then increases. This is because there are in fact two
components of drag, the lift-producing induced drag and the parasite drag.
Induced drag is essentially related to the lift-producing capability of the wing.
If no lift is produced, no induced drag is present. The higher the lift-producing
capability, i.e. the lift coefficient, the higher the value of induced drag.
Therefore with increasing angle of attack, which allows an airplane to fly at
low speeds, induced drag also increases and it theoretically increases up to
infinity at zero speed, practically it is limited by the critical angle of attack and
stall. With increasing speed, a lower coefficient of lift is needed because the
required lift is achieved through higher speed. In fact, induced drag is inversely
proportional to dynamic pressure, i.e. to density and speed squared.
In contrast, parasite drag increases with speed. It is caused by friction, above

all by imperfectly smooth surfaces, the shape of the airplane and the imperfect
flow around transitions between the fuselage, wings and any other aircraft
parts that suddenly deflect air in other directions. This drag component is
proportional to dynamic pressure, i.e. to density and speed squared.
Combining these to curves, the U-shaped total drag curve can be developed,
as shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.16. Total drag curve
MORE INFO
Drag, or thrust required, is a property of the aircraft, determined by its shape,
configuration and angle of attack at any given speed. In theory it is independent of
the engine and its properties. In fact, the engine itself may influence the total drag
of the aircraft because of its shape, the drag caused by windmilling, unfeathered
propeller etc. However, assuming that this drag can be equalized among engines,
i.e. we will produce two engines, one of them a jet one and the second one with a
propeller, the drag/thrust required curves for both airplanes will be identical.
Flight parameters that depend on the difference between thrust required and
thrust available will be different, such as the rate of climb or angle of climb,
although the drag curve is the same. They will depend on the shape of the thrust
available curve. However, zero thrust parameters such as the glide angle with all
engines off will only depend on the drag curve and therefore they will be equal for
both airplanes. A typical example is the Dornier 328, a regional jet or turboprop,
depending on the engine variant chosen by the operator. When powered, the jet
version is much faster and climbs better given the properties of the jet engine.
When gliding or descending on idle, both versions show similar performance,
although the propeller still gives more drag because of the large diameter.
Figure 2.17. Dornier 328 prop and jet version
STUDY TEST
2.2. Effect of variables on
aeroplane performance
2.2.1. Thrust vs. altitude
Let’s now investigate the effects of flying at different altitudes. First of all, it is
important to realize that it is not the altitude as such that matters, but in fact
the density of air. Therefore increasing temperature, i.e. flying on hot days, will
show the same trend in thrust reduction as decreasing pressure or increasing
altitude.
The higher the airplane flies, the lower the density of air. Therefore if the
engine sucks in an equal volume of air, theoretically determined by the cross
section of the engine and the speed of flight, it contains less air mass. As a
result, less fuel can be burned, less energy is released, less air will be
accelerated and less thrust is produced. The thrust available curve then moves
down along the thrust/drag axis.
At the same time, the airplane has to be supported by constant lift, opposing
constant weight (assuming negligible fuel consumption). As density decreases,
either the coefficient of lift or the true airspeed has to be increased to
compensate for it. If true airspeed is kept constant, the increasing angle of
attack (coefficient of lift) will result in more induced drag, but the overall
decreasing dynamic pressure (density times true airspeed squared) will, on the
other hand lead to less parasite drag. Therefore the drag for any particular true
airspeed will equal the drag for the resulting equivalent speed, i.e. the speed
which produces equal dynamic pressure at sea level density. The value of drag
will be equal at any altitude but the speeds to achieve that drag, e.g. the
minimum drag point of the curve, will increase with altitude, as shown in
figure below.
Drag
Figure 2.18. Drag, speed and altitude
Overall, thrust required remains constant with altitude at any given indicated
airspeed, but thrust available decreases because of lower air density.
Therefore the difference between these two decreases and excess thrust
needed for manoeuvres such as climb also decreases up to the point where
the thrust available curve just touches the thrust required curve and the
airplane can only fly straight and level. This is called the absolute ceiling as the
airplane cannot climb any further.
2.2.2. Thrust vs. mass

Thrust produced by an engine is virtually independent of aircraft weight. This
is true for a wide speed range. However, thrust achieved by a propeller aircraft
at a very low speed may be unavailable simply because this particular speed is
below the stall speed at the heavier mass. At the other end of the speed
range, thrust available at a very high speed is equally impossible to achieve
just because the drag of the heavy aircraft equals maximum thrust before the
speed can be achieved. However, as thrust of prop airplanes is much lower at
high speeds, this is not generally an area of interest.
Increasing aircraft mass, i.e. weight, calls for more lift to maintain straight and
level flight, let alone any climb or other manoeuvres. Therefore flying at the
same speed (indicated or true, as these are proportional keeping the altitude
constant) requires a higher angle of attack, causing more induced drag
because of the higher lift capability of the wing. Alternatively, the extra lift
needed to counteract the increased weight might be created by flying at a
higher speed at the same angle of attack, thus leading to an increase in
parasite drag. If we decide to fly at the minimum drag speed corresponding to
a lower mass, this will require more than optimal angle of attack. A heavier
airplane flying at a minimum drag speed for a lighter airplane actually flies in
the region of its drag curve where induced drag is still dominant, i.e. the so
called backside of the drag curve. To achieve the minimum drag point and the
corresponding speed, we have to balance the induced and parasite drag again,
which will occur at a higher true airspeed. As a result, the drag curve moves up
and to the right with increasing weight as shown in figure below.
Although usually not significant, airframe contamination such as ice, water

(from rain) and dirt causes some increase in mass and hence increase of drag.
Depending on where it is deposited, it may also cause degradation of lift
creating capability and hence lead to an increase in lift required.
Drag
High
Figure 2.19. Drag curve and increasing mass
2.2.3. Power available

As noted in Section 2.1.7, power is nothing else but a quantity expressing the
rate of doing work, or, force produced or needed at any given speed.
Therefore to obtain a power curve of an engine, we simply multiply the
already familiar curve of available thrust with the true airspeed. This is usually
plotted against the speed itself. Considering the thrust curve of a jet engine,
i.e. nearly a straight line, or mathematically a constant, when multiplied by a
linear function, we get a line of constant slope, as shown in figure below.
A prop engine is more complex and it is difficult to describe its thrust curve in
simple mathematical terms. However, remember that it initially decreases at a
relatively small rate, yet now we multiply it by a linear function, the speed. As
a result, the new power curve initially increases. When the thrust curve
changes its slope rapidly downwards, the increasing speed cannot compensate
further and the resulting power curve reaches a peak and starts going down,
albeit at a slower rate. The resulting curve is shown in the figure below.
Figure 2.20. Power available - jet vs. prop
2.2.4. Power required

We already know from the previous sections that thrust required in straight
and level flight is the same as drag, because this is just the thrust we need to
overcome drag for the airplane not to slow down, and we often use the terms
interchangeably. Power required is the power needed at any given speed to
overcome the particular amount of drag that exists at that speed. There is no
analogous quantity to drag and we simply call it power required because it is
thrust required multiplied by speed. Remember the U shaped drag or thrust
required curve. Except for the lowest minimum drag point, there are always
two points of equal drag or thrust required, which occur at two different
speeds. If we now take those points and multiply them by the speed itself, it is
obvious that the high speed point of any given value of thrust required will
give us a much higher value of power required than the low speed point.
Therefore the power required curve is also U shaped, however, it is much less
symmetrical as its right, or upward sloping side, rises more steeply, as
illustrated in figure below.
Figure 2.21. Power required curve
2.2.5. Power vs. altitude

Thrust produced by an engine decreases with altitude because of decreasing
air density, which does not allow the engine to burn that much fuel and
therefore that much energy to be released. Similarly power available will
decrease and the power curve will shift down. However, power required rises
with increasing altitude. This is because an airplane flying at constant lift
resulting from constant indicated airspeed and angle of attack will essentially
fly at a higher true airspeed at a higher altitude because the loss of air density
must be compensated for by an increased speed of flight in order to maintain
the required dynamic pressure on the wings. The power required curve shifts
up and to the right as shown in the figure below. Increasing temperature has
the same effect as increasing altitude. It makes the air less dense, so flying at a
given indicated air speed, TAS is higher, leading to more power required, while
the increase in TAS does not fully compensate for the lower thrust available
and hence power.
Figure 2.22. Power vs. altitude
2.2.6. Power vs. mass

Power available, similarly to thrust available, does not depend on mass as long
as an airplane can achieve the particular speed and therefore power we are
interested in. However, increasing mass increases drag or thrust required at
any given speed and therefore power required at that speed is also higher.
Therefore the power required curve shifts closer to the power available curve
and, because of its U shape, restricts the range of speeds and power at which
the airplane can fly.
2.2.7. Minimum and maximum speeds

So far we have considered two very distinct properties - power and thrust
available, which is what the engine gives out without any regard to the needs
of the airplane, and power and thrust required, which is what the airplane
needs to fly at least straight and level without any reference to what is
actually available. Let us see now how the two quantities are related. It is
quite obvious that the curves of thrust or power required need to be matched
by an equal curve of actual thrust or power if the airplane is to fly. However,
remember that the "required" curves are U shaped while the "available" curves
are linear or decreasing for thrust and inverted U shaped for power. Therefore,
if plotted in the same chart, they can either intersect, creating an enclosed
area between the "required" and "available" curves, touch each other exactly
at one point or not intersect at all if the thrust or power available curve lies
under the curve of thrust/power required.
In the first case, the area enclosed by the two curves, as shown in the figure
below, provides some margin for either power reduction, i.e. the pilot can
control the throttle to less than maximum power or for manoeuvring such as
climb. The left intersection point is the minimum speed at which the airplane
can fly, because at any lower speed the drag due to the large angle of attack
and induced drag exceeds the thrust provided by the engine. The right
intersection point is the maximum speed the airplane can achieve at a
particular level and mass because any higher speed produces more parasite
drag than the engine can overcome with its thrust. This is also true for the
power curves and the intersection points in a thrust graph correspond to the
same speeds in the power graph. This is the normal situation in most of the
flight envelope. In fact, the thrust or power required curve may end on the left
side before it intersects the thrust or power available curve. This is because at
that point, the critical angle of attack is reached and the airplane cannot fly
below that speed, it stalls.
Figure 2.23. Power required vs. power available
In the second case, when the curves just touch, there is only one speed at
which the airplane can fly. It is both the minimum and maximum speed at the
same time and this occurs when the aircraft has reached its ceiling, i.e. the
maximum altitude at which it can fly just straight and level and has no excess
thrust or power to climb.
The third case when the "available" curves lie below the "required" curves
represents a theoretical situation above the airplane’s ceiling. The aircraft
cannot fly even straight and level and the lack of thrust or power available
needs to be compensated for by a component of weight in descent.
2.2.8. Effect of altitude

As discussed previously, thrust and power available decrease with altitude,
thrust required remains constant if plotted against indicated airspeed but
shifts to the right if plotted against true airspeed. Therefore the two curves
(both for thrust and power) get closer together, effectively reducing the speed
range between the intersection points and the intersection points also
converge, causing the minimum speed to increase and the maximum speed to
decrease.
2.2.9. Effect of mass

While the curves representing the engine, i.e. power and thrust available,
remain unaffected by the mass of an airplane, the thrust and power required
to maintain a heavier aircraft in flight increase for any speed because of the
higher drag. Therefore the lower positioned "required" curves shift closer to
the "available" ones and, similarly to the effect of altitude, limit the speed
range at which an airplane can fly, lead to a higher minimum speed and a
lower maximum achievable speed.
2.2.10. Angle of climb

The angle between the horizontal direction and the direction of flight is called
the angle of climb. In still air conditions, we can relate the path flown by the
airplane to the forces that act on it. The angle of climb, y (gamma), is given by
the height, h, gained per distance flown, d, as shown in figure below.
Figure 2.24. Angle of climb
Another term commonly found in performance documentation is the gradient

of climb. It is the height gained over a certain horizontal distance travelled,
h/d, expressed as a percentage.
The ratio of height gained to distance flown, h/d is equal to the tangent (tan)
of the climb angle, i.e. y = arctan (h/d). Looking at the forces in climb in figure
below, we can see that weight acting down corresponds to height in figure
above. However, there is no force in the figure below acting directly along d in
the figure above to express the height to distance ratio in terms of force.
trajectory
Figure 2.25. Forces during climb
Let’s do a bit of math now and compare the values of sine and tangent
functions for different gammas:
Y Sin y Tan y
0.5° 0.0087 0.0087
1.0° 0.0175 0.0175
2° 0.0349 0.0349
4° 0.0698 0.0699
We can see that for small angles the values of sine and tangent, i.e. the ratio
of h to d or h to the flight path, are equal or nearly equal. Therefore we can
assume that the ratio of h to d is proportional to the resulting force acting
along the aircraft’s trajectory and weight. The resulting force is given by the
excess of T over D, or (T - D). From this, we can say that:
x t-d
sm 7' = tan 7' = w
At any given mass (and therefore weight), the angle of climb depends on the
difference of thrust and drag, i.e. the difference between the thrust available
and required curves.
Figure 2.26. Maximum climb angle speeds
Looking at figure above, we can see that because of the nearly constant thrust
of a jet engine, the greatest difference between T and D occurs at a specific
speed at a point where the drag curve reaches its minimum - the so called
minimum drag speed, VMD. However, the same is not true for a prop because
the thrust available at this speed is already quite low and a greater difference
between T and D can be achieved at a lower speed. This speed is called the
best angle of climb speed, Vx, and its value cannot be determined without
knowing both the drag and the thrust available curves. We can still use the
term, Vx, for a jet engine, however, in this case we can say that Vx = VMD.
EXAMPLE 2.1 L"
MORE INFO L" I
2.2.11. Rate ofclimb

The height an airplane can climb in a unit of time is called rate of climb (ROC).
It is not the same as the angle of climb, which expresses the height gained per
unit of distance. Knowing that height to distance is the same ratio as excess
thrust to weight (the basic formula for the angle of climb), we can use a simple
mathematical operation to see what the rate of climb depends on:
h T -D
d — W
T -D
W
X d
We are now interested in the height gained per unit time, i.e. h/t, where t is
time. Therefore we have to relate the formula to time:
I x
t
1 x
t w
X d
h ~ T-D d
t — W t
Using basic physics, we know that d/t or the distance covered in one unit of
time is actually the speed. We can therefore simplify the equation to:
T-D
ROC W
X V
This tells us that the greater the excess thrust (thrust minus drag) or the
greater the speed at which the particular excess thrust can be developed, the
greater the rate of climb. At the same time, the lower the weight the greater
the rate of climb. But how can we use this formula to actually see at which
combination of excess thrust and speed the ROC is actually at its maximum?
Let’s try a practical example now. A Boeing 737 has a maximum take-off weight of
62 tonnes and two engines rated at 90 kN each. Its drag at the take-off speed is
21 kN. If an engine fails, this increases to 25 kN because of the increased drag due
to asymmetric thrust:
• Assuming sea-level ISA conditions, what will be its angle of climb just after take
off if it is fully loaded?
• What will be the angle of climb in case of an engine failure?
Using the angle of climb formula:
T-D
sm7 = —
we get:
T = 2 x 90 kN (a B737 has 2 engines) = 180000 N

D = 21 kN = 21000 N
W= 10x62 t = 620000 N
siny = (180 000-21000)/620 000
siny = 159 000-620000
y = 14.85°
If the engine fails, the values change as follows:
T = 1 x 90 kN (1 engine fails) = 90000 N

D = 25 kN = 25 000 N
W= 10x62 t = 620000 N
siny = (90000 - 25 000)/620000
siny = 65 000/620000
y = 6.02°
Remember from Section 2.1.7 that power equals force (i.e. thrust) times
speed. Similarly, if we multiply drag by speed, we get the power required.
Therefore we can do a bit more of math:
T-D
ROC Q= w x v
Tv - Dv
ROC Q W
P avail Preq
ROC Q w
Assuming constant mass, we can now check out the graph of power available
and required in the figure below to see where the difference of those two is
the greatest.
Figure 2.27. Maximum rate of climb speeds
We can see that it is not the lowest point of the power required curve, so
called minimum power speed, VMP, where the highest ROC can be achieved,
because at this point there is still relatively little power available. Another
point every pilot should remember is that the best ROC speed, VY, is always
higher or equal to Vx, the best angle of climb speed. This is because when the
airplane flies at Vx, the maximum angle of climb is achieved through a
combination of relatively good vertical speed or rate of climb. At the same
time a low forward speed allows that the airplane gains a lot of height within a
short distance. If the pilot accelerates, the rate of climb will initially increase
but the forward speed also increases so the airplane will reach a given height
faster but it will also cover quite a lot of distance in that time, effectively
reducing the angle of climb. The very special case when both speeds are equal
is the ceiling, where by definition both are zero because the airplane produces
just enough thrust to fly straight and level.
MORE INFO L"
2.2.12. Factors affecting climb

performance
There are several factors affecting the climb performance. Firstly, it is the
atmosphere, where the air density and air temperature decrease with
increasing altitude. This in turn has a direct influence on the aircraft
performance. And secondly, it is the aircraft properties, which are the mass,
configuration (e.g. flaps) and current condition (e.g. engine failure) of the
aircraft. The following pictures show how such factors can affect the climb
performance.
The figure below shows mnemonic devices that might help you to remember the
difference between Vx and VY.
Vx
Imagine climbing aircraft and think of those angles Imagine our “Y" clock hands, it is 12:55 and 30 seconds,
formed by their flight paths - our "X" - best angle of clock refers to time and best rate of climb, climbing
climb = climbing with the steepest angle within the shortest time
Climb performance vs. altitude
Figure 2.28. Influence in climb performance
2.2.13. Angle of descent

Similarly to the angle of climb discussed previously, we can define the angle of
descent as the height loss per unit distance. While the angle of climb is
obviously important, for example for a pilot who needs to make sure that his
airplane can safely climb over obstacles close to the airport, why are we
interested in the angle of descent? If an airplane can fly straight and level, it
seems that it can always descend. We are actually hardly ever interested in the
maximum angle, simply because we can always start descending earlier for an
approach, we can ask for delaying vectors if we are too close or too high or at
last, we can go-around and attempt a new approach if we happen to be too
high on final. It is actually the minimum angle of descent that matters and it
Climb performance vs. mass

Climb performance vs. flap setting
Rate of
climb
ROC
IAS

Rate and angle of climb with engine failure

matters in some of the worst situations a pilot can imagine, if all engines fail or
if an engine fails in an area where the plane cannot maintain a safe altitude
with the remaining engines, when the so called drift-down procedure must be
applied to effectively use the previously gained altitude to get the aircraft out
of the mountainous terrain.
The physics of descent is essentially the same as that of climb. However,

thrust is less than drag or there is no thrust at all. This results in a negative
value in the angle of climb equation, meaning that the angle or the gain in
height is negative. To avoid confusion of signs and a discussion whether an
angle of -2° should be called smaller or greater than -3°, the formula can be
adjusted (technically multiplied by -1) to:
D -T
sm 7
Similarly, the gradient of descent is defined as the height loss per distance
travelled, h/d, expressed as a percentage.
The angle of descent thus depends on excess drag or in other words, the lack
of thrust to compensate for drag. Remember that for any given flight attitude,
drag depends on the configuration and speed of aircraft. This in turn depends
on the lift needed to keep the airplane flying and lift is determined by weight.
Therefore the ratio of drag to weight is essentially the same as drag to lift.
Because both drag and lift are aerodynamic forces, they equally depend on the
speed of flight, density and surface area and the only parameter that
differentiates those is the coefficient of drag and lift (CD and CL respectively).
Hence we can change the equation above to:
D T
Sln T' = w - w
D T
sin 7 — L w
C :D T
sm7^ — “ W
This formula tells us that to minimize the angle of descent, both terms, i.e. CD
to CL and T to W ratios should be as close together as possible. However, T to
W is constant, assuming that the airplane flies with no thrust and with
constant weight. Therefore the glide angle only depends on the aerodynamic
properties of the airframe, i.e. its lift to drag characteristics. To minimize the
angle of descent, we are looking for minimum CD to CL ratio, or maximum CL
to CD ratio, which happens to be at Vmd, the minimum drag speed. Note that
this is also the best angle of climb speed for a jet, whose thrust is a constant.
However, it is not so for a prop where propeller efficiency, if working, causes
Vx to be different from, and lower than VMD.
Another point you should note is that CD to CL is unaffected by aircraft

weight, i.e. there is one optimal angle at which an aircraft can always descend
irrespective of its weight and this is what we call the glide ratio, i.e. the
minimal loss of height per maximal distance flown. This ranges from
approximately 1:8 for general aviation aircraft to 1:15 or more for jets, which
is comparable to gliders built on purpose to perform well in a gliding flight.
However, the speed at which the best glide ratio is achieved increases with
increasing weight and this is the reason why glider pilots take on extra weight
to fly faster while using the best performance of their aircraft.
MORE INFO L"
2.2.14. Rate of descent

Sometimes it is not the distance achieved when gliding that matters but rather
the time it takes to get lower. Again, this is hardly of any importance in normal
flight, but it may be of high importance in emergency situations such as rapid
decompression, when pilots' and passengers' brains are starved of oxygen, or
in health-related emergencies when a sick passenger needs to be handed over
to the ambulance on ground as soon as possible. This is when we actually
strive for a maximum rate of descent (ROD). A minimum rate of descent is
rarely sought in commercial aviation. However, as a glider pilot, you might still
be interested in achieving records in the length of time spent in the air.
Equally to the rate of climb, the rate of descent depends on excess power
required or the lack of power available. For clarity, the equation has again
been multiplied by -1 to get the result in positive values, because the general
power equation leads to negative values for descent:
Large airplanes are in fact not expected to lose both (or all) engines. A ’both
engines flame-out’ procedure is rarely practised at simulators compared to an
ordinary engine flame-out and single engine operations. There might be different
speeds recommended to you as a pilot to handle different situations. For example,
the descent speed with one engine inoperative will not essentially be the least
angle of descent speed because it is assumed that you actually need to descent
relatively fast to a lower altitude at which a restart may be attempted. The flow
into the compressor of a jet engine might be optimal at some higher speeds which
need to be achieved for a successful restart or the safety margin, i.e. the
difference between VMD and Vs, the stall speed, might be too narrow in some
operating conditions such as icing. It is in fact quite surprising to some turboprop
pilots that the manufacturer recommends a different speed for the drift-down
procedure when one engine is running, but the airplane has to descend because it
cannot maintain the altitude, and a different speed for both engines flame-out.
However, after reading the previous chapters you should be able to perfectly
understand this because this is where the power-less vs. some-power-available
flight steps in. And as you already know, the thrust provided by the remaining
engine still depends on the speed. Therefore, the minimum drag speed used with
no engines might actually be too high for the remaining engine to provide good
thrust as long as it is running.
ROC w
ROD S Vv
Let’s discuss now how a pilot can influence each of the terms of the equation
to increase the ROD. Weight, or mass, cannot be changed by the pilot. Thrust
is minimal, although not zero, because it would be unwise to shut down the
engines completely - they will still be needed for a stabilized approach and
safe landing. Therefore it is only drag and speed we can influence. Remember
the drag curve. Its U shape tells us that there are two different speeds to
achieve high values of drag. Looking at the equation above, it is therefore
better to choose the higher of those. Furthermore, while the highest values of
drag are achieved at high speeds, there is usually no equal drag in the low
speed region because this would require an angle of attack which is beyond
the critical value, i.e. the airplane stalls before reaching the attitude. As a
result, it is apparent that the best rate of descent can be achieved at the
maximum speed.
Drag can also be increased by changing the configuration of the aircraft. Flaps,
landing gear and spoilers or speed brakes all increase drag. However, none of
them can usually be safely used at the maximum speed. Flaps not only
increase drag, but they also increase lift. Therefore the resulting D to W, or
alternatively D to L ratio might not be changed significantly as any change in
drag goes together with a change in lift. The landing gear and speed brakes
certainly add drag without adding lift. However, the increase must be greater
than the increase in power required due to speed at the maximum speed in
clean configuration to justify their use. It is not possible to decide generally on
whether maximum ROD occurs at a high speed in clean configuration or at a
lower speed if speed brakes and the undercarriage can be deployed. It is
always necessary to follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer. On
modern jet aircraft, speedbrakes can usually applied at the maximum speed,
however, the deployment of the landing gear is limited to a much lower speed.
Figure 2.29. Rate of descent vs. gear position
MORE INFO L"
2.2.15. Flight path angle

The angle of climb or descent discussed before considered only those aircraft
properties independent of the surrounding environment. The speeds used in
calculations were true airspeeds, determining the aircraft’s relative movement
to the surrounding air. This makes sense because thrust is created by
accelerating air through the engine or propeller. Or more simply, the aircraft is
pushed forwards with regard to the air it is in. However, we use airplanes to
move people and freight between points that are firmly bound to the Earth,
not to the moving air in the atmosphere. Equally, a hill at a distance behind the
runway must be climbed over irrespective of the flow of air. Therefore it is the
flight path angle (FPA), i.e. the angle between the aircraft’s path as observed
from the ground and the ground distance flown, that matters. If there is
Although the emergency descent procedure in the flight crew operating manual
(FCOM) may recommend the high-speed, clean-configuration technique, there
might be situations where pilot’s good judgement and knowledge of aerodynamics
may help. The FCOM cannot account for all situations that may arise and the
reasons for a fast descend may vary. In case of a medical issue or a simple outflow
valve failure causing decompression, the airplane still maintains its structural
integrity and can fly at its maximum operating speed. However, if the
decompression is caused by an explosion (bomb, oxygen bottle or dangerous good
in the cargo hold) or a structural failure, such as door falling off midflight, there is a
good reason to believe that other parts may also be damaged. High speed causes
large aerodynamic forces formed on any part of the aircraft, stressing the already
damaged structure even more. Therefore it is dangerous to increase the speed
above the value at which the failure occurred. In this case, maintaining a relatively
low speed may allow landing gear and speed brake extension, or, a slight reduction
in airspeed may allow for their deployment, thus adding more drag and improving
the descent. Apart from that, extending the landing gear early increases stability
and gives the pilots enough time to solve possible landing gear extension
problems or prepare the cabin for a belly landing.
headwind, an airplane flying towards an obstacle will be pushed back and it
will reach the desired altitude over a shorter distance, resulting in an apparent
higher climb angle, or, more precisely a truly higher flight path angle. However,
if there is tailwind, the airplane will be moved closer to the obstacle, leading to
a smaller flight path angle. Therefore headwind improves the flight path angle
and tailwind makes it worse. The opposite is true for descent. Although the
effect of wind is still the same, remember that it is usually the least angle of
descent we strive for. Therefore tailwind allows us to move further while
losing the same height while headwind forces us to lose height in a shorter
distance.
Similar to the definitions of climb and descent gradient (change in height I

horizontal distance travelled), there is also a flight path gradient, which is the
height gained or lost, expressed as a percentage of the distance travelled over
the ground.
2.2.16. Ceiling
Ceiling is, in the performance theory, the maximum pressure altitude an
airplane can reach. Absolute ceiling is the pressure altitude at which both the
rate of climb and angle of climb are zero, the airplane has no excess thrust or
power to climb further and it can just maintain straight and level flight. Any
manoeuvre such as a turn calls for more lift, i.e. a higher speed or a higher
angle of attack, which is unobtainable. It is quite obvious that flight at the
absolute ceiling has no practical use because the capabilities of the aircraft are
very limited.
A more practical value is the service ceiling, i.e. a pressure altitude an airplane
can reach while still able to climb at a pre-determined rate. This rate is
commonly 300 ft/min, although some aircraft are certified with a ROC of e.g.
100 ft/min in icing conditions if there are severe speed penalties in those
circumstances.
In this context, a term called maximum operating altitude must also be

considered. Pressurised aircraft are frequently limited in terms of maximum
operating altitude not only by their performance but also by the maximum
pressure differential between outside air and cabin air. For example the B737-
NG aeroplanes are certified to operate at a maximum altitude of 41000 ft.
This is not their aerodynamic ceiling, but the maximum altitude at which the
maximum value of the cabin pressure differential will be reached (to maintain
cabin altitude of about 8000 ft). A B737-NG could theoretically climb even
higher in terms of its performance, but the regulations concerning maximum
cabin altitude would be broken or the maximum cabin pressure differential
would be exceeded.
MORE INFOl"
2.2.17. Range
General
Range, the maximum distance an airplane can fly without refuelling, is one of
the decisive parameters airlines consider when buying an airplane. It depends
on two basic aircraft properties: the size of fuel tanks, given by design, and the
distance flown per one kilogramme of fuel used. This is called specific range
(SR):
d NM
SR = Illfuel kg
Using a simple mathematical operation, we can relate both the distance flown
and fuel used to time:
t
SR = f x
mfuel
i
SR = v x FF
MORE INFOl"
In this formula, v is the true airspeed and FF is the fuel flow in kg per hour.
Therefore to maximize SR, i.e. to fly the largest distance with the limited
amount of fuel we have in our tanks, we are looking for a flight regime in
The practical use of ceiling is for flight planning. Regulations require that a flight is
not planned at a higher altitude than the service ceiling in current conditions for
the purpose of overcoming obstacles. There are situations when we need to fly
over a mountain range which cannot be overcome with one engine only. However,
if the airplane can climb high enough before getting into the mountainous area,
we can expect that the moment an engine fails, it will take some time and distance
to descend to an altitude which can be maintained. This distance can be used to
get out of the high terrain and then continue the flight to a nearby airport to land.
Obviously, the higher the altitude we can reach before the engine failure, the
longer the distance into the mountains at which we can fly. For exactly this
purpose, to enhance safety, we cannot assume the airplane to fly above its service
ceiling when planning the flight. However, the pilots may still decide to climb
higher even to the absolute ceiling, giving them extra safety margin.
Both absolute and service ceiling obviously vary with temperature and weight.
The warmer the air, the lower the ceiling, and also: the heavier the airplane, the
lower the ceiling. However, on a cold day a light aircraft, e.g. a powerful jet on a
ferry flight with no passengers and freight on board, would be able to climb well
above its usual ceiling, despite that a pilot cannot deliberately decide to accept a
higher flight level. There is always some limitation on the highest pressure altitude
the airplane can fly at, even though the engines would be able to pull it higher in
some conditions. This limitation is mainly restricted by the pressurization system.
On one hand, a pilot or any person on board needs some maximum cabin altitude
(approximately corresponding to 8 000 ft) to be able to breath normally and be
able to perform common tasks reliably. The pressurization system is therefore
programmed not to let air out of the cabin if the inside pressure is too low. On the
other hand, the airframe has been designed and tested to withstand some
differential pressure and any excessive difference causes abnormal stress and
possible mechanical failure. Therefore, the pressure regulating outflow valve
usually has a safety feature to release the pressure in case of a large difference
between the outside and the cabin. By allowing a light aircraft on a cold day climb
to its performance-limited absolute ceiling, the pressure system limitation will
probably be exceeded. Initially, the cabin pressure will be maintained at the lowest
acceptable value but the differential pressure will increase. When reaching the
built-in safety protection, the maximal differential pressure will be maintained,
the purpose of overcoming obstacles. There are situations when we need to fly
over a mountain range which cannot be overcome with one engine only. However,
if the airplane can climb high enough before getting into the mountainous area,
we can expect that the moment an engine fails, it will take some time and distance
to descend to an altitude which can be maintained. This distance can be used to
get out of the high terrain and then continue the flight to a nearby airport to land.
Obviously, the higher the altitude we can reach before the engine failure, the
longer the distance into the mountains at which we can fly. For exactly this
purpose, to enhance safety, we cannot assume the airplane to fly above its service
ceiling when planning the flight. However, the pilots may still decide to climb
higher even to the absolute ceiling, giving them extra safety margin.
Both absolute and service ceiling obviously vary with temperature and weight.
The warmer the air, the lower the ceiling, and also: the heavier the airplane, the
lower the ceiling. However, on a cold day a light aircraft, e.g. a powerful jet on a
ferry flight with no passengers and freight on board, would be able to climb well
above its usual ceiling, despite that a pilot cannot deliberately decide to accept a
higher flight level. There is always some limitation on the highest pressure altitude
the airplane can fly at, even though the engines would be able to pull it higher in
some conditions. This limitation is mainly restricted by the pressurization system.
On one hand, a pilot or any person on board needs some maximum cabin altitude
(approximately corresponding to 8 000 ft) to be able to breath normally and be
able to perform common tasks reliably. The pressurization system is therefore
programmed not to let air out of the cabin if the inside pressure is too low. On the
other hand, the airframe has been designed and tested to withstand some
differential pressure and any excessive difference causes abnormal stress and
possible mechanical failure. Therefore, the pressure regulating outflow valve
usually has a safety feature to release the pressure in case of a large difference
between the outside and the cabin. By allowing a light aircraft on a cold day climb
to its performance-limited absolute ceiling, the pressure system limitation will
probably be exceeded. Initially, the cabin pressure will be maintained at the lowest
acceptable value but the differential pressure will increase. When reaching the
built-in safety protection, the maximal differential pressure will be maintained,
reducing the cabin altitude, causing lack of oxygen in the cabin.
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is a ratio of fuel mass required to produce a unit
of power per unit of time. The goal of engine designers is to get the highest
amount of power out of the engine for the lowest possible weight of fuel. The
lower the SFC ratio, the better the fuel economy. For example - if an engine has
SFC of 0.3 it means that 0.3 kg of fuel are required to produce 1 BHP per hour - in
this case the SFC value will be written as 0.3 kg/BHP/hr.
The specific fuel consumption varies with thrust or power setting as well as
ambient temperature (which affects air density and engine efficiency).
which true airspeed is high but the fuel flow to achieve it is low. A useful
parameter is specific fuel consumption (SFC), the amount of fuel used per unit
of thrust (for jets) and unit of power (for props) in one unit of time:
mfuei j.
SFC
-*-jett or P prop
T t
mfuel 1
SFC
t T
xjet. or P
-*■ prop
i
SFC = FF x
Tjet Or Pprop
(Tjet or Pprop) X SFC = FF
Therefore specific range increases with increasing true airspeed to thrust (jet)
or power (prop) ratio:
SR = v x - ----------J—--------
(Tjet or Pprop) X SFC
This time it is not the maximum thrust or power available but the actual, or
required, thrust/power which we are interested in as we are looking for the
best speed to thrust or power ratio, i.e. for the lowest thrust or power to
speed ratio. This can be found from the thrust or power required curves by
finding the tangent to the respective curves, as shown in figure below.
Figure 2.30. Maximum specific range
The speed at which the tangent touches the thrust curve for a jet is 1.32 VMD,
mathematically derived from the drag equation combining induced and
parasite drag. For a prop, we are essentially looking for a point at which P/v is
minimal, but power itself is drag times speed, so we are looking for a point at
x speed
which-------- — is minimal, which obviously means a point at which drag is
opt/t/CL
minimal, i.e. the minimum drag speed, VMD.
The speed for maximum range is also the speed of minimum fuel cost for a
given distance. However, it is not usually the most cost-efficient speed to fly
an aeroplane in commercial transport. The reason is that other operating costs
are based purely on flight time, such as crew salary or the provision of air
traffic control. The "best economy speed" is therefore usually higher than the
maximum range speed. A pilot would select to fly at maximum range speed
when his primary goal is to cover the greatest possible distance with the
remaining fuel. This could, for example, be the case when all airports in the
vicinity are closed in poor weather and are not expected to reopen soon
enough for the pilot to wait.
Sometimes the speed recommended by the manufacturer for maximum range

does not exactly correspond to 1.32 VMD (jet) or VMD (prop) because these
are so low that stability is poor and there is only small range penalty for an
increase in speed, leading to better flight time.
Range vs. wind

It is probably quite straightforward that headwind will move the airplane back
against ground as it ploughs its way through the atmosphere and tailwind will
whisk it further along its track.
Formulas:
• air distance/ground distance = TAS/GS

• TAS = air distance/time
• NAM = NM x TAS/GS
The tangents shown in figure above are derived from indicated airspeed
graphs, which have a constant relationship to true airspeed at any chosen
altitude and temperature. When wind steps in, thrust or power developed are
unaffected, produced by the flow of surrounding air, but the resulting ground
speed changes. Therefore to compensate for wind, we need to move the
tangent’s origin to the right for headwind, essentially lowering the value of
speed for any given thrust or power value, and to the left for tailwind,
increasing the value of speed for any thrust or power. Once the origin is
moved, the tangent points will also move, resulting in higher best-range
speeds in headwind and lower best-range speed in tailwind.
While the specific range (SR) as explained above relates to airspeed, we can
also define a specific range over the ground (SRG), which is the ground
distance travelled per unit of fuel burnt.
Range vs. altitude

Once the best range speed is chosen, there is a need to choose an optimum
altitude. First of all, altitude affects engine specific fuel consumption. Jet
engines operate best at low SFC at high altitudes and designed RPM.
Therefore SFC generally decreases with altitude. Piston SFC is best when
RPM is low and manifold pressure high. Therefore to obtain the desired power
setting, piston SFC improves with increasing altitude as long as power can be
maintained by opening throttle at low RPM. When the throttle is fully open
and further loss in power with altitude must be compensated for by increasing
RPM, SFC increases again.
Secondly, increasing altitude gives better true airspeed for the best range
indicated airspeed. This works well for a jet engine up to an optimum altitude
above which air compressibility (low density and therefore high true airspeeds)
lead to increased drag, causing specific range to deteriorate. Lighter airplanes
can be flown at lower speeds and therefore the onset of the compressibility
effect occurs at a higher altitude. The lighter the airplane the higher the
optimum altitude for maximum range.
Altitude
Figure 2.31. Range vs. altitude
For prop airplanes, there is no similar marked improvement in range with

increasing altitude. Although SFC is initially improved, it is the power, not
thrust, that matters. With increasing altitude, true airspeed also increases
when flying at the best range indicated airspeed. This in turn increases the
power required. Remembering that fuel flow depends on both SFC and power,
there is no point in improving SFC if power increases at the same time.
Range vs. mass

Apart from the effect of mass on the optimum altitude, more mass requires
more lift at any given altitude and therefore produces more drag, either
induced one if the airplane is flown at a constant speed but at a higher angle
of attack, or more appropriately, parasite drag if speed is increased
accordingly. Therefore increasing mass reduces range.
MORE INFOl"
Although increased mass undoubtedly adversely affects range, airlines are not that
often limited by the very maximum distance an airplane can fly. They are mostly
interested in minimizing fuel consumption on their regular services well within the
aircraft’s range. However, this is essentially the same task. If we operate an aircraft
so that it is able to reach the maximum range, it will obviously use the least
amount of fuel on any sector. Payload has to be transported because fare paying
passengers and freight do not only cover the increased fuel consumption due to
their weight but they also contribute to other operational costs and company’s
overheads, which are distributed according to the expected or average load factor
on each service. Nevertheless, the race to decrease service equipment mass has
seen some airlines optimizing the toilet water tank filling according to the length
of flight, requesting wineries to produce their prestigious wines in plastic bottles
or counting the number of teabags used on every flight and removing salt and
pepper from the cutlery set to get rid of any unnecessary weight. However, these
actions are ridiculous in light of the amount of fuel most airlines transport there
and back without ever using it. In the old days, "full wings" used to be the
standard amount of fuel ordered by any captain even or short sectors in areas
where alternate aerodromes are abundant. Nowadays, savvy airline managers
invest in advanced systems to monitor average savings or excessive fuel used
(compared to the planned fuel) to advise crews on reasonable commander extra
fuel. Apart from that, modern planning software commonly calculates "tankering",
or to put it simply, whether it is cheaper to fly an aircraft at a relatively low weight
with just enough fuel to reach the destination (plus of course the regulatory
reserve fuel) or to fill it up with enough fuel for the return flight, considering fuel
price differences at the domestic airport and at the various destinations. Those
systems are so dynamic that they download fuel prices from the company’s
suppliers every day and give appropriate recommendations to the crew for every
flight. Sometimes, the calculation may be inconclusive, leading to a small or no
difference between tankering or multiple refuelling. This is where common sense
is needed and factors such as possible turnaround delay because of refuelling of
an already delayed flight may decide.
Range vs. centre of gravity
It is not only the total mass but also its distribution that influences range, or
more precisely lift and drag. For any airplane, there is an optimal position of
the centre of gravity (CG) at which the deflection of the elevator causes
minimum drag. If the CG moves forwards, a large elevator deflection will be
required to stabilize the aircraft, which means more downward force to be
opposed by larger lift and more drag of the elevator as such. Therefore, at
equal mass, more thrust is required at any speed and the range and specific
range both decrease. A rearward centre of gravity (behind the optimal
position) also adversely influences range, although not that much. The
balancing elevator force actually decreases so lift can also be slightly
decreased, but the elevator is still out of its attitude for minimum drag so more
thrust is required, albeit not as much as if the CG was moved forwards out of
its optimum position.
Payload trade-off
Hardly any airplane can be filled up with maximum payload and full tanks at
the same time. When payload (or more precisely the maximum zero fuel
weight including crew, service equipment and the aircraft itself) is fully used,
its range depends on the amount of fuel in the tanks. This can be progressively
increased from zero (no range) to a point where the maximum take-off weight
is reached, giving the airplane the maximum range achievable at the maximum
zero fuel weight. Although range does not increase linearly with increasing
fuel because the mass of fuel adds to worse performance at any given
altitude, it can be considered nearly linear (points A to B in figure below). After
that, if more range is needed, extra fuel can be taken on board only if less
payload is carried so that the sum of those two gives the maximum take-off
weight (points B to C). When all tanks are full before take-off, one would think
the range cannot be increased. In fact, it can. It can be done by reducing
payload, making the airplane lighter and therefore improving specific range
(right of point C). This range is practically used only for ferry flights as it would
not make sense to offer a commercial service with no payload allowed to be
carried on it.
Figure 2.32. Payload trade-off
2.2.18. Endurance
General
Endurance is the time an airplane can remain airborne with a given amount of
fuel. It is a mandatory field in the ICAO flight plan to facilitate search and
rescue by letting the air traffic services know how much fuel, expressed in
hours and minutes of regular flight, the airplane carries. From the performance
point of view, we are interested in the maximum endurance with full fuel
tanks and the factors affecting it. In practice, airlines do not compete in
staying in the air for the longest time, but endurance-maximizing flight
reduces hourly consumption if some holding is necessary, such as in winter
when an airport is closed because of snow removal and expected to reopen
soon.
Whenever it can be foreseen that the pilots will have to enter a holding
pattern at their destination or alternate aerodrome, minimum fuel and overall
operating costs can best be achieved by managing the en-route airspeed to
avoid or minimise holding times. This can be accomplished by selecting a
lower cruise speed so that the aeroplane will arrive overhead the destination
only when it is expected to be cleared for the approach. Apart from saving
operating costs, this is often also more desirable to air traffic controllers, who
can avoid managing multiple holding aircraft by appropriately timing their
arrivals.
Maximum endurance is achieved when fuel consumption in time is lowest, i.e.

when fuel flow is at its minimum. Remember the equations used to derive
maximum range. Fuel flow depends on SFC and thrust (jet) or power (prop)
required. SFC depends on the engine and outside conditions. So for any given
altitude, keeping SFC constant, we are looking for minimum thrust or power.
This obviously occurs at VMD, the minimum drag speed, for a jet, and VMP, the
minimum power speed for a prop.
Also remember that a jet achieves its maximum range at 1.32 VMD, so the
best endurance speed, VMD, is obviously lower. The same is true for a prop,
where VMP is lower than VMD. It only takes a bit more of analysing to derive it.
If you imagine the U-shaped drag curve, you can consider the nearest points
left and right of the minimum drag point to be of the same drag value. If
multiplied by speed to obtain power required, the point to the left will be
multiplied by a smaller value than the minimum drag point and the point to
the right of it, resulting in a minimum power point somewhere left of the
minimum drag speed.
When holding in a propeller-driven aeroplane, pilots may be recommended to

fly at a higher speed than the maximum endurance speed. This is because the
maximum endurance speed is quite a low speed and requires a large angle of
attack, and any further deceleration will increase the total drag and required
power, which results in a considerable lack of speed stability.
Drag
Figure 2.33. Drag curve
Endurance vs. wind

Wind has no effect on endurance, it only changes the distance an airplane can
reach during the time. Headwind naturally decreases the distance flown in
that time and tailwind increases it.
Endurance vs. altitude

For a jet airplane flown at VMD, there is no change in drag, or thrust required
with increasing altitude. Therefore it is only the specific fuel consumption that
improves with altitude at equal thrust required, improving endurance up to an
altitude at which the corresponding true airspeed is so high that
compressibility takes over, resulting in worse performance.
Altitude
Figure 2.34. Endurance vs. mass
In case of props, power required increases with altitude as a result of higher

true airspeed. Therefore endurance generally decreases. However, if an engine
shows improvement in SFC at constant RPM and increasing throttle, this may
initially compensate for the increase in power required. However, above the
full throttle altitude, SFC will increase and compounded with more power
required, it will lead to less endurance.
The same is true for temperature as it is actually the density of air that
influences engine and aircraft performance, not the temperature or altitude
alone.
Endurance vs. centre of gravity

Similarly to range, the position of CG has an effect on endurance. If the centre
of gravity is moved out of its optimal position, the elevator is set to a more-
than-minimum drag configuration, increasing drag of the whole airplane at any
speed. A forward CG also needs more downward compensating force, thus
increasing the lift needed to oppose it, which means that the airplane needs to
be flown at a higher angle of attack or speed corresponding to a higher mass
with an optimal CG. A rearward CG location causes more drag because of the
elevator position but leads to slightly decreased lift because of the smaller
compensating force. In any case, displacing the CG from its optimal position
reduces endurance, but a rearward CG displacement is always better than a
forward one.
2.2.19. Take-off and landing

General
Before taking to air, an airplane needs some ground space to start moving
supported by wheels on the ground to accelerate to the minimum speed at
which it can fly. In fact, it always accelerates a bit more because when at the
minimum speed (i.e. the stall speed for the given configuration), there is no
margin for human errors or natural phenomena such as wind gusts. Although
this is already quite clear for you as a private pilot, it is necessary to
understand the different speeds and their relationship when determining the
ground distance needed.
A pilot is always interested in the indicated airspeed, which is the measure of

aerodynamic pressure and therefore lift produced by wings. However, the
engine as the thrust provider, works by accelerating masses of air with respect
to the surrounding environment, i.e. the true airspeed. And, the airfield as
such is firmly connected to the Earth and therefore it is the ground speed that
matters when determining the length of the runway needed to take off or to
slow down and stop the airplane upon landing.
During the take-off roll, thrust provides force that accelerates the airplane. As
we already know, thrust of a jet engine can be considered constant while it
decreases with increasing speed for a propeller-driven airplane. The distance
an airplane needs to accelerate is given by the rate at which speed increases,
i.e. acceleration, and the speed achieved at any given moment, which governs
the distance passed before the final speed is obtained. This is mathematically
rather complex so let’s just accept the fact that the higher the target speed
and the lower the acceleration, the longer the distance needed.
However, acceleration during the take-off roll is not constant. The basic
formula is:
Fa = a x m
The mass of the airplane is relatively constant, neglecting the effect of burned
fuel. Therefore a, the acceleration, depends on FA, the accelerating force
provided by thrust. This can never be constant for a prop because of
propeller’s efficiency at higher speed. Surprisingly, it is not even constant for a
jet. This is because, despite constant thrust, drag needs to be overcome first
to maintain a speed before acceleration can take place. Unlike in the air, there
is one additional drag component to the already familiar induced and parasite
drag, the wheel drag caused by friction between the wheels and the runway.
Wheel drag actually decreases with speed. Initially all the mass of an airplane
rests on the wheels and no lift is produced. Therefore wheels are heavily
loaded and their drag is high because it is proportional to the aircraft’s mass
and a coefficient of friction determined by the surface of the runway and the
wheels. As the aircraft accelerates, some lift is formed, effectively reducing the
weight resting on the wheels. When the airplane rotates, no more mass is
supported by the undercarriage and there is no wheel drag component
anymore.
Induced drag remains relatively constant during the take-off roll. Although the
basic theory described in the previous sections shows that induced drag
decreases with speed, this only happens when the lift-producing capability, or
more simply the angle of attack, decreases. During the take-off roll, it remains
fairly constant because the airplane is supported on the wheels at a constant
attitude.
What increases significantly is the parasite drag, going up at a rate

proportional to speed squared. Although one may object that wheel drag
decreases with speed squared (or lift also increases with speed squared), this
drag is just a percentage of the weight as given by the friction coefficient so
the absolute value of drag increases, as shown in figure below.
Figure 2.35. Net accelerating force
As a result, the net accelerating force FA, or thrust minus drag, decreases
during the roll, resulting in less and less acceleration. Therefore at high speeds,
a disproportionately longer distance is required to increase the speed by one
unit compared to the beginning of take-off.
The landing roll is just the opposite. Initially, the airplane is almost completely
carried in the air by wings and wheels and wheel brakes are not much
effective. Thrust is nearly zero (idle) unless thrust reversers are applied to
significantly boost the decelerating force. The only force stopping the aircraft
is therefore the drag, mostly its parasite component. Once brakes are applied,
their decelerating force increases as the airplane slows down and more weight
rests on the wheels. However, the effect of brakes is influenced by surface
conditions to a great extent. If the runway is slippery, brakes will lock the
wheels and the airplane will skid along the runway with little deceleration.
Anti-skid systems optimize the braking effect by assessing when the wheel is
about to skid to relieve the pressure and let it spin up again. However, they
cannot compensate for the lack of friction between the tyre and the surface
as such. Similarly, water or slush can lead to aquaplaning, when the wheel
skids over a layer of water and loses contact with the runway surface. If thrust
reversers are used, they increase the decelerating force immediately and
irrespectively of the weight on wheels and runway surface, providing drag
proportionate to thrust available at that speed (thrust reversers are normally
limited to a range of thrust setting from idle to a bit more than that and the
maximum thrust is not normally available in the reverse mode).
MORE INFO L"
Effect of mass
The effect of mass on the take-off distance is twofold. First of all, for any given
thrust, provided by the engine and thus independent of mass, more mass is
accelerated. Acceleration is therefore slower and more distance is needed.
Secondly, a heavier airplane needs more lift to get airborne hence a higher
speed must be achieved before the pilot can rotate, increasing the take-off
distance even further.
Similarly, a heavy airplane flies at a higher approach speed before landing and
thus needs to lose more speed during the landing roll. The decelerating force,
if provided by aerodynamic drag only, depends only on speed but has to
decelerate a larger mass, resulting in less deceleration at any given speed
compared to equally fast but lighter aircraft. This is also true for the effect of
thrust reversers. Brakes provide more stopping force when more weight rests
on all the wheels, however, this increased force decelerates a larger mass. The
overall effect of increased mass is therefore a larger landing distance.
Another factor related to mass is the position of CG. At any given mass, a
forward CG requires more stabilizer deflection. During the ground roll, this
causes more drag and decelerates the take-off roll. In fight, it not only
increases tailplane drag but also increases the required lift, as the force
Although, thrust reversers seem to be the best way of stopping the airplane on
the ground, they are hardly used beyond the idle thrust. First of all, they are quite
noisy and most airports nowadays prohibit their use at increased thrust or at night
altogether not to excessively disturb population in the neighbouring area.
Secondly, some airlines claim that by not using thrust reversers beyond idle, large
amounts of fuel can be saved as any increase of thrust, forward or reversed,
increases fuel flow. This is, however, inconclusive, as some other airlines believe
that contrarily brake and tyre wear is of more concern and thrust reversers should
be used instead. Advanced airplanes such as the Airbus A380 actually have
software that calculates the optimal braking force in order to slow the airplane
down to the taxi speed just before reaching a turn-off so that braking is minimized
not to stop the aircraft too early but not to overrun the chosen taxiway at the
same time.
Apart from noise, there are other considerations with thrust reversers. At low
speeds, exhaust gases blown back in front of the engine may be sucked in or
recirculated, causing possible engine overheating and unpleasant smells in the air
conditioning system. Reversed propeller pitch may splash contaminant to the
cockpit windshield and side windows, reducing visibility to zero. Therefore,
different aircraft will have different restrictions on thrust reverser deployment
imposed by the manufacturer or operator.
produces by the stabilizer is a downward force.
Effect of altitude and temperature

The common quantity reflecting both altitude (or pressure) and temperature is
density. Therefore the effect of lower pressure can be cancelled by lower
temperature and vice versa. Keeping one of those constant, the effect of the
other one can be estimated. Increasing temperature and increasing pressure
altitude, i.e. decreasing absolute pressure affect the engine as well as aircraft
speed. During take-off, less dense air causes thrust to decrease as less fuel can
be burned in the same volume of air sucked in the engine. This provides less
accelerating force. The airplane still needs to achieve the same lift to
compensate weight but if air density is low, the airplane has to roll faster or
achieve a higher true airspeed for the same indicated airspeed before it can lift
off. Accelerating to a higher speed with less accelerating force obviously
increases the take-off distance.
Similarly an aircraft landing in a low density environment flies at a higher true

airspeed for the same indicated airspeed and the landing distance will be
longer. The effect of reduced engine thrust is negligible as it is set to idle
during landing anyway so its inability to reach its maximum rated value is
irrelevant.
Humidity also influenced density, the more humid air is, the less dense it is.
However, the effect is commonly neglected as air does not show such
variations of humidity and the resulting density as it does in case of
temperature and altitude.
MORE INFO L"
Effect of wind
Wind influences ground speed only. Other conditions constant, headwind
provides more air-flow over wings at a given ground speed or alternatively,
pushes the aircraft back along the runway at a given airspeed, reducing both
the take-off and landing distance. However, tailwind effectively reduces the
Density altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere at which the prevailing
density would be found. It is the pressure altitude corrected for non-standard
temperature (prevailing atmospheric density) - therefore, the density altitude will
be equal to the pressure altitude in the conditions of standard temperature. For
example, let’s say that we are departing from an airport that is located at sea level,
however it is very warm on this particular day. The airplane is going to perform as
if it was departing from a much higher airport where the density of the air is less
resulting in decreased performance. Density altitude is the "what if my airplane
was at this altitude" altitude. For example - at an airport with an elevation of
2 000 ft an outside air temperature of 38 °C will reduce the density of the air to
such a level, that the atmospheric conditions used for aeroplane performance
calculations will be the same as at an airport located at elevation of 5 000 ft at a
standard temperature. The density of the atmosphere depends on three variable
factors - altitude, temperature and humidity. An increase in any of these factors
will decrease the density, a combined increase in the factors will result in a greater
decrease in density. Density altitude value is a clear indicator of aeroplane
performance and therefore it is used in performance calculations.
Pressure altitude is the height in the International Standard Atmosphere at which

the prevailing pressure occurs. It may be obtained by setting the subscale of a
pressure altimeter to 1013 hPa, 29.92 inches or 760 mm of mercury.
true airspeed of a given ground speed or propels the airplane down along the
runway, increasing both the take-off and landing distances. As a precaution to
random wind speed variations, regulations require that only 50 % of the
headwind component is used when calculating take-off and landing distances
while 150 % of reported tailwind must be used.
Effect of runway slope

Runway slope technically causes an airplane to climb or descend even during
ground movements. Therefore when taking-off or landing uphill, there is a
component of weight (depending on mass and the sine of the slope angle)
acting opposite thrust and together with drag. Similarly, this component helps
thrust accelerate the airplane if moving down the slope.
However, this effect can be negative or positive, depending on the type of

movement. For a take-off, maximum difference between thrust available and
required is desired. Therefore uphill slope added to drag partially prevents the
airplane from accelerating, effectively increasing the take-off distance. On the
other hand, when landing, the weight component adds to drag and helps to
stop the airplane, leading to a shorter landing distance. In contrast, taking-off
downhill helps acceleration and shortens the take-off distance while landing
on the same runway is less advantageous because the slope acts opposite to
the effect of brakes and thrust reversers. Performance tables are provided for
slopes up to 2 %. Any slope above that requires additional data provided by
the manufacturer and possibly a special approval by the authority to operate
on steep runways.
Concerning the accelerate-stop distance, a downhill slope decreases the

accelerate stop distance, although it might be difficult to imagine. The
accelerate-stop distance means that we have to accelerate to the required
decision speed and then bring the aeroplane to stop safely on the runway.
Typically the acceleration part takes much longer than the stopping part. With
a downhill runway the aeroplane will take less time and distance to accelerate
to the decision speed. Obviously the stopping phase will be affected
negatively by the downhill, but combined together with the acceleration the
overall distance is reduced when compared to an uphill runway. The effect of
an upslope on the acceleration-stop distance will be negative => ASD will be
longer than on a downhill runway. As mentioned above, the acceleration
segment of the manoeuvre takes up much more distance than the stopping
segment. With an uphill runway it will take the aeroplane longer distance to
accelerate to the decision speed. Even though the upslope will then help it to
stop faster, the overall ASD will be increased.
Effect of runway surface

Runway surface conditions influence friction between aircraft tyres and the
runway. The best compromise between low friction to allow easy acceleration
for a reasonable take-off distance and high friction to provide enough
stopping force after landing or during an aborted take-off is achieved on a dry
paved runway. There is some reduction in friction on wet runways. However,
as long as tyres maintain contact with the surface, weight penalties are low.
Any runway covered with 3 mm of water, 6 mm of wet snow, 12 mm dry snow
or any other equivalent contaminant of 25 % coverage or more is called
contaminated. Its friction coefficient is significantly lower. This is obviously
undesirable for landing, when braking is necessary. However, it is equally bad
for take-off. Although acceleration may be slightly improved through reduced
wheel drag, we always need to bear in mind that take-off might need to be
aborted and heavy braking is then necessary to bring the airplane to a halt on
the remaining runway. Therefore contamination also adversely affects the
take-off distance. The friction coefficient may be given directly as a decimal
number, expressing the ratio of braking efficiency to an ideal dry and
reasonably harsh runway, or as braking action ranging from poor to good.
The greatest risk on wet runways is aquaplaning, or hydroplaning, a situation

when water makes the surface slippery for various reasons. There are
generally three types of hydroplaning, all of them leading to significantly
deteriorated braking effect:
Dynamic hydroplaning: Caused by a thick layer of water or any other

contaminant, it does not allow the tyre to penetrate the contaminant and
supports the tyre on its surface, making the wheel skid on top. This type of
hydroplaning commonly occurs when the contaminant layer is deeper than
the tread.
• Viscous hydroplaning: This type usually occurs on runways covered with
deposits of rubber, typically in the touchdown zone. The surface is much
smoother on its own and a very thin layer of water may create a thin film
filling up the remaining dimples and imperfections in the runway. This can
occur at lower speeds compared to dynamic hydroplaning.
• Reverted rubber: It is a situation when heavy braking produces so much
heat that water under the tyre boils and the tyre is reverted to uncured, soft
rubber. This allows it to change shape and some water is trapped under the
tyre, making it float on a steam cushion.
The speed at which aquaplaning is likely to happen depends on tyre pressure,

p, and contaminant specific gravity, o. Specific gravity of water, the most
common contaminant, is 1.
Because hydroplaning depends on speed, the most effective way of regaining

aircraft control is by slowing down. This is difficult if brakes are not working
and thrust reversers are more effective.
Effect of flaps
Flaps increase the coefficient of lift, CL for any given speed through increased
wing camber and wing surface area. This enables the aircraft to take off at a
lower speed, which in turn can be reached sooner and the airplane uses up
less distance of the runway on take-off. However, this is only true for small
flap settings. Flaps also increase drag, which means the net accelerating force
will also be lower and the reduction in speed that must be attained will be
cancelled by the fact that, with less acceleration, it will take longer to
accelerate the airplane to that speed. Starting from a zero flap setting to the
flaps fully extended, TOD (take-off distance) progressively decreases until
some 10° to 15° of flap and then starts increasing again. Alternatively,
considering a runway of limited length, the maximum take-off weight for that
runway initially increases and then starts decreasing again.
Figure 2.36. Take-off distance and mass vs. flap setting
However, choosing the optimum flap setting for the shortest take-off distance
or for field-limited take-off mass is not always the best solution. Any flap
setting will increase drag during the climb-out and will decrease the permitted
mass to achieve the required climb gradient after take-off especially at airports
with very long runways which would permit high take-off masses on their
own. The optimum flap setting is found at the intersection point shown in
figure below at which the mass limited by climb gradient equals the mass
limited by field length.
Take-off
mass
Figure 2.37. Optimum flap setting
Effect of antiskid
An antiskid system usually provides two basic functions. It prevents the pilot
from landing on braked wheels by disconnecting the human-induced braking
signal from the actual pressure in brakes until the wheel spins up to a pre
determined speed. Antiskid also controls the braking force on wheels to
ensure that any wheel becoming blocked is allowed to spin up again to assure
braking by slowing down wheels instead of skidding on blocked wheels. Most
airliners have an automatic braking system set for rejected take-off or RTO for
departure and set to one of a few braking intensity levels for arrival. Even with
no autobrake system engaged, the pilot then activates the antiskid system by
pressing the brake pedals but the actual pressure and therefore braking is
performed by the system itself. If the system is inoperative, pilots directly
control the brakes. This may result in unpredictable, varying braking intensity
and blocked wheels. Therefore both the take-off and landing distances are
largely affected and greater distances must be considered, frequently resulting
in significant weight penalties.
2.2.20. Aerodrome distances

General
It is not just the visible, paved runway that is used to assess whether an
airport can be used by a particular airplane. The system of areas and surfaces
that ensure aircraft safety is rather complex, leading to a set of published
values or distances that need to be compared to the expected performance of
aircraft corrected for additional safety margins.
Clearway
Some runways can be equipped with clearway, an area just behind the
departure end of runway, free of obstacles except for frangible objects such as
approach lights, which allow the airplane to gain some altitude before it leaves
the perimeter of the airport. This area, if built, is generally unrecognizable from
other unpaved areas at the airport. However, it has been carefully designed so
that it provides an obstacle-free surface with a slope of less than or equal to
1.25 % and it is always at least 150 m wide, extending beyond the width of
the runway. Although its length depends on the airport, performance
calculations do not allow more than a length equal to one half of the
associated runway’s length to be used (EASA AIR OPS CAT.POL.A.205).
Therefore adding a larger clearway does not further improve take-off
performance.
Stopway
Stopway, if available, is also adjacent to the departure end of runway and free
of obstacles. However, as its name suggests, it can be used to provide
additional runway length for aircraft aborting take-off in an emergency. It does
not need to be made of the same material as the runway. In fact, it is covered
with grass at most airports with otherwise paved runways. It cannot fully
support aircraft on a daily basis in normal operations. However, the soil
underneath is strengthened with gravel or special structures so that an
airplane stopping on it will not get too deep into it and it can be relatively
easily removed with special equipment with no serious damage. If both
stopway and clearway are present, a stopway will in fact be a part of the
clearway as it is usually narrower - the regulations require it to be at least as
wide as the runway but no additional width is prescribed.
MORE INFO L"
Screen height
It appears to be quite obvious on first sight which phase of flight is called "the
take-off" or "the landing". But what exactly are their starting points and end
points? At this point, the screen height needs to be considered. It is the upper
vertical limit of the take-off and landing flight paths and defined as "the height
of an imaginary screen which the aeroplane would just clear when taking off
or landing in an unbanked attitude with landing gear extended." Or, more
simply, the screen height is reached when the lowest part of the aircraft is at
the specified height. Depending on aircraft category and operating conditions,
usual screen heights used in European aviation are 50 ft and 35 ft.
Take-off distance
Take-off distance is the ground distance it takes a particular airplane to
accelerate from a complete stop to a safe speed, take off and reach the screen
height, depending on the performance class of the aircraft. This value is
provided by the manufacturer in the aircraft flight manual (AFM) and it
represents an average value achieved by an average fleet of aircraft of a
particular type, if operated according to the recommended procedures and
maintained according to the type’s maintenance schedule. Such values are
provided for a set of temperatures, pressure altitudes and a range of other
factors such as wind or runway slope. The value obtained from the AFM is
called the gross take-off distance, i.e. the distance the pilot can reasonably
There are cases of incidents and accidents related to overshooting or
undershooting a runway not only during aborted take-off but also on landing.
While most of these result in relatively minor damage to the undercarriage and
airport equipment such as approach lights, a case in point was the two similar
accidents of the Tupolev Tu-204 at Novosibirsk and Moscow’s Vnukovo Airport
only nine days apart. In both cases, the airplanes overran the runway on landing,
coming to a stop some 350 and 400 m beyond the runway respectively - brake
failures were to blame. In the second accident, thrust reverser issues were also a
contributing factor. In the first case, the airplane ended up in fields with no
fatalities. In the second case, however, five out of the eight crew members on
board died. Only as a matter of luck there were no passengers as it was a ferry
flight repositioning the aircraft back to its base after a Christmas holiday charter
flight. The overrun itself would not have been that tragic, were it not for the
deeply frozen soil, which behaved nearly as a paved runway and did little to stop
the aircraft. Another factor was a ditch along a motorway close to the airport,
which was too difficult a barrier for the airplane to overcome. To prevent such
accidents, ICAO requires that airports with runways longer than 1200 m have a
Runway End Safety Area (RESA) free of non-frangible obstacles and limiting
damage to aircraft over- or undershooting the runway. This area spans at least
twice the width of the runway and reaches at least 90 m beyond the runway strip,
although a length of 240 m is recommended. Because this area is designed to
enhance safety in case of extraordinary circumstances, its length cannot be
included in any take-off or landing distance calculation.
expect to be used with no additional safety margins. However, regulations
governing air transport operations such as EASA’s Part-OPS applicable to
commercial air transport operators registered in Europe require that this
distance is multiplied by safety coefficients to account for variations in actual
weather conditions, pilot reactions such as slow throttle advance or imperfect
line-up. With all those corrections, what we obtain is called take-off distance
required, or TODR, which is the value we actually compare to the distance
data provided by the airport authority.
Take-off run
It is the distance an airplane needs for its ground roll, i.e. to accelerate from a
complete stop till it lifts off the runway. Unlike the take-off distance, it does
not consider any air portion of the take-off manoeuvre. The gross take-off run
is determined by the manufacturer and can be found in the ARM. When
multiplied by regulatory safety coefficients, the take-off run required or TORR
is obtained and it is the value we use to determine whether the runway is
suitable.
Accelerate-stop distance
This is the distance it takes to accelerate an airplane from a complete stop to
the maximum speed at which the pilot can still decide to abort the take-off, so
called take-off decision speed or V1; and to bring the airplane to a complete
stop.
Note: Take-off and accelerate-stop distances as given in the AFM assume that the
aircraft is brought to a stop after line-up, brakes are applied and full power is set.
Only after the engines have spooled up, pilots are expected to release the brakes.
When performing a "rolling take-off" or releasing brakes before the engines are able
to deliver maximum power, initial acceleration will be slower, with the effect of
increasing take-off and accelerate-stop distances.
Landing distance
It is the ground distance covered by an airplane descending from a prescribed
screen height, flaring and stopping on the runway. For the purpose of
performance calculations, we must assume that the airplane overflies the
runway threshold at some height and it flies along the runway in a descending
flight before it touches down. We never assume that a pilot can and will flare
before the threshold so that the wheels touch down exactly at the threshold.
The gross landing distance published by the manufacturer has to be corrected
for safety factors to obtain the landing distance required or LDR.
Note: The published landing distances assume compliance with reference landings
speeds and threshold crossing at screen height. When the aeroplane is higher on
approach, it will probably touch down further along the runway and experience an
increase in landing distance. The same goes for high approach speed. It will take
the pilot more time to flare and touch down the aeroplane, increasing landing
distance again.
MORE INFO L"
Balanced field take-off

This term is used to describe a take-off for which the take-off distance equals
the accelerate-stop distance and it determines the relationship of the various
speeds used during take-off. Lowering the decision speed at which the
pilot has to abort take-off at the latest, decreases the accelerate-stop
distance, the lower limit being the speed at which the airplane is controllable
on the ground. However, it increases the take-off distance because any engine
failure above this speed will force the pilot to continue the take-off, albeit with
a slower acceleration, leading to a larger distance covered before the rotation
speed, VR is achieved. However, increasing up to VR leaves more time for
decisions, but requires more distance to stop in case of an engine failure just
before rotation. Therefore for any mass and outside conditions, there will be
only one at which those two distances equal, giving the shortest runway
length required for that take-off. If clearway or stopway is present or the
runway is long enough, there is no need for balanced take-off and the highest
V! will most probably be selected not to force the aircraft to the air in case of
There is a never-ending debate on whether it is better to retract flaps early after
touchdown to increase the load on wheels and therefore the effect of brakes or
whether the additional drag provided by landing flaps is more effective in
decelerating the aircraft. Opinions of general aviation instructors differ and some
airplanes might even have both methods described in the airplane flight manual -
one of them used for normal landing and the other one recommended for example
for aborted take-off. Airliners never require flaps to be retracted during the
landing roll and brake efficiency is ensured by anti-skid and auto-brake systems
and the published landing distances take into account their performance with
progressively increasing load on wheels. If quick lift cancellation and aerodynamic
drag increase is desired for very fast jets, they will be equipped with speed brakes
or spoilers, which are mostly protected from being deployed before the airplane is
firmly on the ground. Any runway movement is a situation when attention and
alertness is needed and non-essential tasks should be completed before or after
this flight phase. Even in multi-pilot operations, flaps should not be retracted on
the runway but only after vacating it because there are more important tasks for
the other pilot to do such as handling radio communication or requests from the
pilot in control.
a serious failure.
Unbalanced field take-off

Unbalanced conditions exist if there is a clearway and/or a stopway available.
Such conditions allow a higher runway length-limited take-off mass (RLTOM)
because of longer distances.
Vi bjljnccd
Takeoff distance = Accelerate-stop distance

Balanced (no stopway. no clearway, TOD ■ ASD)
_ Clearway
Runway ’
Takeoff distance > Accelerate-stop distance
Unbalanced (no stopway but clearway available, TOD > ASD)
Stopway
Runway
Takeoff distance < Accelerate-stop distance
Unbalanced (no clearway but stopway available, TOD < ASD)
Figure 2.38. Balanced and unbalanced field

V1? the take-off decision speed, tells the pilot at which speed a take-off can be
aborted to be able to stop on the remaining runway and possibly stopway.
However, it does not consider other risks of aborted take-off. Any braking in this
situation will call for maximum brake intensity and thrust reversers application, if
permitted by their technical condition and runway surface contaminants. While
pilots and cabin crew have to use shoulder harness during critical phases of flight,
passengers have nothing more than two-point belts. Those do not prevent the
upper body from moving forwards by inertia. With little legroom provided by most
airlines, there is a high risk that they will hit their head with the backrest of the
seat in front of them. Apart from that, heavy braking may overheat tyres, which
will be deflated through the overpressure plug in the better case or will burst,
damaging the airplane further. Because of those considerations, there are two
phases of aborted take-off, low speed and high speed rejected take-off. The
distinction depends on the overall speed range, starting at some 70 kt for smaller
turboprops to approximately 100 kt for large jets. Below that speed, take-off is
aborted for most failures. Above that speed, only engine failures, fire, severe
structural damage or multiple system failures should lead to aborted take-off,
otherwise the associated risks outweigh the benefits.
Figure 2.39. Balanced and unbalanced field
Take-off Distance Available (TODA)
This is a physical property of the runway, published by the airport, which pilots
use to assess whether their airplane can be safely operated there. Because
take-off does not end when lifting off of the runway, but rather at a prescribed
screen height, TODA includes not only the full length of runway usable for
take-off run but also the clearway.
TODA = TORA + clearway
Take-off Run Available (TORA)
This is the physical length of runway usable for the ground roll during take-off.
It normally covers the whole paved area, unless there is some unserviceable
part, i.e. it also includes the starter strip marked with arrows pointing to the
threshold.
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA)

This is the distance including TORA and stopway, if available. By contrast,
clearway on its own does not increase ASDA because it is only an obstacle-
free area but has no extraordinary load-bearing capability.
ASDA = TORA + stopway
Landing Distance Available (LDA)
This is the part of runway usable for landing and the subsequent ground roll
down to a full stop. It always begins at the threshold and any area before it,
whether paved or not, cannot be included and a pilot should not plan to use it
to descend below the designated flight path. It does not contain stopway
either as this is only usable for aborted take-off, not in normal operations.
After all, it would be rather weird to see every airplane overrun the paved
runway and end up in the grass behind.
Figure 2.40. Declared distances
The values of TORA and LDA, along with TODA and ASDA, if different from
TORA, can be found in the aerodrome chart for every available runway.
Reproduced with permisilon of Jeppesen Sorvierson, Inc. NOT FOR NAVIGATION USE
C Jrpprseo Sanderson Inc 2022
Figure 2.41. Available runway lengths
Runway variables
The required distances for take-off and landing also depend on the
characteristics of the runway used. One of the runway variables to be
considered is a slope, which affects an aeroplane in no different way than any
other vehicle. The reason for that is that a part of the weight acts downhill,
causing an acceleration. It can easily be understood when imagining to cycle
along the runway.
When the runway has an upslope, it will be harder to accelerate both the
bicycle and the aircraft from a stop, because of the additional thrust required
to overcome the backwards pull of weight. However, both will also require a
shorter distance to bring the vehicle to a complete stop from a given speed,
because the weight is helping the deceleration power of the brakes. An
upslope increases the TODR and TORR, but decreases the LDR. The effect on
ASDR is harder to tell in general, because it requires both acceleration and
deceleration.
On a downsloping runway, on the other hand, an additional weight

component will accelerate the aircraft along the runway, reducing the TODR
and TORR, but increasing the LDR because of the additional acceleration that
has to be overcome by the brakes.
A similar effect also occurs with different runway surface qualities. The
smoother the runway surface, the smaller the roll drag created by the aircraft
tyres. Consequently, acceleration is easier and deceleration is more difficult -
take-off distances increase while the landing distance decreases.
Runway variables are, as far as possible, considered in aircraft performance

documentation. For example, AFM of small general aviation aircraft certified
to land on unpaved runways usually include take-of and landing performance
data for operation on paved runways as well as short and long grass.
Wet runways are usually not explicitly mentioned in the AFM. Instead, pilots
are required to account for the effects of water and contamination by applying
different correction factors for required distances.
Gross and net performance

As was already briefly mentioned, the values for take-off and landing distances
given in the AFM are gross distances. These are the distances which the
aeroplane has been demonstrated to use during the certification process,
where brand-new aircraft are flown by experienced test pilots. EASA Part OPS
requires the operator to include certain safety factors to account for adverse
environmental conditions, airframe and engine wear or differences in piloting
technique. The resulting distance when the aforementioned safety factors are
applied is called the net distance.
Similar to gross and net distances, also the climb/descent angles and gradients
demonstrated in flight testing are considered gross performance. The actual
angles which may be used for flight performance calculations are the net climb
angle or gradient, which is lower (shallower) by a defined safety factor to
provide an additional margin in obstacles clearance, and the net descent angle
or gradient, which is greater (steeper) for the same reason.
The size of the safety factor depends on several factors such as the likelihood
that the considered adverse event actually occurs and the range of the
measured performance data.
BEFORE EXAM L"

The four forces that determine aircraft’s behaviour and are in balance are lift,
weight, thrust and drag. There is also an additional balancing force on the
elevator, acting parallel to weight, and being added to weight, opposed by lift.
In a climbing flight, a component of weight acts along drag and it is opposed by
thrust.
In a descending flight, a component of weight acts in the same direction as
thrust and opposed to drag.
Thrust of a jet engine is a constant line, thrust of a propeller engine is a shallow
"S" with its maximum at low speeds and minimum at high speeds.
Drag of an airplane is independent of the type of engine and it is a U-shaped
curve.
Power is force times speed:
Power of a jet engine is a sloped line going from the left bottom part to the right
upper corner of a power-to-speed chart. Power of a propeller engine is an
inverted wide-open U.
Power required is independent of the type of engine and it is a modified U-
shaped curve with the right, high speed side increasing faster.
The angle of climb depends on excess thrust and is maximal at the minimum
drag speed for a jet and at a speed below the minimum drag speed for a prop.
The rate of climb depends on excess power and is maximal at a speed higher
than the minimum power speed for both jets and props. The best rate of climb
speed of a prop is lower than the best rate of climb speed of a comparable jet.
Increasing mass, hot temperature and high altitude decrease both the angle of
climb and rate of climb.
Headwind improves the angle of climb, tailwind decreases it.
Wind has no effect on the rate of climb.
Range depends on specific range, specific fuel consumption and speed to thrust
or speed to power ratio for jets and props respectively.
Best range is achieved at 1.32 minimum drag speed for jets and the minimum
drag speed for props.
The angle of climb depends on excess thrust and is maximal at the minimum
drag speed for a jet and at a speed below the minimum drag speed for a prop.
The rate of climb depends on excess power and is maximal at a speed higher
than the minimum power speed for both jets and props. The best rate of climb
speed of a prop is lower than the best rate of climb speed of a comparable jet.
Increasing mass, hot temperature and high altitude decrease both the angle of
climb and rate of climb.
Headwind improves the angle of climb, tailwind decreases it.
Wind has no effect on the rate of climb.
Endurance depends on specific fuel consumption and thrust or power required
for a jet and prop respectively.
Best endurance is achieved at the minimum drag speed for a jet and the
Weight and too forward or too rearward centre of gravity decrease both range
and endurance.
Range and endurance of a jet engine are improved with increasing altitude
because drag remains constant but specific fuel consumption increases up to
and altitude where compressibility causes an increase in drag.
Range and endurance of a prop usually decrease with increasing altitude
because more power is required. However, specific fuel consumption of some
piston engines may be initially improved with altitude if power can be assured
by low rpm and increasing manifold pressure.
Take-off distance is adversely affected by: increasing mass, high temperature,
high altitude or low pressure, tailwind, upward runway slope, excessive flap
setting.
Balanced take-off is where the take-off distance equals the accelerate-stop
distance.
Landing distance is adversely affected by: increasing mass, high temperature,
high altitude or low pressure, tailwind, downward runway slope.
Braking force depends on the load or mass resting on wheels. Force of thrust
Endurance depends on specific fuel consumption and thrust or power required
for a jet and prop respectively.
Best endurance is achieved at the minimum drag speed for a jet and the
Weight and too forward or too rearward centre of gravity decrease both range
and endurance.
Range and endurance of a jet engine are improved with increasing altitude
because drag remains constant but specific fuel consumption increases up to
and altitude where compressibility causes an increase in drag.
Range and endurance of a prop usually decrease with increasing altitude
because more power is required. However, specific fuel consumption of some
piston engines may be initially improved with altitude if power can be assured
by low rpm and increasing manifold pressure.
Take-off distance is adversely affected by: increasing mass, high temperature,
high altitude or low pressure, tailwind, upward runway slope, excessive flap
setting.
Balanced take-off is where the take-off distance equals the accelerate-stop
distance.
Landing distance is adversely affected by: increasing mass, high temperature,
high altitude or low pressure, tailwind, downward runway slope.
Braking force depends on the load or mass resting on wheels. Force of thrust
reversers is independent of weight.
Take-off distance available is the length of take-off run available plus clearway.
Take-off run available is the length of runway usable for take-off ground roll.
Accelerate-stop distance available is the length of take-off run available plus
stopway.
Landing distance available is the length of runway starting at the threshold.
Class B Single
Engine Airplanes
This chapter will take you through the requirements on take-off, climb, cruise
and landing performance of single-engine airplanes with a maximum capacity
of 9 passengers and a maximum take-off weight of 5 700 kg. You will also be
introduced to typical performance charts found in airplane flight manuals so
that when you get you first job as an air-taxi pilot, you will be able to quickly
and efficiently plan your flights.
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
• understand various speeds used in operations;

• estimate the effects of wind, temperature and altitude on take-off, climb,
cruise and landing performance;
• state Air OPS requirements on take-off and landing and calculate the
corresponding distances;
• estimate the effects of different power setting on range and endurance and
outside conditions that influence it;
• use airplane data charts.
Before we start discussing performance requirements, it would be appropriate

to investigate how safe it is at all to operate a single-engine aircraft in
commercial air transport, where passengers are unsuspecting and often buy a
ticket or order air-taxi without knowing, understanding or being interested in
the actual type the operator uses. Any pilot boarding a single-engine airplane
or actually even a multi-engine airplane knows the risks and odds, especially
when deliberately flying over hilly terrain, at night or in IMC. However, the
poor passenger boards the airplane in a good will, expecting nothing to
happen. To guarantee a reasonable level of safety, EASA does not approve
single-engine commercial air transport operations at night or in IMC except
for special VFR and so called SET-IMC (operations of single engine turbine
aircraft in IMC, which require a specific approval) and all flights have to be
conducted in areas where safe landing can be made in case of engine failure.
3.1. Airworthiness requirements
Performance requirements for Class B aeroplanes are detailed in CS-23,
Subpart A - General, Performance. The section specifies the range of
conditions under which the relevant performance parameters have to be
demonstrated as well as individual values to be achieved. Among others, the
regulations call for the performance requirements to be met in still air and
standard atmospheric conditions and over a range of not less than:
• Field elevations from MSL to 10 000 ft

• Temperatures from standard to at least 30 °C above standard
• Specified relative humidities depending on temperature deviations from
standard
Whenever knowledge of specific numerical values is required for pilot

examination purposes, they will be mentioned in the corresponding chapter.
3.2. Speeds
There are several clearly defined speeds that present the aircraft’s flying
capabilities in a uniform manner so that safety margins can be applied and an
equal level of safety is achieved irrespective of the particular type of aircraft in
question. Those speeds are defined by CS-23 for single-engine class B
airplanes as all airplanes in this class will be essentially certified either in the
normal, utility, or possibly aerobatic category.
Vs
Vs generally means the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed at
which the airplane is controllable.
Vso
Vso means the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing
configuration, using the calibrated airspeed.
Vsi
VS1 means the stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a
specified configuration, expressed as a calibrated airspeed. The most common
configurations for which a stall speed is published by the manufacturer and
used in further calculations is the take-off configuration or the minimum clean
speed with no flaps extended, i.e. the cruise configuration.
Vr
VR means the rotation speed. This is the calibrated airspeed at which a pilot
pitches up during the take-off roll in order to get the airplane airborne. This
does not mean the actual speed at which the airplane gets airborne because
there is some delay between pilot’s input and the actual change in attitude
and flight It must not be less than VS1.
VREF
VREF means the reference landing speed. It is the calibrated airspeed in a

specified landing configuration, which is maintained when flying through a
screen height above the runway threshold. It is used to determine the landing
distance. It must not be less than 1.3 Vso.
Speed at 50 ft
The speed reached at a screen height of 50 ft above the runway during take
off assumes some acceleration after rotation because of less wheel drag. It
must be the higher of:
• A speed safe under all reasonably expected conditions such as turbulence

and complete engine failure; or
• 1.2 VS1
This means that if the selected rotation speed, still compliant with the stall
speed in take-off configuration limit, does not lead to the 20 % margin on stall
in 50 ft, VR will have to be increased to meet this requirement.
Stall speed is a physical property of the aircraft’s design and can be precisely
measured. All other speeds, given as "not less than" speeds, are selected by
the designer/manufacturer of the airplane and proved safe and functional
during the type’s testing. Of course low speeds, being just equal to the
minimum safety margin additions, are desired to successfully market the
airplane. They result in the shortest possible take-off and landing distances,
which is a highly appreciated quality among pilots and operators. However, if
the airplane shows some unsafe behaviour at those speeds, for example in
crosswind or with fuel imbalance, it is cheaper to increase them than to
redesign the wing or control surfaces.
STUDY TEST
3.3. Factors affecting
performance
Those are essentially the same ones as mentioned in Chapter 2. This chapter
provides a brief overview together with regulatory requirements specific to
single-engine class B aircraft to account for those factors, if existing. For more
details and explanations, please consult the general performance section.
STUDY TEST
3.4. Take-off
Take-off distance is the distance covered from a complete stop to a screen
height of 50 ft. Ground roll is the distance used from a complete stop until the
airplane lifts off.
For each take-off, it must be proved that while using the gross distances from
the AFM for the particular mass and outside conditions:
• The AFM gross take-off distance multiplied by 1.25 does not exceed the
take-off run available (TORA).
Screen
Gross take-off distance
Take off run avalaible
Figure 3.1. TOD x 1.25 does not exceed TORA
If clearway or stopway is available, the AFM gross take-off distance:

Is less or equal to the TORA.
Take-off run avalaible
Figure 3.2. TOD less or equal TORA
• When multiplied by 1.15, is less or equal to the take-off distance available

(TODA).
Screen
Gross take-off distance Clearway
Take-off distance avalaible
Figure 3.3. TOD x 1.15 less or equal TODA
When multiplied by 1.3, is less than the accelerate-stop distance available

(ASDA).
Gross take-off distance Stopway
Accelerate-stop distance available
Figure 3.4. TOD x 1.3 less than ASDA
AFM gross distances should be corrected for runway surface conditions:
• By a factor of 1.2 for dry grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways.

• By a factor of 1.3 for wet grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways.
• By a factor of 1 for wet paved runways.
Runway slope corrections require:
• A 5 % increase of the gross TOD for every 1 % of uphill slope up to a

maximum slope of 2 %.
• No correction for downhill slope.
• No operations on runways with more than 2 % uphill slope unless sufficient
data are provided in the AFM and the operator has an approval for such
operations.
Wind corrections require that:

• A maximum of 50 % of reported headwind component is used.
• 150 % of reported tailwind component must be used.
Take-off considerations
Wind
Crosswind may limit the usability of a particular runway if the aircraft’s limit is
exceeded. If only a maximum demonstrated value is given in the AFM, it is not
prohibited to take-off but the pilot is responsible for such decision. In most
cases, operators will convert the manufacturer’s demonstrated crosswind into
limitation, demanding pilots to respect it. Crosswind has no influence on take
off distance calculations.
Headwind favourably decreases both the take-off run and take-off distance,
allowing for more take-off mass on a particular runway or a shorter part of the
runway, e.g. a mid-runway taxiway intersection to be used. Tailwind, however,
increases both distances.
To account for short-term changes in wind direction and speed, safety factors
have to be applied to headwind and tailwind values. As headwind is
favourable, only 50 % of its reported value may be used for take-off
calculations. Adverse tailwind has to be considered with 150 % of its reported
value. For airplanes with the AFM issued in compliance with CS-23, wind is
already factored and the charts may be entered with the actual reported
component value.
As was already explained, it is not the total wind speed which defines take-off
performance but only the longitudinal wind component, meaning head- or
tailwind. However, pilots are usually only provided with a wind direction and
speed from weather reports, which means that the wind component has to be
calculated.
The longitudinal wind component is the total wind speed multiplied by the
cosine of the angle between the wind direction and the runway direction. For
example, when taking off from RWY 25 (250°M) in a wind of 280°/15 kt, the
headwind component is equal to 13 kt.
The same calculation can also be completed with the mechanical navigation
computer. Wind components can be found using the rectangular lines on the
bottom of the low speed side. For our example from above, set the runway
direction of 250° below the index mark and put the central hole on zero
speed. Then, turn the low-speed arm of the wind pointer onto the red
labelling 280°. Below the 15 kt mark on the wind pointer, we find the 13 kt
headwind component. (Solved with IWA 11 092)
In order to confirm that the aircraft can take off in compliance with the
crosswind limit, also the crosswind component has to be calculated. It is equal
to the total wind speed multiplied by the sine of the angle between the wind
direction and the runway direction. For example, when taking off from
RWY 23 (230°M) in a wind of 280°/20 kt, the crosswind component is equal
to 15 kt.
Again, the calculation can also be completed with the mechanical navigation
computer. For our example from above, set the runway direction of 230°
below the index mark and put the central hole on zero speed. Then, turn the
low-speed arm of the wind pointer onto the red labelling 280°. Below the
20 kt mark on the wind pointer, we find the 15 kt crosswind component by
counting sidewards from the centreline. (Solved with IWA 11 092)
Wind components and limitations can also be calculated by using the

following graph, where the straight lines show the wind angles and the arcs
show the wind speeds. The dashed lines provide an example with a wind angle
of 50° and a wind of 30 kt, which results in a headwind component of
approximately 19 kt and a crosswind component of 23 kt.
Figure 3.5. Wind components for take-off and landing
Altitude
Increasing altitude has a negative effect on take-off, increasing the TORA and
TODA or reducing the performance limited take-off mass. Take-off distance
charts provide data for different pressure altitudes. It is therefore necessary to
correct for the differences in QNH before entering the charts. If QNH is
higher than 1013 hPa, the corresponding pressure altitude to be used in the
chart will be lower by the difference multiplied by 30 ft/hPa. If QNH is lower,
the chart is to be entered with a higher pressure altitude.
Temperature
Higher temperature means lower air density at any given pressure altitude,
extending both the take-off run and distance and lowering the performance
limited take-off mass for that day. Corrections are provided in the AFM,
presented in two ways. If outer air temperature (OAT) labels mark the field or
line for correction, no other adjustment is needed and the table or chart is
entered with the reported temperature. If ISA (International Standard
Atmosphere) deviations appear in the label, follow these steps:
1. Determine the pressure altitude by correcting for QNH.
2. Determine the standard ISA temperature at that altitude, remembering

that ISA is 15° at sea level and drops by 2° per one flight level or
1000 ft.
3. Calculate the ISA deviation by subtracting the ISA temperature from

step 2 from the reported temperature.
4. Enter the table or chart with the calculated ISA deviation value.
Flap setting
Data are usually published for a "short field take-off", which is described in the
normal procedures section of an AFM. The published distance can be
achieved only if the recommended procedure is applied. It usually states that
power should be applied before releasing the brakes and that some flap
setting, such as 10° or 15° should be used. Any higher flap setting increases
the take-off distance and increases aircraft drag, therefore there is no
reasonable justification for such take-off. A lower flap setting may be used to
improve climb gradient after departure. However, if no data or recommended
procedures are published in the AFM, one should make sure that a higher
rotation and climb-out speed is used, for example by increasing the
recommended flaps-down rotation speed by at least the difference between
the stall speed with and without flaps. Secondly, this procedure should only be
attempted if enough runway length is available.

Data charts and tables for the class B single-engine airplane to be used during
your examination will be labelled SEP, standing for Single-Engine Piston. The
first page of the data booklet for this airplane will provide some general
information stating aircraft limitations such as table below.
Aeroplane structural limitations
Maximum take-off mass 3 650 1b
Maximum landing mass 3 650 1b
Maximum runway cross wind 17 kt
The chart in the figure below is used to calculate the take-off distance for a
known mass or to calculate the maximum take-off mass for a known length of
runway.
Figure 3.6. Take-off distance
Example: What is the take-off distance required at the maximum take-off

mass on a wet grass covered runway if the outside temperature is +15 °C,
10 kt of headwind and the runway has an uphill slope of 1.5 %? The pressure
altitude of the airport is 5 653 ft. Zero-flap take-off is to be performed.
1. Locate the ambient temperature on the "OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

- °C" scale and draw a vertical line upwards.
2. Using the two closest pressure altitude curves in the "PRESSURE
ALTITUDE ft" section, interpolate to mark a point on the line drawn in
step 1. This mark will lie between the 4 000 and 6 000 lines, closer to the
latter. You can use a ruler set perpendicularly to the two lines used for
interpolation or the provided grid. The mark you make should be some 6
to 7 tenths of the distance between the 4000 and 6 000 lines from the
lower one.
3. Draw a horizontal line from the mark made in 2 until it reaches the
reference line in the "MASS - lb" section.
4. Move parallel to the mass lines, i.e. draw a curve that maintains the same
proportional distance from both thick lines as it had on the reference
line. In our example, we are at the maximum take-off mass, which is the
reference line on its own so no correction will be made and the
horizontal line continues to the next reference line. However, if the mass
was for example 3 200 lb, you would move along the 3rd and 4th curve
to where the chart shows 3 200 lb on the bottom scale and only from
there you would continue horizontally to the next reference line.
5. From the next reference line, move along the two closest wind curves
and keep the same distance from those as there was on the reference
line until you move to the desired wind component on the "WIND
COMPONENT kt" scale. Note the slope of the headwind and tailwind
correction curves. For the same amount of headwind, the vertical
distance you cover is approximately one third of the distance covered
when following the tailwind curves. This tells you that wind is already
factored and you should enter the chart with the exact value given in
the question with no further factoring.
6. Move right horizontally from the last mark. The "OBSTACLE HEIGHT ft"
scale is there for you to be able to read the ground roll distance (i.e.
there is no obstacle height required and you continue straight or to be
able to read off the take-off distance, which includes some initial climb
up to a screen height of 50 ft). For this, break your line on the reference
line and continue along the two closest height correction curves
upwards. This chart is not to be used for any other obstacle clearance
determination because your flight between the lift-off and reaching 50 ft
is not necessarily of linear character.
7. Read off the gross take-off distance, in this case 3 450 ft.
8. Factor for wet grass runway:

3450 x 1.3 = 4485 ft.
9. Factor for 1.5 % of uphill slope (7.5 %):

4485 x 1.075 = 4821 ft.
The chart in the figure below is nearly the same. However, note the conditions
in the upper left corner. Compared to the figure above, this one calculates
with approach flap setting. In a real airplane chart, you would most probably
see the exact value of that setting, e.g. flaps 10°. However, this is a generic
chart used only for the examination so it is simplified.
Figure 3.7. Take-off distance

Example: What is the maximum take-off weight at an aerodrome with a
pressure altitude of 5 653 ft if the temperature outside is 15 °C, there is a
headwind of 10 kt and the runway is covered with grass with an uphill slope of
2 % and it is dry? The published distances are: TORA 4 250 ft, TODA 4 600 ft,
ASDA 4470 ft.
1. Factor back the regulatory increments on required distances to be less or

equal to the available distances:
TODR < TORA -> max TODR 4250 ft

TODR x 1.15 < TODA—> max TODR 4600 - 1.15 = 4000 ft
TODR x 1.3 < ASDA—» max TODR 4470 - 1.3 = 3438 ft
The limiting distance for this take-off is the accelerate-stop distance
available.
2. Factor back the limiting distance for runway surface conditions:

3438 4-1.2 = 2 865 ft
3. Factor back the new limiting distance for uphill slope. Do not forget that
if 1 % of slope adds 5 % of length, than the distance you calculated in
step 2 is actually 1.05 x the value you are looking for. Therefore it is not
correct to multiply the distance in 2 by 0.95, you have to multiply it by
1/1.05, which is 0.952. For a 2 % slope, you have to multiply the value
from 2 by 1/1.1:
2 865/1.1 = 2 605 ft
4. Enter the chart with this value on the right side, moving back along the
two closest obstacle height curves. Do not forget that take-off distance
is calculated to a screen height of 50 ft so you must adjust for this.
When reaching the reference line, move back horizontally to the "WIND
COMPONENT kt" area.
5. Mark the intersection of your line from step 4 and the given wind. You
can see again that corrections for tailwind are much steeper than for
headwind. This means wind is already factored.
6. Move left and up along the two closest wind correction curves to the
reference line. From the reference line, move left horizontally to the next
chart area.
7. Now start from the left side of the chart. Enter the "OUTISDE AIR
TEMPERATURE °C" scale with the given temperature of 15 °C and
move vertically up to the intersection with the pressure altitude of
5 653 ft, which lies between the 4 000 and 6 000 curves at some 6 or 7
tenths from the 4000 line. Move horizontally to the right to the first
reference line.
8. Slide down along a curve parallel to the two closes mass correction
curves until you intersect the line made in step 6. The intersection point
of those two lines is at a mass of 3 530 lb - the mass scale gives you the
answer.
The same graph can be used to determine the maximum allowable tailwind or
minimum required headwind for take-off, given take-off mass and
environmental conditions.
Example: What is the minimum required longitudinal wind component for an

aeroplane with a take-off mass of 3440 kg to take off from an aerodrome with
a TODA of 1800 ft in the following conditions? Pressure altitude 2 000 ft,
OAT 11 °C (ISA).
1. Enter the chart on the left side at the intersection of 2 000 ft PA with
the ISA temperature line and move horizontally to the REF line.
2. Follow the closest guideline downwards to your aeroplane mass of

3440 kg, then continue horizontally to the next REF line.
3. Now, enter the chart on the right side with your TODA of 1800 ft, move
back along the closest obstacle height curve. When reaching the
reference line, move back horizontally through the entire "WIND
COMPONENT kt" area to its REF line.
4. Now, you have approached the WIND COMPONENT REF line with two
horizontal lines. The only step left is to follow the closest headwind or
tailwind line starting at your line coming from the left (aeroplane mass).
Obviously, if the line coming from the right is higher, you need headwind
to take off, and consequently have to follow the headwind line upwards
until it intersects with your "TODA line". If the TODA line is lower, you
can accept some tailwind and follow the tailwind line downwards to the
point of intersection.
5. In our example, both lines meet exactly at the REF line. No headwind is
required for take-off, but you are not allowed to accept any tailwind
either. The minimum required wind component is zero wind.
Figure 3.8. Explanation picture
STU DY TEST
3.5. Landing
Landing distance is the ground distance measured from a screen height of
50 ft at VREF to a point where the airplane comes to a complete stop.
For each landing, using the gross landing distance data in the AFM, it must be
proved that the airplane will stop within 70 % of the landing distance available
(LDA).
The gross landing distance should be factored:
• By 1.15 for runways covered with grass up to 20 cm and firm soil runways.
• By 1.15 for wet runways unless specific data are provided in the AFM.
• By a 5 % addition for each 1 % of downhill runway slope.
The gross landing distance should be corrected for:
• Wind, using at least 150 % of reported tailwind component and at most

50 % of reported headwind component.
Landing considerations include:
• Wind: Crosswind may limit the usability of a particular runway if the

aircraft’s limit is exceeded. A different landing configuration with less flap
setting is recommended for some airplanes. Landing charts and tables do
not normally provide reduced-flap landing distances so care must be taken
that the runway is long enough. Headwind decreases the landing distance
whereas tailwind increases it.
• Altitude: Increasing altitude or lower pressure increases the landing
distance. Landing tables and charts are presented for pressure altitude,
therefore correction for QNH variations has to be made and the table or
chart entered with the corrected pressure altitude value.
• Temperature: High temperature increases the necessary landing distance.
Landing tables and charts may present data plotted against absolute
temperature or ISA deviations. In case of ISA deviation scales, it is first
necessary to determine the airfield’s pressure altitude, find the standard
temperature according to ISA and determine the deviation.

They present data in the same way as take-off charts, correcting for density
(pressure altitude and temperature), aircraft mass and wind, which is usually
already factored. You can recognize this by checking the effect of headwind
and tailwind of equal value. If tailwind moves your line approximately by 3x
the distance moved with headwind, it is factored.
Figure 3.9. Landing distance
Example: Calculate the landing distance required for an airplane with a landing
mass of 3 479 lb at an aerodrome with a pressure altitude of 3 965 ft if the
outside temperature is +25 °C, the runway has a downhill slope of 1 % and it
is covered with grass and wet. Headwind is 10 kt.
1. Enter the chart with +25 °C on the "OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE °C"
scale and move vertically up until reaching the aerodrome pressure
altitude. Interpolation between the two closest pressure altitude lines is
generally needed, although in this case the 4000 line can be directly
used because of the very small difference. Break the line at this
intersection and move horizontally to the right to the first reference line.
2. Move along the two closest mass correction lines right to the landing
mass of 3479 lb. Mark the intersection and move horizontally to the
right to the next reference line.
3. Move down the two closest wind correction lines keeping the same
relative distance from these as there was on the reference line until you
reach the given wind component of 10 kt. You would have to move up
for tailwind. From this intersection, move horizontally to the right to the
next reference line.
4. Move along the two closest obstacle height correction lines until you
reach the scale on the right edge of the chart to read off a value of
1500 ft. Without correcting for obstacle height, you would obtain the
landing ground roll. This has no meaning for flight planning and it is not
used by regulatory requirements. Therefore it is just an informative value
for the pilot.
5. Correct the value obtained from the chart for slope - add 5 % (or
multiply by 1.05) for 1 % of downhill slope:
1500x 1.05 = 1575 ft
6. Correct the value obtained in 5 for runway surface. Remember that the
factors used for landing are different from the factors used for take-off:
1575 x 1.15 = 1811ft
7. Correct for runway condition. Remember that a wet runway for take-off
has a different coefficient depending on its surface. For landing, its wet
status is independent of the correction made for runway surface:
1811 x 1.15 = 2083 ft
8. Calculate the landing distance required, knowing that the aircraft has to
stop within 70 % of LDA. This is not the same as just adding 70 % of
your corrected landing distance. In fact, the value obtained in 7 has to be
within 0.7 x LDA so you have to multiply your distance by 1/0.7, which
is approximately 1.43, or alternatively divide it by 0.7. Some students
prefer to remember the factor of 1.43 and some just divide by 0.7.
Because the former one is rounded, the result will differ by some 3feet,
giving you a distance of 2 979 ft and 2 976 ft respectively. No matter
which method you use, the other, incorrect options in your exam should
be very different.
STUDY TEST
3.6. Climb
Climb performance influences the maximum permissible take-off mass
because there is a requirement for a specific gradient to be achieved just after
take-off to clear obstacles. Once at a safe altitude, there is no particular
requirement on climb performance and the data provided by the manufacturer
are useful especially for flight planning purposes. The distance it takes to climb
to the selected cruising level is subtracted from the total route distance
together with the distance to descend and the remainder is treated as cruise
flight. Climb performance tables determine not only the distance but also time
and fuel to climb so that the total elapsed time and fuel requirements for the
whole flight can be calculated. For single-engine airplanes, there is always the
risk that the only engine fails and the aircraft will be forced to make an
emergency landing. Therefore the route has to be carefully selected so that
there are suitable landing sites available along the way and the aircraft flies
high enough to be able to glide there. Generally, it is not prohibited to fly over
mountains or large water areas but an appropriate cruising level has to be
chosen. The higher the cruising level, the greater the radius the airplane can
glide to. To ensure safety, the concept of service ceiling is applied so that an
airplane is not assumed to fly above an altitude at which a reasonable rate of
climb is still achieved, although the pilot can climb to the absolute ceiling
during the actual flight at his or her own discretion. There is also a
requirement for "landing climb", which is the climb gradient achieved in the
landing configuration after a missed approach.
MORE INFO L"
According to CS-23, the take-off climb gradient, i.e. the gradient the airplane
can climb with take-off configuration before accelerating to en-route flight
must be at least 4 % with:
take-off power setting;

Although not necessarily equal to the gradients required of aircraft, there are
some gradients used as standard in instrument departure procedure designs. In
fact, they are always equal to or lower than the aircraft certification requirements.
The two most important gradients for a pilot to remember are the departure
procedure design gradient of 3.3 % and the missed approach procedure design
gradient of 2.5 %. You have to remember those because they are not published in
the charts so in order to be able to verify whether you can use a particular airport
on a particular day, it is good to know the expected gradients. Sometimes the
take-off and landing performance tables or charts are calculated for the regulatory
gradient and they only show the mass at which the airplane is able to achieve it.
However, in some other cases, generic tables or charts showing gross gradients
depending on outside conditions might be provided so it is up to you to decide
whether the value found in the AFM meets performance requirements for the
particular procedure.
You might have seen some standard instrument departure or approach charts that
show procedure gradients. This occurs when the required gradient is higher than
the standard one. Sometimes, there might be a remark saying "noise abatement".
This essentially means that there would be no obstacles even if the procedure was
flown with the standard gradient. It does not mean that you should ignore the
required gradient but it can influence your decision-making in case of emergency
such as engine failure. Knowing that the increased gradient is not obstacle related,
you may decide to use the affected runway for landing even if your single engine
go-around performance is lower or you may decide to fly the standard departure
procedure after an engine failure.
In other cases, there might be a remark saying "airspace structure". This still means
that obstacles are not an issue, but the reasons behind may vary from a limited
TMA size with uncontrolled airspace below to proximity to military airspace or
dangerous or prohibited areas. Therefore, you should not assume you would be
able to use such airspace.
The question you are probably asking now is what you should do if you find out
you do not meet the published gradient. If it is obstacle-limited, there is no other
option but to reduce mass to meet the gradient or request a different departure
mi ito nr q rlifforonf lanrlincr ri inu/3\/ \A/ifh fho cfanrl a rrl crrarlionf If if ic nnicn nr
gradient of 2.5 %. You have to remember those because they are not published in
the charts so in order to be able to verify whether you can use a particular airport
on a particular day, it is good to know the expected gradients. Sometimes the
take-off and landing performance tables or charts are calculated for the regulatory
gradient and they only show the mass at which the airplane is able to achieve it.
However, in some other cases, generic tables or charts showing gross gradients
depending on outside conditions might be provided so it is up to you to decide
whether the value found in the AFM meets performance requirements for the
particular procedure.
You might have seen some standard instrument departure or approach charts that
show procedure gradients. This occurs when the required gradient is higher than
the standard one. Sometimes, there might be a remark saying "noise abatement".
This essentially means that there would be no obstacles even if the procedure was
flown with the standard gradient. It does not mean that you should ignore the
required gradient but it can influence your decision-making in case of emergency
such as engine failure. Knowing that the increased gradient is not obstacle related,
you may decide to use the affected runway for landing even if your single engine
go-around performance is lower or you may decide to fly the standard departure
procedure after an engine failure.
In other cases, there might be a remark saying "airspace structure". This still means
that obstacles are not an issue, but the reasons behind may vary from a limited
TMA size with uncontrolled airspace below to proximity to military airspace or
dangerous or prohibited areas. Therefore, you should not assume you would be
able to use such airspace.
The question you are probably asking now is what you should do if you find out
you do not meet the published gradient. If it is obstacle-limited, there is no other
option but to reduce mass to meet the gradient or request a different departure
route or a different landing runway with the standard gradient. If it is noise or
airspace related, you should inform the air traffic control and you might be granted
an exception. For approaches down to CAT I minima, higher minima are published
for aircraft non-compliant with the increased go-around gradient from the lowest
values.
• landing gear extended unless it can be retracted within 7 seconds;
• take-off flaps;
• a speed of not less than VS1.
However, there is no take-off climb gradient requirement in Air OPS as

obviously in case of engine failure, no climb gradient can be guaranteed for
single-engine airplanes.
The landing climb gradient after a go-around must not be less than 2.5 % with:
• not more power than that obtained in 8s after the initiation of the
movement of the throttle from the flight idle position;
• the landing gear extended;
• landing flaps;
• a speed equal to VREF.
For en-route obstacle clearance after engine failure, the airplane cannot be
assumed to fly at an altitude at which the rate of climb is less than 300 ft/min.
The gross descent gradient in case of engine failure must be increased by

0.5 %.
3.6.2. Glide ratio vs. gradient

Recall the general theory section on glide. If the only engine fails, the airplane
essentially becomes a glider and its performance, in this case the glide
gradient, is determined solely by its drag curve. Therefore the appropriate
speed to be used to minimize height loss is the minimum drag speed at which
CL to CD is maximal. Also recall that the value of the glide ratio, i.e. the height
loss per unit of air distance is unaffected by mass, although the speed to reach
the best glide ratio increases with mass. Therefore the gross descent gradient
is actually the glide ratio expressed as a percentage. An airplane with a glide
ratio of 1:10 will have a gross descent gradient of 10 %. For flight planning, it
must be corrected for the regulatory safety decrease of 0.5 % so you can plan
your flight using a gradient of 10.5 %.
Gradients are given as height to air distance because performance tables and
charts cannot account for all wind conditions. To correct for wind:
1. Calculate the air distance flown:
h gradient
d“ “ 100
h
dair
gradient
x 100
2. Multiply the air distance by the ratio of ground and airspeed:
dground âir X GS
TAS

Climb charts used determine the climb gradient for different pressure
altitudes, temperatures and mass values. For aircraft configuration, check the
top part of the chart, which describes the appropriate take-off climb
technique including flap position, power setting etc. Those charts show the
corresponding rate of climb at first and another chart section is provided to
convert this into the climb gradient, related to the true airspeed. You are
expected to be able to convert the indicated airspeed (given in the question)
to the corresponding true airspeed using the flight computer, which is studied
in more detail in Navigation. Also bear in mind that the first 50 ft above the
departure aerodrome are not considered climb, they are included in the take
off distance.
Figure 3.10. Climb gradient
Example: Determine the rate of climb and climb gradient for an airplane at
3 600 lb of take-off mass at an airport with a pressure altitude of 11500 ft if
the outside air temperature is -5 °C.
1. Enter the left side of the chart with the outside air temperature. Draw a
vertical line up. Draw a line representing the pressure altitude parallel to
the two closest pressure altitude correction lines. For 11500 ft, it will lie
in two thirds (1500 4- 2 000) of the distance between the 10 000 and
12 000 lines, closer to the 12 000 line. Draw a horizontal line from the
intersection of the temperature and pressure altitude lines and move
along it to the right to the first reference line.
2. Break your line on the reference line and move up and right parallel to
the two closest mass correction lines, keeping the same relative distance
from the two as the one you had on the reference line, until you reach a
vertical grid line corresponding to the aircraft mass of 3 600 lb. From this
intersection, continue straight horizontally to the left "RATE OF CLIMB
ft/min" scale to read off the rate of climb of 515 ft/min.
3. Using the flight computer, calculate the corresponding true air speed for
the published recommended indicated climb airspeed (100 kt):
• Pressure altitude: 11500 ft

• Temperature: -5 °C
• TAS: 120 kt
4. To determine the corresponding climb gradient, move horizontally to the

next chart section until reaching the reference line. Then move up and
right parallel to the two closest TAS correction lines and mark the
intersection of your line with the calculated true airspeed. Move
horizontally to the right to the vertical "CLIMB GRADIENT %" scale to
read off the gradient, in this case 4.2 %.
Determine the maximum mass at which the airplane can climb with a gradient
of 4.2 % after departure from an airport with a pressure altitude of 11000 ft,
if the outside temperature is +25 °C.
1. Find the corresponding true airspeed for the recommended indicated

climb airspeed of 100 kt (given in the chart) using a flight computer:
• Pressure altitude: 11000 ft

• Outside air temperature: +25 °C
• TAS: 125 kt
2. Enter the chart with the calculated true airspeed and move along the
two closest TAS correction lines back to the reference line. From there,
move horizontally to the left and draw a line all across the mass section.
3. Now start from the other side. Enter the chart on the left bottom scale
with the outside temperature, moving vertically up to the appropriate
pressure altitude (11000 ft), which is this time halfway between the
10000 and 12000 lines. From this intersection, move horizontally to the
right to the first reference line. Break your line there and draw a curve
parallel to the two nearest mass correction curves.
4. Find the intersection of the curve drawn in step 3 and the line from step
2. Move vertically down from this intersection to read off the maximum
mass at which the gradient can be achieved, giving you a mass of
3 360 lb in this example.
Find the distance from the airport to reach a height of 950 ft above
aerodrome level at a mass of 3 200 lb. The aerodrome pressure altitude is
4000 ft, the outside air temperature is +30 °C and there is a tailwind of 30 kt.
1. Enter the climb gradient chart on the left side with the pressure altitude
and outside air temperature.
2. Move to the right and correct for mass.
3. Move further to the right to determine the rate of climb for that mass.
4. Calculate the true airspeed for the recommended indicated climb

airspeed (100 kt from the chart) using the flight computer:
• TAS: 110 kt
5. Move from the rate of climb scale to the reference line of the climb
gradient section and find the climb gradient for the calculated true
airspeed:
• Climb gradient: 10 %
6. Find the air distance using the gradient determined in step 5. Remember
that take-off ends at a height of 50 ft, therefore the first 50 ft above the
runway elevation are included in a different chart. The height you should
use for the calculations is therefore 900 ft in this case:
• Gradient: 10 %
• Height: 900 ft
dair= gradient
T—7 X 100
= “ x 100
= 9000 ft
7. Correct the air distance for ground distance, using the ratio of the
ground speed and the true airspeed. If you cannot remember which one
is on top, simply remember that headwind decreases the ground
distance (i.e. the smaller number has to be on top) and tailwind increases
the distance (i.e. the bigger number has to be on top):
• Air distance: 9 000 ft

• Speed ratio GS/TAS: 140 - 110 = 1.27
• Ground distance: 9 000 x 1.27 = 11455 ft
8. Convert the distance in feet into distance in nautical miles:
• Ground distance: 11455 -r 6080 = 1.88 NM
Using the gross climb performance from previous exercise, we can now
calculate the expected obstacle clearance (in VMC). Consider for example an
obstacle with a height of 800 ft AGL, located along the extended centerline of
the departure runway, at a distance of 2 NM.
1. Convert the distance in Nautical miles into distance in ft:
• Ground distance: 2 NM = 2 x 6080 ft/NM = 12160 ft

• Speed ratio GS/TAS: 140 kt -110 kt = 1.27
• Air distance: 12 160 ft - 1.27 = 9 554 ft
2. Find the height the aircraft will reach when its distance from the airport
will be 2 NM:
• h = (gradient x dair) - 100
• h = (10 x 9 554) 4-100 = 955 ft

• Take-off ends at a height of 50 ft, therefore the first 50 ft are not
included in the above calculation; the aircraft will actually be 50 ft
higher.
• hy = 955 ft + 50 ft = 1005 ft
3. Find the expected obstacle clearance by subtraction of the height of the

obstacle from the height the aircraft will reach over the obstacle:
• Obstacle clearance = 1005 ft - 800 ft = 205 ft.

• The aircraft will clear the obstacle by 205 ft.
STUDY TEST
3.7. Cruise
Data provided for cruise flight include maximum range and maximum
endurance charts and speed and fuel flow data for a few selected power
settings including the maximum power setting, i.e. the maximum speed cruise
flight.
There are three basic regulatory requirements (EASA AIR OPS

CAT.POLA.320) to ensure acceptable safety in case of engine failure:
• The airplane cannot be assumed to fly at an altitude exceeding the one at

which the rate of climb with the engine operating is less than 300 ft/min.
• The en-route gross gradient of descent must be increased by 0.5 %.
• The airplane shall be able to reach a height of 1000 ft above the selected
landing site.
Remember from the general performance theory that any propeller airplane
will fly with VMD for maximum range, i.e. with maximum nautical miles flown
per a unit of fuel (specific range). This speed, or any other speed
recommended instead of this one for example to give a better sector time
while sacrificing only a little bit of range, is sometimes called the optimum
speed and the corresponding power setting may be called optimum power
setting.
The required speed to achieve maximum endurance is the speed at which

power is least, i.e. VMP. The speed recommended for the actual flight to attain
the best endurance, or least fuel consumption for a unit of time, is sometimes
increased to give better stability or give a larger margin above the stall speed.
Any speed recommended to minimize fuel flow is also sometimes called the
economy speed and the corresponding power setting may be called economy
power setting.
23.0 in. Hg (or full throttle) @ 2.300 rpm

Off-peak EGT Cruise lean mixture @ cruise weight 3.400 lb
ISA Press Man
I0AT Fuel Flow Airspeed
Dev. Alt. Press.
1 °c Feet In. Hg PPH GPH KIAS KTAS
•c •F
0 -3 26 230 676 113 152 144
2 000
4.000
■7
-11
20 230
230
607
72 1
116 152
153
149
154
13 12 0
-20 6.000 -15 6 23 0 74 4 124 153 158
8.000 -18 -1 22.4 73.8 123 150 160
10 000 -23 -9 207 68 4 114 143 157
12.000 -27 -16 19 2 638 10.6 135 153
14.000 -31 -23 178 60 0 10 0 127 148
16.000 -35 -31 16 4 563 94 117 141
0 17 62 230 65 4 109 147 145
2.000 13 56 230 674 112 147 149
4 000 9 49 23 0 69 4 116 U8 154
0 6.000 5 42 23 0 717 12.0 146 159
8.000 2 35 224 711 119 145 160
10 000 ■3 27 207 662 110 137 157
12.000 -7 20 10.2 618 103 129 152
14.000 -11 13 178 58.5 9.8 120 146
16,000 -15 5 16 4 55 3 9.2 109 137
0 37 98 23 0 632 105 142 145
2.0C0 33 92 230 65 1 10 9 143 149
4.000 29 85 23.0 671 112 143 154
♦20 6.000 25 78 230 690 115 142 156
8.000 22 71 22.4 685 114 140 160
10 000 17 63 207 64 0 10.7 132 156
12.000 13 56 19 2 600 10.0 123 151
14.000 9 48 178 571 95 113 142
16.000 • -
Recommended Cruise Power Settings (continued)
NOTE 1: FuS-lhr<Xtle manifold pressure settings are approximate
NOTE 2: Shaded areas represent operation with full throttle
NOTE 3: Fuel hows are to be used for flight planning lean using the EGT
Figure 3.11. Recommended cruise power settings
Determine the cruise speed and fuel consumption at flight level 80 with a
power setting of 23.0 inHg/2 300 RPM, mixture set for best performance and
the landing gear retracted. Temperature deviation is ISA -10 °C.
1. Enter the appropriate table according to the given power setting.
2. Find the power setting for the pressure altitude and temperature. There
is no data set for ISA -10 °C but data is provided for ISA, ISA +20 °C and
ISA -20 °C. Interpolate the TAS values for ISA and ISA -20 °C to get the
true airspeed you are looking for. Remember that flight levels are
essentially levels of pressure altitude:
• TAS at ISA at 8 000: 160

• TAS at ISA -20 °C at 8 000: 160
• TAS at ISA -10 °C: (160 + 160) - 2 = 160
3. Note that at this altitude, the given pressure setting cannot actually be
maintained and even full throttle will lead to less manifold pressure.
Determine the range with a 45-minute final reserve at flight level 120 and full
throttle power setting (23.0 inHg/2 300 RPM) in ISA.
1. Enter the left side of the chart with the pressure altitude (12 000 ft) and
move right.
2. Stop at the curve corresponding to the given power setting. Note that
each curve represent a different combination of manifold pressure and
RMP below the full throttle altitude, after that, manifold pressure drops
for each RPM setting even with full throttle so all curves are labelled
"Full Throttle" and you have to decide for the right one using RPM.
3. Break your line and move down vertically to read off the range of
902 NM.
3.7.3. Glide distance calculations

One of the requirements of single-engine airplane operations in commercial
air transport is to ensure that the airplane can always glide to a place where it
can safely land. Although this place does not necessarily have to be a certified
airport, planning a flight within the gliding range of aerodromes is one way of
complying with this requirement. However, another piece of Air OPS states
that, for the purpose of flight planning, the gross glide gradient to reach such
places where the aeroplane can safely land, must be increased by 0.5 %
(performance class B requirement).
Recall the theory of gliding flight in Principles of Flight. The glide ratio is the
distance covered per one unit of height loss, i.e. an airplane with a glide ratio
of 8:1 glides 8 m for 1 m of height loss, but also 8 nm for 1 nm of height loss -
the units do not matter as both the horizontal and vertical ones are equal. The
glide ratio is normally given at the minimum drag speed, i.e. where CL/CD is
maximum, as it is of little use to glide at a different speed, which only results in
less horizontal distance achieved from the same height. The glide ratio
actually is the ratio of CL to CD, i.e. in the above given example, the coefficient
of lift of the airplane is 8 times bigger than the coefficient of drag.
This glide ratio can also be expressed as a glide gradient. Using the example
above, if an airplane loses 1 unit of height (h) for every 8 units of horizontal
distance covered (d), the tangent of the angle of glide can be expressed as h/d,
i.e. tan (glide angle) = 1/8 and the angle is 7.1°. Another, more practical way of
expressing the glide ratio is the descent gradient, i.e. the height loss expressed
as percentage of the distance flown. In this case, the calculation is simple, it
h/d x 100 %, which is 12.5 % in this example.
For real flight planning, there are two more considerations. First of all, the
aircraft’s altitude is not the height to be lost - the landing site is hardly ever at
sea level, so the difference between the landing site elevation and the cruising
altitude must be used for the calculation. That said, both values have to be
referenced to the same pressure, if the airport elevation is, by definition,
referenced to QNH and the cruising level is a flight level, the actual height to
lose is higher in high pressure (QNH higher than 1013 hPa) and lower in lower
in low pressure (QNH lower than 1013 hPa). Both elevation and cruising level
values must first be converted either to pressure altitudes or to QNH.
Another point is the wind. The gradient, glide ratio or glide angle are given in
the airplane flight manual in still air conditions and may, occasionally, contain
corrections for e.g. 10 and 20 kt of head and tailwind. If wind corrections are
not provided, it is necessary to correct the air angle or gradient to ground
angle or gradient. At the given speed, recommended by the manufacturer as
the minimum drag speed, the airplane achieves the same vertical speed in all
conditions, it is only the horizontal distance covered in time that changes.
In still air conditions:

h
Glide gradient = = T
t
where t is time.
Now we need to convert it in equal units, height is normally shown in ft and

related to minutes for vertical speed, while horizontal distances are expressed
in nm and related to hours of flight for speed. To convert horizontal distance
to ft and minutes, NM = 6000 (this rounding is sufficient here) and h = 60 min,
so these cancel out to give a coefficient of 100.
Glide gradient
&
= — . OVS- n
TAS x 100
Now using the fact the vertical speed is independent of wind, i.e. it remains
the same, we can find out the new glide gradient in head or tail wind in the
following way:
Glide gradient (still air)

— TAS x 100
Glide gradient (wind)
GS x 100
Or simplified:
Glide gradient (still air) GS
Glide gradient (wind) TAS
Example: Determine the maximum distance of a planned route from an

emergency landing site if a flight of a single-engine performance class B
airplane is planned at FL9O. The elevation of the landing site is 2 000 ft and
the QNH is forecast to be 1003 hPa. According to the AFM, the aircraft has a
glide ratio of 15:1, the average true air speed when gliding from FL90 is
120 kt and the average wind component during the glide is forecast to be
-20 kt.
1. Determine the height to be lost in glide, remember that both the cruising
level and the landing site elevation must be referenced to the same
pressure, QNH or 1013 hPa. Also, remember that there is a requirement
to glide to a point which is 1000 ft above the landing site.
• Airfield pressure altitude: 2 000 ft + (1013 - QNH) x 30 = 2 300 ft

(altimeter at the airfield with QNH 1003 hPa set shows 2 000 ft; now
imagine to turn setting from 1003 hPa to 1013 hPa: indication
increases from 2 000 ft to 2 300 ft)
• Target pressure altitude at the end of glide: 2 300 ft + 1000 ft = 3
300 ft
• Height to lose: 9 000 ft - 3 300 ft = 5 700 ft
2. Determine the net glide gradient, using the gross gradient from the AFM
and the additional regulatory safety margin of 0.5 %.
• Gross gradient: h/d x 100 = 1/15 x 100 = 6.7 %

• Net gradient: Gross gradient + 0.5 % = 6.7 % + 0.5 % = 7.2 %
3. Correct the net air gradient into a ground gradient using the true air
speed converted into ground speed.
• GS: TAS ± wind = 120 - 20 = 100 kt

• Gradient (wind) = Gradient (air) x TAS/GS = 7.2 x 120/100 = 8.6 %
4. Calculate the distance in glide.

• Gradient = h/d
• Distance = h/Gradient = 5 700/0.086 = 66 279 ft = 11 NM
BEFORE EXAM L"

Vs is stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is
controllable.
Vso is stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing
configuration.
VS1 is stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a specified
configuration.
VR is rotation speed. It must be not less than VSi.
VREF is reference landing speed. It must be not less than 1.3 VSo
vlof speed is lift-off speed.

Speed at 50 ft must be the higher of:
o a speed safe under all reasonably expected conditions such as turbulence and
complete engine failure; or
O 1.2 VS1.
Take-off distance is calculated from a full stop to a screen height of 50 ft.

Landing distance is calculated from a screen height of 50 ft to a full stop.
Take-off field requirements:
o TOD x 1.25 < TORA (no clearway or stopway)
o TOD < TORA (clearway or stopway)
o TOD x 1.15 < TODA (clearway or stopway)
o TOD x 1.3 < ASDA (clearway or stopway)
Take-off surface corrections:
o TOD x 1.2 for dry grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways
o TOD x 1.3 for wet grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways
o TOD x 1 for wet paved runways
Take-off and landing wind correction:
o 50 % of headwind
o 150 % of tailwind
Take-off and landing slope corrections:
o 5 % of take-off/landing distance for each 1 % of uphill slope (take-off) or
o TOD x 1.3 < ASDA (clearway or stopway)
o 50 % of headwind
o 150 % of tailwind
downhill slope (landing)
o No corrections for downhill slope (take-off) or uphill slope (landing)
Landing field requirements:
o LD < 0.7 x LDA
Landing surface corrections:
o LD x 1.15 for runways covered with grass up to 20 cm and firm soil runways
o LD x 1.15 for wet runways unless specific data are provided in the AFM
Climb performance requirements:
o Landing climb gradient 2.5 %
Cruise performance requirements:
o Service ceiling at 300 ft/min
The en-route gross gradient of descent must be increased by 0.5 %.
Class B Multi-
Engine Airplanes
and landing performance of multi-engine airplanes with a maximum capacity
of 9 passengers and a maximum take-off weight of 5 700 kg or less. You will
also be introduced to typical performance charts found in airplane flight
manuals. After reading this chapter, you will be able to understand the
peculiarities of flying a multi-engine aircraft, especially after an engine failure.
• understand various speeds used in operations;

• understand the concept of critical engine;
• state Air OPS requirements on climb and cruise performance;
4.1. Definitions of terms and
speeds
4.1.1. Speeds
Apart from the basic speeds introduced in Chapter 3 for single-engine class B,
there are several other speeds such as the best angle and best rate of climb
speeds. You should be already familiar with those from the Chapter 2. They
are revised here because they are much more important for larger airplanes.
While most single-engine airplanes will fly at relatively low altitudes, multi-
engine airplanes, although still powered by piston engines, are usually more
expensive, better equipped and faster aircraft that fly higher. It takes them
significant time to climb to the cruise altitude and requires a selected climb
technique. The difference between the best angle of climb and the best rate
of climb is usually larger and choosing an inappropriate technique may
considerably influence safety and economics of the flight. The best angle of
climb speed has to be chosen if obstacle problems exist. This is commonplace
on short runways in hilly terrain or, more importantly, in case of engine failure,
when power available suddenly drops while total drag (or power required)
increases, and the expected twin-engine climb performance is gone.
Vx
Vx means the best angle of climb speed. This is the speed where the greatest
difference between thrust and drag exist. This is a lower speed than the
minimum drag speed. It also means that we will climb at a slower speed but at
a steep angle. No other speed will allow us to climb more steeply. We’re
gaining a maximum altitude in the shortest distance possible. This speed
represents the maximum ratio between the rate of climb and the forward
speed of the aeroplane. It can be found by drawing a tangent from the origin
to the rate of climb versus speed curve. Climbing at the Vx speed is handy
when we need to clear obstructions at the end of the runway or when we
don’t want to annoy the people living under the departure path with excessive
noise. Remember that for obstacle clearance the speed Vx should be used (it
will provide maximum gain in altitude before reaching the obstacle, which is at
a given distance ahead of the aeroplane).
VY
VY means the best rate of climb speed. This is the speed where the greatest
difference between power available and power required exists. This is a higher
speed than the minimum power speed. It also means that we climb at a
shallower angle, but we reach our target altitude in the least amount of time.
Flying slower or faster than VY means it’ll take longer to reach the altitude. If
we fly slower, it’s obviously going to take more time to do the climb. We’re
using full power at take-off, so we can only fly faster by pointing the nose
down a bit and reducing the climb angle. If we do this, the climb is flatter, so it
also takes longer to get to our target altitude.
Vx vs. Vy
Normally during a climb Vx will always be lower than VY. As altitude increases
Vx speed for jet aeroplanes will remain constant in terms of IAS, but it will
increase in terms of TAS. Vx speed for piston engine aeroplanes in terms of
IAS can increase with altitude. With increasing altitude, the VY speed
decreases in terms of IAS, but increases in terms of TAS. Ultimately, the Vx
and VY speeds meet at the same value in terms of IAS => at the absolute
ceiling of the aeroplane, where the rate of climb drops to zero. Obviously at
this point we are not able to climb at either Vx or at VY, but from the
theoretical point of view the speeds Vx and VY can become equal. Therefore,
Vx is always lower or equal to VY.
If the landing gear is extended, it affects both Vx and VY. The gear adds
parasite drag but does not influence induced drag for the given angle of
attack/speed. Hence at any given speed, the right parasite drag component
(mainly responsible for the shape of the right end of the drag curve) is higher
and the minimum drag speed shifts to the left, i.e. to a lower speed, and so do
Vx and VY.
In case of an engine failure, both Vx and VY change. Asymmetric thrust causes

more parasite drag. As a consequence, that part of the drag curve that is
mainly affected by this drag (the right side) increases and the point of lowest
drag shifts to the left. Note that the actual value of drag increases along the
whole range of speeds, i.e. even at the minimum drag point (Vmd ) the total
drag is higher than with both engines operating. This means that the whole
drag curve moves to the left and up while the thrust and power curves do not
change, hence all significant speeds derived from these curves also move to
the left, to the low-speed side.
VMC
VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative. Below
this speed, aircraft controls are not able to maintain the airplane in straight
ground roll or flight and the nose wheel steering must be used to control the
aircraft. As a result, below that speed, the flight can never be continued and
the take-off must be aborted because the airplane would be uncontrollable.
Similarly, if an engine fails in flight (below VMC) the airplane would not
maintain its approach path even though the stall speed might be lower. It must
not exceed 1.2 VS1 for take-off.
VR must not be less than:
• 1.05 VMC.
• 1.1 VS1.
The speed at 50 ft must not be less than:
• a speed safe under all reasonably expected conditions such as turbulence

and complete engine failure; or
• 1.1 VMC.
• 1.2 vsl.
Note: Although it is usually not specified anywhere and does not have a special
name, there is also a minimum speed at which the airspeed can just be controlled
with both engines operating. This speed is lower than the single-engine VMC,
because the asymmetric thrust and drag components are much lower, so that the
control surfaces are still efficient to maintain straight flight at lower speeds.
VREF
VREF is the reference landing speed. Note that it is a regulatory speed which is
determined in accordance with the conditions below, but not the actual speed
the pilot always uses for approach. Usually an additional margin is added to
account for the effect of wind, in particular turbulence, to make sure that the
airplane does not slow down below the reference speed:
• It must not be less than 1.3 Vso.
• It must not be less than VMCL.
4.1.2. Critical engine

The critical one is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the
flight, i.e. performance or handling qualities. In simple words, if this engine
fails, the airplane will fly with more drag, will show more yaw tendency or its
controls will react slower than if the other engine fails. The general rule is that
the critical engine is the one that:
• has asymmetric thrust, i.e. it is mounted anywhere else but on the airplane’s
longitudinal axis, typically on the wings.
• its propeller turns inwards.
A failure of any engine that is not placed on the nose or in the tail to provide
symmetric thrust will result in a great moment of force from the remaining
engine, which is otherwise cancelled out by the symmetric position of the two
engines. This moment has to be counteracted by controls. On the ground,
especially during the take-off roll, this can be counteracted only by rudder
deflection and nose wheel steering. The out-of-centre position of the rudder
causes more drag at any speed so the airplane has not only lost half take-off
power but its drag is higher than when flying with both engines. Once the
airplane becomes airborne, some bank (up to 5°) can be used to maintain the
airplane in straight flight, however, the rest of the asymmetric thrust moment
still has to be compensated with the rudder. The airplane thus flies in a
constant slip, again producing more drag. Therefore some people say that in
case of engine failure, the airplane does not lose 50 % of power, it loses 75 %
of power. This is not true of course. The remaining engine still runs at full
power but the increased drag makes the airplane behave as if more power was
lost. In fact, for most airplanes, take-off power is time limited for example to 5
minutes of flight after which it has to be reduced to save the life of engines
and not to subject them to high temperatures for too long. However, this time
might be extended (by the manufacturer) for single-engine operations or there
might be a different power setting somewhere between the take-off power
and the normal climb power to be used unlimitedly for single-engine
operations. Whatever the actual value compared to the take-off power, the
maximum power that can be used without any time restriction is called
maximum continuous thrust or MCT and this is the one to be used for single
engine operations for performance calculations except for take-off.
The second condition for an engine to be critical is the direction of rotation of

its propeller. The inward (or more precisely inboard) turning propeller directs
the accelerated airflow, called also propeller wash, onto the rudder and
elevator. Therefore at any given true airspeed, those control surfaces have
more relative airspeed and need less deflection to produce the desired yawing
or pitching effect than when only washed by air at the speed of flight.
Therefore if this engine fails, those control surfaces will effectively "lose"
speed even if the airplane is flown at the same speed as before the failure.
The propeller that spins outwards does not produce this effect and its loss
does not affect controllability so much, except for the fact that some rudder
deflection and bank will still be needed to compensate for the asymmetric
thrust.
MORE INFO
Any skill test flown on a multi-engine airplane will include a (simulated) failure of
the critical engine. What will the examiner do if you arrive for the test in a Piper
Seneca and both of its propellers turn inward? In this case, both engines are
critical, i.e. they have the same adverse effect on performance and controllability.
This is an advantage for training aircraft because the loss or simulated loss of any
of the engines shows similar behaviour and the operating engine still provides
some propeller wash. Apart from that, the student cannot expect which engine
will be used to simulate the failure. However, this design means more spare parts
and inability to use a spare engine on any side, which makes operations and
maintenance more expensive.
4.2. Take-off
Take-off performance requirements are essentially the same as for single
engine class B aircraft, although there are additional requirements on climb
and obstacle clearance because the airplane can continue and must be able to
continue flying even after engine failure.
Take-off distance is the distance covered from a complete stop to a screen

height of 50 ft. Ground roll is the distance used from a complete stop.
For each take-off, using the gross distances from the AFM for the particular
mass and outside conditions it must be proved that:
• The AFM gross take-off distance multiplied by 1.25 does not exceed the
take-off run available (TORA).
Figure 4.1. TOD x 1.25 less or equal TORA
• If clearway or stopway is available, the AFM gross take-off distance:

o Is less or equal to the TORA.
Take-off run avalaible
Figure 4.2. TOD less or equal TORA
When multiplied by 1.15, is less or equal to the take-off distance available

(TODA).
15%
Screen
Gross take-off distance Clearway
Take-off distance avalaible
Figure 4.3. TOD x 1.15 less or equal TODA
When multiplied by 1.3, is less than the accelerate-stop distance available

(ASDA).
30%
Screen
Gross take-off distance Stopway
Accelerate-stop distance available
Figure 4.4. TOD x 1.3 less than ASDA
If accelerate-stop distance data are provided in the airplane flight manual, the
gross accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the accelerate stop distance
available.
AFM gross take-off distances should be corrected for runway surface

conditions:
• By a factor of 1.2 for dry grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways

• By a factor of 1.3 for wet grass up to 20 cm or firm soil runways
• By a factor of 1 for wet paved runways
Runway slope corrections require:
• A 5 % increase of the gross TOD for every 1 % of uphill slope up to a

maximum slope of 2 %.
• No correction for downhill slope.
No operations on runways with more than 2 % uphill slope unless sufficient
data are provided in the AFM and the operator is approved for such
operations.
Wind corrections require that:
• A maximum of 50 % of reported headwind component is used.

• 150 % of reported tailwind component must be used.
Pressure altitude
Increasing altitude has a negative effect on take-off, increasing the TOR and
TOD or reducing the performance limited take-off mass. Take-off distance
charts provide data for different pressure altitudes. It is therefore necessary to
correct for the differences in QNH before entering the charts. If QNH is
higher than 1013 hPa, the corresponding pressure altitude to be used in the
chart will be lower by the difference multiplied by 30 ft/hPa. If QNH is lower,
the chart is to be entered with a higher pressure altitude.
Runway conditions
In case of a contaminated runway (flooded, icy, snow, slush) primarily the
accelerate-stop distance (ASD) is negatively affected => it is increased.
Increase in ASD will obviously result in a longer runway length requirement.
On shorter runways the increased ASD may decrease the field-length limited
maximum take-off mass. The primary reason for the ASD increase is the fact
that the aeroplane wheels on a contaminated runway have less friction than
on a dry runway. This decreases the braking efficiency of the aircraft and
increases the stopping distance.
The type and depth of the contaminant also impairs the acceleration during
the take-off as the accelerating aeroplane has to overcome the resistance of
the contaminant on the runway —> thus also negatively affecting TODR™,
although to a lesser degree than in the case of ASD. The same rationale may
be used for an aircraft landing on a contaminated runway —»the stopping
distance is increased due to the reduced braking capability. When landing on a
contaminated runway it is important to make firm and positive contact with
the pavement as quickly as possible. Do not float down the runway trying to
make a smooth landing, you will rapidly waste valuable runway needed for
stopping. After the touchdown the brakes and if available, also the thrust
reverser, should be applied as soon as possible (be gentle with the brakes). Do
not wait with the brake application to below Vp (aquaplaning speed) - you
might not be able to get the best braking action, but you will probably get at
least some braking that will help you slow down to below Vp faster.
To sum it all up: Contaminated runways increase the ASDR™, and in a lesser
way also the TODR, thus decreasing the maximum allowed TOM. And if the
TOM is decreased, so does the stall speed, allowing a lower VR.
Effect of outside air conditions on V^c

The denser the air outside, the more power is available. Therefore the turning
moment of the remaining engine will be greater and this needs to be
compensated with more rudder force. Because up to a full deflection might be
needed in any conditions, it is not possible to simply tell the pilot to use more
rudder input in colder and denser air. Therefore the minimum control speed
must be increased to ensure that additional rudder force. Unlike most other
speeds, the minimum control speed increases with higher density, i.e. lower
temperature and higher pressure.
Type of propeller
As seen in the illustration below, the angle of attack of a fixed-pitch propeller
is determined by the added vectors of propeller RPM (which depends on
power) and TAS. Increasing aeroplane speed at constant RPM will decrease
prop blades angle of attack and the propeller will provide less thrust.
Increasing RPM at constant TAS will increase the prop blades angle of attack
and the propeller will provide more thrust.
Result path
Figure 4.5. Fixed-pitch propeller
Contrary, a constant speed propeller will change the angle of attack depending
on the airspeed and thereby maintain a higher thrust than a fixed pitch
propeller.
Take-off procedure
Sometimes it is mentioned "FULL POWER BEFORE BRAKE RELEASE" in take
off charts. This means that brakes are set, full take-off power applied, and only
then the brakes are released to commence the take-off roll. This method
provides the best performance. If the brakes are released before the full take
off power is set, the performance will be worse and values calculated from the
chart will not be achievable, thereby increasing take-off distance and
accelerate-stop distance.

Data charts and tables for the class B multi-engine airplane to be used during
your examination will be labelled MEP, standing for multi-engine piston. The
first page of the data booklet for this airplane will provide some general
information such as table below stating aircraft limitations. It may also contain
some general description of the airplane such as the position of wings, type of
engine (supercharged) or type of propeller (variable pitch).
Aeroplane structural limitations

Maximum take-off mass 4750 1b
Maximum landing mass 4513 1b
The chart in the figure below is used to calculate the take-off distance for a
known mass or to calculate the maximum take-off mass for a known length of
runway.
Figure 4.6. Take-off distance - flaps up
Example: What is the take-off distance required at a mass of 3 969 lb on a wet

grass covered runway if the outside temperature is +21 °C, 9 kt of headwind
and the runway has an uphill slope of 1.5 %? The pressure altitude of the
airport is 2 000 ft. Zero-flap take-off is to be performed:
1. Locate the ambient temperature on the "OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE

°C" scale and draw a vertical line upwards.
2. Using the two closest pressure altitude curves in the "PRESSURE

ALTITUDE ft" section, interpolate to mark a point on the line drawn in
step 1. This time the mark will lie exactly on the 2000 line.
3. Draw a horizontal line from the mark made in 2 until it reaches the
reference line in the "MASS - lb" section.
4. Move parallel to the mass lines, i.e. draw a curve that maintains the same
proportional distance from both thick lines as it had on the reference
line. Note that in the mass section, every grid line corresponds to 50 lb,
i.e. the closest you can get is a mass of 3 950 or 4000 so your mark
should be in between those. Break your line here and continue
horizontally to the right.
5. From the next reference line, move along the two closest wind curves,
keeping the same distance from those as there was on the reference line
until you move to the desired wind component on the "WIND
COMPONENT kt" scale. Note the slope of the headwind and tailwind
correction curves. For the same amount of headwind, the vertical
distance you cover is approximately one third of the distance covered
when following the tailwind curves. This tells you that wind is already
factored and you should enter the chart with the exact value given in
the question with no further factoring.
6. Move right horizontally from the last mark. The reference line scale
shows the ground roll distance, i.e. there is no obstacle height required.
To find the take-off distance, continue along the correction curves to
read off the distance including the climb to the required screen height.
7. Read off the gross take-off distance, in this case 1650 ft.
8. Factor for wet grass runway:

1650 x 1.3 = 2 145 ft
9. Factor for 1.5 % of uphill slope (7.5 %):

2145 x 1.075 = 2 306 ft
10. Factor for TOD vs. TODA requirement:

2 306 x 1.15 = 2 652 ft
The figure below shows just another take-off distance chart. Its use is the
same as for the one in the figure above. However, note the difference in the
upper left corner. This one uses a different power setting to minimize the take
off distance. It is the short-field take-off chart, sometimes also called
maximum effort take-off. Therefore pay attention to the questions whether
they ask for short-field or normal take-off. Remember that the advantage of a
normal or less-flap take-off is a better climb gradient.
Figure 4.7. Take-off distance - flaps 25°
The chart in the figure below is a typical presentation of accelerate-stop

distance data. To find the distance, proceed as in the case of take-off distance.
Remember that accelerate-stop distance data might not be presented for all
airplanes where there still is the requirement to compare the take-off distance
multiplied by 1.3 to ASDA.
Example: Find the maximum take-off weight usable at an aerodrome with a

pressure altitude of 2 000 ft if the temperature is +30 °C, there is 5 kt of
tailwind, the runway has a 2 % upward slope and it is covered with dry grass.
TORA is 2400 ft, TODA 2 600 ft and ASDA 2 500 ft:
1. First, factor back the declared distances, using the regulatory

coefficients to find your maximum TOD:
TOD = TODA + 1.15 —> 2 600 + 1.15 = 2 261 ft

TOD = TORA + 1 2400 + 1 = 2400 ft
TOD = ASDA + 1.3 -> 2 500 + 1.3 = 1923 ft
We can see that this time what limits our take-off mass most is ASDA.
2. Factor back the limiting distance for runway surface:

1923+ 1.2 = 1603 ft
3. Factor back for runway slope (2 —> 5 %):

1603+ 1.1 = 1457 ft
4. Enter the short-field take-off distance chart with this value on the right
side and proceed back moving down and left to the ground roll
reference line and then horizontally to the wind correction section. After
correcting for wind, move horizontally to the left to the mass correction
section.
5. Start now on the left side with temperature and pressure altitude data
and move horizontally to the right from the intersection to reach the
mass correction section. Move along the two closest mass correction
curves until you find the intersection with the line made in step 4.
6. Read off the mass below this intersection: 4000 lb.

Figure 4.8. Accelerate and stop distance
Many flight manuals of MEP aircraft also provide a graph or table to determine
the accelerate-go distance, which assumes that the critical engine fails at the
most inconvenient point of time, when the decision to continue has just been
made and the aircraft has to take off with one engine. Such data is only
provided for aircraft types which are able to continue with a positive rate of
climb after engine failure and can therefore be returned for landing. All other
MEP aircraft types, which are not able to gain altitude single-engined, are
expected to be landed in the most suitable place they can reach.
Example: A flaps-ten take-off from a short runway is planned with a twin

engine piston aeroplane with a take-off mass of 10 500 lb. Find the
accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distances, take-off speeds and achievable
climb gradient in the ambient following conditions: Pressure altitude 2 000 ft,
OAT 10 °C.
1. The take-off data we are looking for are presented in a table at intervals
of 500 lb gross mass. Our gross mass of 10 500 lb is found in the line
labelled 10.5.
2. The columns give associated data at different temperatures, based on a

pressure altitude of 0 ft. A note below the table instructs us to increase
the actual OAT by 10 °C per 1000 ft of pressure altitude, which is 20 °C
in our case. The correct column is therefore OAT 30 °C.
3. The box for 10 500 lb at 30 °C gives us an accelerate-stop distance of

2 980 ft and an accelerate-go distance of 5 100 ft. Take-off speeds are
V2 115 kt and VY 116 kt, the achievable climb gradient is 7.1.
4. The data we have just extracted apply to a take-off with zero flaps. As
we have selected flaps ten due to a short runway, we have to apply the
corrections given below the table: The accelerate-go distance 2 %
shorter, the gradient is reduced by 1.0.
GO = 5 100 ft x 0.98 = 4998 ft

GRAD = 7.1 -1.0 = 6.1
TAKE-OFF PRESSURE ALTITUDE: OFT
FLAPS: CLEAN TAKE-OFF POWER: MAXIMUM AVAILABLE
Gr. mass OAT ("O ■20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
(« 1000 lbs) T/O power (%) 100 100 100 100 100 95 88
STOP /GO (ft) 2925/5100 3025/5500 175/5900 3325/6200 3475/6600 3625/6900 3850/7900
12.5 V;/V,/G2RAD 121/121/5.7 121/121/5-2 121/121/5-2 121/121/5.0 121/122/4.8 122/122/4.4 122/122/3.6
STOP/GO (ft) 2850/4600 2920/4900 3000/5200 3060/5600 3110/5800 3280/6500 3460/7200
12.0 v2/v,/grad 120/119*3 120/119/6 1 120/119/59 120/119/59 120/119/5.7 121/120/54 120/119/44
STOP/GO (ft) 2780/4100 2825/4400 2890/4700 2950/5100 3010/5300 3130/6000 3300/6700
11.5 V;/V,/GRAD 119/119/6.9 119/119/6.7 119/119/6.5 119/119/6.3 119/119/6.1 119/120/5.7 120/120/4.9
STOP/GO (ft) 2700/3700 2775/3900 2830/4200 2915/4600 2940/4800 3070/5500 3160/6200
11.0 v2/v,/grad 117/118/7.4 117/118/7.3 117/118/7.1 117/118/6.9 116/118/6.7 118/118/6.4 118/119/5.5
STOP/GO (ft) 2640/3300 2690/3600 2750/3900 2830/4200 2890/4500 2980/5100 3080/5930
10.5 V,/V,/GRAD • 16/116/8 1 116/116/7.8 116/116/7 7 116/116/7.5 116/116/7.3 115/116/7.1 115/115/6.0
STOP/GO (ft) 2580/3000 2630/3300 2690/3600 27M/3MO 2830/4200 2920/4800 3025*600
10.0 v2/v,/grad 114/115/9.0 114/11528.8 114/115/8.6 114/115/8.4 115/115/8.2 115/115/7.9 115/115/6.8
STOP/GO (ft) 2540/2800 2590/3100 2650/3400 2720/3700 2790/4000 2880/4600 2980/5400
9.5 V2/V,/GRAD 111/113/98 111/111/96 111/113/9.4 111/113/9.1 112/113/89 112/113/86 112/113/7.7
STOP/GO (ft) 2515/2600 2560/2900 2625/3200 2685/3500 2760/3800 2850/4400 2950/5200
9.0 V./V,/GRAD 108/110/10.7 108/110/10.5 109/110/10.3 109/110/10.1 109/110/9.8 109/110/9.5 110/110/8.6
Runway: Dry, paved, level surface.

Autofeather: Armed.
Take-off technique: Full power prior break release.
v./vj 97 KIAS.
Grad: Chmb gradient includes a 0.8 % reduction lor pilot technique and turbulence.
Note: No wind condition. For accurate calculations refer to the POH.
Note: Take off masses and speeds ensure positive climb at lift off.
Corrections
Flaps 10": Reduce GO by 2 %. Pressure altitude: Increase
Reduce GRAO by 1.0. OAT by 10 •C/1000 ft
Figure 4.9. Accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distance for a MEP aeroplane
STU DY TEST
4.3. Landing
Landing distance is the ground distance measured from a screen height of
50 ft at VREF to a point where the airplane comes to a complete stop.
For each landing, using the gross landing distance data in the AFM, it must be
proved that the airplane will stop within 70 % of the landing distance available
(LDA).
The gross landing distance should be factored:
• By 1.15 for runways covered with grass up to 20 cm and firm soil runways.
• By 1.15 for wet runways unless specific data are provided in the AFM.
• By a 5 % addition for each 1 % of downhill runway slope.
The gross landing distance should be corrected for:
• Wind, using at least 150 % of reported tailwind component and at most

50 % of reported headwind component.
Concerning contaminated runways, there is no regulatory margin to be added

but airplanes can be operated on such runways only if appropriate data are
provided by the manufacturer. Remember that a runway is considered
contaminated if more than 25 % of its surface is covered with water at least
3 mm deep, wet snow of at least 6 mm or dry snow of at least 12 mm or any
other equivalent contaminant.

They present data in the same way as take-off charts, correcting for density
(pressure altitude and temperature), aircraft mass and wind, which is usually
already factored. You can recognize this by checking the effect of headwind
and tailwind of equal value. If tailwind moves your line approximately by
approximately 3 x the distance moved with headwind, it is factored.
Figure 4.10. Landing distance - flaps 40°
There are generally two values you might be interested in:
• How much distance you need for your airplane to land.

• The maximum performance limited landing mass for a particular airfield and
weather conditions.
In the first case, start with the field conditions and move right always first
getting to the reference line and then following the correction lines or curves.
Use the resulting distance to multiply it by the regulatory requirements on
surface, condition and slope corrections and do not forget that with this
factored distance, you still need to be within 70 % of LDA.
Example: The defactored landing distance has been found to be 2 860 ft. The
planned landing runway is a dry strip of firm soil with a 2 % downslope. Find
the minimum required LDA to operate a flight to this strip.
1. First, factor the landing distance you have found by 1.15 as a runway
surface correction for firm soil runways.
2 860 ft x 1.15 = 3 289 ft
2. Then, apply the correction of 5 % per 1 % of runway downslope. As our

runway has a 2 % downslope, we have to add 10 % to the factored
distance.
3 289 ft x 1.1 = 3 617.9 ft = 3 620 ft
In the second case, fist take the available landing distance and factor it back
for the 70 % stopping rule, surface, condition and slope. Take the de-factored
distance and enter the chart on the right side moving back along the
correction lines and then horizontally to the next section from each reference
line, until you get to the mass section. Then start on the left side with outside
conditions and move right going horizontally to each reference line and then
moving along the correction lines until you reach an intersection with the
other line started on the left side. Read off the mass on the bottom scale.
Example: Find the performance limited landing mass for a commercial flight at
an aerodrome with a pressure altitude of 4000 ft if the temperature is +15 °C,
in 10 kt of headwind, on a paved runway with no slope. LDA is 3400 ft:
1. First, factor back the declared landing distance, using the regulatory
coefficient to find your maximum landing distance:
LDRmax = 3 400 ft x 0.7 = 2 380 ft
2. On a paved, flat runway, no corrections for surface and slope have to be

applied.
3. Enter the landing distance chart at 2 380 ft on the right side and proceed
back moving down and left to the ground roll reference line and then
horizontally to the wind correction section. After correcting for wind,
move horizontally to the left to the mass correction section.
4. Start now on the left side with temperature and pressure altitude data
and move horizontally to the right from the intersection to reach the
mass correction section. Move along the two closest mass correction
curves until you find the intersection with the line made in step 3.
5. Read off the mass below this intersection: 3 900 lb. The reference
landing speed, called barrier speed in this graph, can be found by moving
vertically upwards; it is equal to 84 kt for the calculated maximum
landing mass.
Figure 4.11. Explanation picture
STUDY TEST
4.4. Climb
Compared to single-engine class B airplanes, there are additional requirements
on two-engine climb after take-off, single engine climb and approach climb,
which is the climb that is achieved in an approach configuration with some
flap setting but no landing gear, compared to the already familiar landing
climb. This will usually be used for rejected approaches, i.e. a situation when
the approach has to be interrupted in an altitude higher than 1000 ft above
the aerodrome either because of insufficient visibility or because of a failure
that needs to be checked by going through some checklists before a new
approach or a flight to the alternate aerodrome is initiated.
The two-engine take-off climb gradient, i.e. the gradient the airplane can climb
with in the take-off configuration before accelerating to en-route flight must
be at least 4 % with:
• Both engines at take-off power setting

• Landing gear extended unless it can be retracted within 7 seconds
• Take-off flaps
• A speed of not less than 1.1 VMC and 1.2 VSi
In case of critical engine failure, the single-engine take-off climb gradient at

400 ft must be positive (i.e. greater than 0) with:
• The propeller on the failed engine in its minimum drag position (feathered)
• The live engine at take-off power
• The landing gear retracted
• Flaps in the take-off position
• A climb speed equal to that speed achieved at 50 ft
At 1500 ft above the departure runway, the single-engine climb gradient after
critical engine failure must be at least 0.75 % with:
• The live engine at maximum continuous power
• Flaps retracted
• A climb speed equal not less than 1.2 VS1
Note: In the case above, you have to pay attention to the definition of V51. This is
not the same speed as used for example for the two-engine take-off gradient
because now the configuration is different. This time you should have a margin of
20 % above the stall speed in the current configuration, i.e. in the clean
configuration.
h gradient
d“ ” 100
dground = dair X ^^g
Take-off obstacle clearance

As you have noticed, there is a requirement to "climb somehow" between
400 ft and 1500 ft with one engine inoperative. However, you might correctly
remember from the discussion on departure and approach charts in Chapter 3
Single-engine Class B that departure procedures expect you to climb with a
gradient of at least 3.3 %, otherwise obstacle clearance is not assured. It is up
to every operator to evaluate the actual obstacles around the aerodrome and
make sure that the airplane will be safe by designing an alternative engine-
failure procedure to be flown. For this, the following rules have to be followed.
Obstacles must be cleared by:
• 50 ft vertically; or
• horizontally by a distance equal or greater to 90 m + 0.125 D, where D is
the distance from the end of TODA or TOD if a turn is expected before the
end of TODA.
When assessing obstacles, the following flight path between 50 ft (end of

take-off) and 1500 ft (en-route) must be considered:
• There is no bank below 50 ft and the bank is limited to 15° above 50 ft.
• The critical engine is expected to fail on the two-engine flight path just at
the moment where visual contact with obstacles is assumed to be lost.
• The gradient between 50 ft and the engine-failure point is assumed to be
0.77 times the average two-engine gradient during climb and transition
from the take-off to en-route configuration.
• The gradient between the engine-failure point and 1500 ft is assumed to be
that of the en-route single-engine gradient.
If the flight path does not require track changes of more than 15°, then
obstacles do not have to be considered if:
• Laterally more than 300 m away in VMC

• Laterally more than 600 m away in IMC.
If the flight path does require track changes of more than 15°, then obstacles
do not have to be considered if:
• Laterally more than 600 m away in VMC

• Laterally more than 900 m away in IMC.
Landing climb gradient after a go-around must not be less than 2.5 % with:
• Not more power than that obtained in 8 seconds after the initiation of the
movement of the throttle from the flight idle position
• The landing gear extended
• Landing flaps
• A speed equal to VREF
At 1500 ft above the intended landing runway, the single-engine climb

gradient after critical engine failure must be at least 0.75 % with:
• The live engine at maximum continuous power
• Flaps retracted
• A climb speed equal not less than 1.2 VS1
There is no particular requirement for the approach climb, i.e. the landing
climb of 2.5 % must be achieved even in other expected configurations. The
above regulations can be found in EASA AIR OPS CAT.POL.A.310.

Multi-engine climb performance charts present data the same way as single
engine airplane charts. However, it is always important to check the header to
see if a particular chart is for all-engines-operating or one-engine-inoperative
performance. Sometimes, the TAS to gradient conversion section will not be
provided, e.g. as shown in figure below - landing climb performance, so you
have to use the rate of climb read off from the chart and convert it into
gradient using the recommended indicated climb airspeed and its conversion
into true airspeed with the help of a flight computer. If no correction for mass
is provided, it means that the chart is published for the maximum take-off
mass. Remembering the general performance theory, any airplane will climb
better at a lower mass with the same engines than a heavy airplane. Therefore
expecting the climb gradient at the maximum take-off weight, you will be on
the safe side with a lighter airplane.
Figure 4.12. Rate of climb - flaps 40°
EXAMPLE 4.1
Let’s illustrate with an example:
Determine the landing climb gradient at an aerodrome with a pressure altitude of

3 000 ft and a temperature of +22 °C.
1. Enter the left side of the chart with the outside air temperature. Draw a
vertical line up. Draw a curve representing the pressure altitude parallel to
the two closest pressure altitude correction lines, which is halfway between
the 2 000 and 3 000 curves.
2. Move horizontally to the right from the intersection until reaching the rate
of climb curve.
3. Break you line here and move vertically down to read off the rate of climb, in
this case 810 ft/min.
4. Use the flight computer to convert the recommended climb speed in the
chart (85 kt) to true airspeed:
• IAS: 85 kt
• Pressure altitude: 3 000 ft
• Outside air temperature: +22 °C
• TAS: 91 kt
5. Find the distance flown in one minute:
• TAS: 91 kt (= 91 NM per hour, 1 hour = 60 minutes)

• Distance per minute: 91 + 60 = 1.52 NM = 9 221 ft/min
6. Determine the gradient as the height climbed (810 ft) per distance flown
(9 221 ft) in one minute:
• Gradient = 810 + 9 221 = 0.087 = 8.87 %

Figure 4.13. Rate of climb - all engines/single engine
Determine the two-engine and one-engine-out rate of climb at a pressure

altitude of 18 000 ft if the outside air temperature is -20 °C, the gross mass of
the airplane is 4000 lb and the mixture is leaned to 25 °C rich of peak EGT for
the two-engine flight.
1. Enter the chart with the temperature and pressure altitude on the left
side. Move horizontally to the mass correction area.
2. For two engines, note that for each of the three selected masses there
are two curves. One of them is to be used if full mixture is applied, the
second one, giving an improvement in performance, is for the leaned
mixture appropriate for each pressure altitude. Because the leaned
mixture rate is required, break the line obtained in 1 at the shorter
4000 lb curve to find out that the rate of climb is 1050 ft/min.
3. For one-engine-out operations, continue through the mass correction

section labelled "2 ENGINES” without any action until you get to the
"SINGLE ENGINE" section. You will find out that this is just the
beginning of the 4000 ft curve, i.e. the absolute ceiling. You can verify
this by moving vertically down to see that it is two grid lines left of the
100 value and the grid is spaced 50 ft/min apart, so the climb rate is 0 in
this case.
STUDY TEST
4.5. Cruise
Data provided for cruise flight include maximum range and maximum
endurance charts and speed and fuel flow data for a few selected power
settings including the maximum power setting, i.e. the maximum speed cruise
flight.
There are three basic regulatory requirements to ensure acceptable safety in

case of one engine failure:
• The airplane cannot be assumed to fly at an altitude exceeding the one at

which the rate of climb is less than 300 ft/min with the engine operating.
• The en-route gross gradient of descent must be increased by 0.5 %.
• After an engine failure, the airplane must be able to continue at or above
minimum safe altitudes to a point 1000 ft above an aerodrome at which
landing performance requirements are met.

To maintain minimum safe altitudes along the intended way, it is not
absolutely necessary to fly at an altitude that can be maintained even in case
of engine failure. This would limit most multi-engine piston airplanes in flying
for example above the Alps and flight would be enormously long and
expensive if avoiding such a region. Therefore it is allowed to choose such
route, where the airplane cannot fly with only one engine at or above the
minimum safe altitude, but it climbs with two engines to an altitude high
enough so that if at that point an engine fails, the excess altitude may be used
to glide with the remaining engine, or drift down, to an area where the single
engine ceiling is sufficient. If no safe altitude can be maintained, you can still
fly in the area provided that there is a route to an aerodrome where you can
clear the obstacles by drifting down to an altitude 1000 ft above the
aerodrome at which landing performance requirements are met.
To determine the distance to drift down, i.e. the furthest distance you can go
into mountainous terrain:
1. Break the flight path into small height increments, for example 1000 ft
or the grid scale of your performance chart. The greater the increment,
the safer the estimate but the greater the performance and weight
penalties.
2. Using performance charts, determine the single-engine descent gradient

for each higher boundary of the height increment. For example, expect
that between a pressure altitude of 14000 and 15 000 ft, the aircraft
will have to descent with the gradient corresponding to 15 000 ft,
although the lower you get the less descent will be needed because of
the increasing power available and less power required with decreasing
altitude.
3. Correct those gradients for the regulatory 0.5 % decrease in

performance.
4. Using the corrected gradients, calculate the air distance flown for each
height increment.
5. Calculate the ground distance using the air distance obtained in step 4
and the forecasted wind at those altitudes. There is no requirement to
factor tail or headwind but you should be conservative and use the
lower tailwind and greater headwind of those provided in your forecast
(the forecast will provide wind for selected altitudes only, not for all your
height increments).
6. Sum up the ground distances to determine the furthest distance from an

airfield where you may land or from an area where the minimum safe
altitude can be maintained.
Recall from Chapter 3 Single-engine Class B that in case of glide, the airplane
will be flown at VMD and its descent gradient will be constant. This is not the
case here because one engine is still running and the minimum descent
gradient will occur at the speed at which the remaining engine contributes
most to climb (which is, however, insufficient, so the aircraft descends
anyway). This means that the drift-down speed is essentially the best angle of
climb speed, Vx, determined from a power to speed chart with the power
available from one engine only. The power available of the remaining engine is
essentially half of the usual power curve of the airplane. However, the power
required also changes because of the asymmetric thrust. The speed at which
the least difference between power available and power required exists
(remember that power required is higher than power available so the aircraft
has to descend) might not be the recommended drift-down speed because of
low safety margin above stall or controllability issues. Therefore always use
the speed recommended by the manufacturer. Another aspect is that the
speed recommended for drift-down will be higher that the speed
recommended for an all-engines-out emergency, unless controllability or stall
is an issue.

They present the data in the same way as single-engine cruise performance
charts or tables, usually showing several power setting and the respective fuel
flow and true airspeed at those power settings at different altitudes and
temperatures.
ISA Press Man.
KMT Fuel Flow Airspeed
Dev. Alt. Press.
1 “c Feet “C °F In. Hg PPH GPH KIAS KTAS
0 -3 26 23 0 676 113 152 144
2 000 •7 20 230 69 7 116 152 149
4 000 -11 13 23 0 72 1 120 153 154
-20 6000 •IS 6 23 0 74 4 124 153 158
8.000 •18 -1 22.4 73.8 12 3 150 160
10 000 -23 -9 207 684 114 143 157
12.000 •27 •16 192 636 10.8 135 153
14.000 ■31 -23 178 600 10 0 127 148
16.000 -35 -31 16 4 563 94 117 141
0 17 62 23 0 654 10 9 147 145
2.000 13 56 23 J 674 112 147 149
4 DCO 9 49 23 0 69 4 116 148 154
0 6000 5 42 23 0 717 120 146 159
8 000 2 35 224 711 119 145 160
10.000 -3 27 20 7 66.2 110 137 157
12.000 -7 20 192 618 10 3 129 152
14.000 -11 13 178 58 5 98 120 146
16,000 •15 5 16 4 55 3 92 109 137
0 37 98 23 0 632 10 5 142 145
2 000 33 92 23 0 65 1 10 9 143 149
4 000 29 85 230 671 112 143 154
♦20 6000 25 78 23 0 690 115 142 158
8 000 22 71 22.4 68 5 114 140 160
10 000 17 63 207 640 10 7 132 156
12.000 13 56 192 60.0 100 123 151
14,000 9 48 178 571 95 113 142
16,000 - • a • a
Example: What is the maximum pressure altitude at which a manifold pressure

of 23.0 inHg and 2 300 RPM can be maintained in ISA conditions?
The shaded area of the table for shows conditions in which the manifold
pressure drops even with full throttle and cannot be maintained at the power
setting for which the table is published. By checking the "Man. Press." column,
you can see that 23.0 inHg can be maintained up to 6000 ft.
BEFORE EXAM
Vx's the best angle of climb speed
VY is the best rate of climb speed.
VR must not be less than:
o 1.05 VMC
o 1.1 VS1
VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative.
Critical engine is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the
performance or handling qualities of an aircraft.

o TOD x 1.3 < ASDA (clearway or stopway and no separate ASD data provided
by the manufacturer)
o 50 % of headwind
o 150 % of tailwind
o TOD x 1.3 < ASDA (clearway or stopway and no separate ASD data provided
by the manufacturer)
o 50 % of headwind
o 150 % of tailwind
o LD < 0.7 x LDA
Landing surface corrections:
o LD x 1.15 for runways covered with grass up to 20 cm and firm soil runways
o LD x 1.15 for wet runways unless specific data are provided in the AFM
Climb performance requirements:
o Two-engine take-off climb gradient 4 %
o One-engine-out climb gradient at 400 ft positive
o One-engine-out climb gradient at 1500 0.75 %
o Landing and approach climb gradient 2.5 %
Cruise performance requirements:
o Service ceiling at 300 ft/min
o The en-route gross gradient of descent must be increased by 0.5 %
o The airplane must be able to maintain minimum safe altitudes until 1000 ft
above an aerodrome suitable for landing
Performance Class
A - Airplanes
and landing performance of multi-engine jet airplanes and multi-engine
turboprop airplanes with a maximum capacity of more than 9 passengers or a
maximum take-off weight of more than 5 700 kg. You will be introduced to
typical performance charts and tables found in airplane flight manuals and
flight crew operating manuals. After reading this chapter, you will be able to
understand the peculiarities of flying a multi-engine aircraft, especially after an
engine failure.
• understand the various speeds used in operations;

• state Air OPS requirements on climb and cruise performance;
5.1. Certification specifications
The demonstrated performance of Class A aeroplanes, just like for aeroplanes
certified under CS-23, has to be achieved under specified ambient conditions.
These conditions are the following:
• Relative humidity depending on ambient temperature

• Aeroplane configuration according to the configuration selected by the
manufacturer applying for certification
• Performance demonstrated according to operating procedures specified by
the manufacturer. These procedures:
o must use safe and reliable methods or devices.
o can consistently be executed by crews of average skill.
o include allowance for delayed execution which may reasonably be
expected in service.
More conditions exist for individual performance demonstrations, all of which

shall provide an extra safety margin for unforeseen events. For example, take
off data must be based on smooth, hard-surfaced runways in dry and wet
states and account for 50 % of headwind and 150 % of tailwind and braking
distances have to be demonstrated with brakes worn to their full permitted
limit.
5.2. Speeds
There are many more defined and used speeds for large airplanes, although
their equivalents can be found in any multi-engine airplane. However, there
are much more requirements on class A airplanes and therefore the definition
of those speeds is useful for various performance calculations, even though
those calculations are not required or are simplified for class B. Let’s go
through some of them. You are expected to already know the meaning of
speeds introduced in Chapter 3 (Class B Single-engine airplanes) and
Chapter 4 (Class B Multi-engline airplanes).
VSR
VSR is the reference stall speed. It is also the speed at which the stick pusher,
i.e. a device pushing down the controls to prevent stall, will react if installed.
VSRO
VSR0 is the reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSR1
VSR1 is the reference stall speed in a specific configuration. The particular

configurations we are usually interested in are the take-off configuration and
the clean configuration. Therefore, if any requirement states that the current
speed of the aircraft in a manoeuvre must not be less than a multiple of VSR1,
it is always necessary to also check the required configuration.
Vsig
Vslg is the one-g stall speed at which the aeroplane can develop a lift force
(normal to the flight path) equal to its weight.
VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative. It has
already been introduced in the previous chapter on class B airplanes. For every
configuration, there is in fact a different minimum control speed, as shown
further. Minimum control speeds decrease with low density (high altitudes or
high temperatures) as they depend on the yawing moment caused by the
remaining engine, so the lower the engine thrust, the lower the speed is.
VMCG
VMCG is the minimum control speed, on or near ground. It is the calibrated

airspeed at which, when the critical fails, it is possible to maintain control of
the aeroplane using the rudder control alone (without the use of nose wheel
steering as runway contamination may affect its efficiency) and the lateral
control to the extent of keeping the wings level to enable the take-off to be
safely continued.
VMCA
VMCA is the minimum control speed, take-off climb. It is the calibrated

airspeed at which it is possible to maintain control and maintain straight flight
with an angle of bank of not more than 5° with flaps in the take-off
configuration when the critical engine fails.
• It must be less than or equal to 1.13 VSR.
VMCL
VMCl is the minimum control speed, approach and landing. It is the calibrated
airspeed at which it is possible to maintain control of the aeroplane and
maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5° when the
critical engine fails on approach.
VEF is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during take-off.
This is no definite speed derived from the aerodynamics or power or thrust of
the airplane. In fact, there is a whole set of those speeds and the
manufacturer has to use the one that has the most adverse effect on distance
and performance calculations.
Vi
is the maximum speed in the take-off at which the pilot must take the first
action to stop the aeroplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
The first action means the execution of a manoeuvre to stop the airplane, e.g.
applying brakes, reducing thrust or deploying speed brakes. Usually thrust is
reduced first, most other systems deploy automatically on larger airplanes
following its reduction. Deploying brakes or speed brakes against the
remaining engine at full thrust would make little sense, it would certainly slow
the acceleration of the aircraft, but the aircraft would still be propelled
forwards.
It is also the minimum speed following a failure of the critical engine at which
the pilot can continue the take-off and achieve the required screen height
within the take-off distance.
There is always a range of the lower value being bound by controllability

(VMCG), because the airplane cannot continue accelerating down the runway
without being controllable. The upper limit is the maximum speed from which
brakes are able to stop the airplane and the length of the runway and take-off
climb performance. The lower this speed the lower the accelerate-stop
distance but the longer the take-off run and distance.
Slope
When departing from a down-sloping runway, the procedure is to decrease

the speed slightly. The reason for doing this lies in the ASD calculation.
With a down-sloping runway the acceleration of the aeroplane will be better,
but the down slope will not help us in stopping the aeroplane if an engine fails
before (down slope will lengthen the stopping segment of the accelerate-
stop manoeuvre). Therefore, reduction of the speed shortens the
acceleration segment and gives more safety margin for the stopping segment.
With an up-sloping runway it is the opposite and can be increased slightly.
• It must not exceed VR.
• It must not exceed VMBE.
• It must not be less than VMCG.
Vr
VR is the rotation speed.
• It must not be less than V^.
• It must not be less than 1.05 VMGA.
• It must not be less than a speed that will allow V2 to be achieved by the
screen height of 35 ft.
• It must not be less than a speed that will result in VL0E being of not less
than 1.1 VMU with all engines operating or 1.05 VMU with one engine
inoperative.
Wmin
V2min's minimum take-off safety speed.
• It must not be less than 1.13 VSR for 2- and 3-engine turboprops and for
turbojets.
• It must not be less than 1.08 VSR for turboprops with more than 3 engines.
• It must not be less than 1.1 VMGA.

v2
V2 is the take-off safety speed. It is again a range of values bound by
controllability in the air and stall on the lower limit and runway length
considerations and the required climb gradient on the other side.
• It must not be less than V2mjn.
• It must not be less than VR plus the speed increment achieved between
rotation and a screen height of 35 ft.
VMU
VMU means the minimum unstick speed. It is the calibrated airspeed at and
above which the aeroplane can safely lift off, including the ground effect. This
is not a speed to be maintained during the climb.
VLOF
VL0F means lift-off speed. It is the calibrated airspeed at which the aeroplane
first becomes airborne.
VLO
VL0 means landing-gear operating speed. It is the maximum calibrated

airspeed at which the landing gear can be retracted or extended without
causing damage to the gear itself, the doors of the landing gear bay or the
retracting/extending mechanism.
VMBE
VMBE means the maximum brake energy speed. It is the speed from which the
airplane can stop with the maximum braking intensity without the brakes
losing efficiency because of overheating.
It depends on aircraft mass and ground speed, which increases with lower
density and tailwind. It is further affected by slope - a downhill runway will
need longer braking and therefore the brakes will necessarily absorb more
heat throughout stopping.
Regardless of the available runway length, VMBE can limit the maximum take
off mass in given atmospheric conditions. A higher aircraft mass will require a
higher airspeed, and thus ground speed, increasing the energy to be
absorbed by the brakes if the aircraft has to be stopped immediately before
Vi.
If an aborted take-off has been performed, it is necessary to wait for the

brakes to cool down otherwise they would have much less heat absorption
capacity for the next take-off.
VmaxTyre
VmaxTyre's the maximum ground speed the tyres are designed for. Because it
is ground speed, tailwind has to be considered. During a normal landing, the
approach speed with full landing flaps will slow the airplane down well below
this limitation so even the maximum allowed tailwind component will not
cause exceedance of this limit.
However, at high altitude aerodromes, where the true airspeed for a given
approach indicated airspeed is already high, a zero-flap landing might lead to
this speed being exceeded in case of jammed flaps or hydraulics loss together
with tailwind. Optimized (or max V2) take-off can equally lead to this speed
being exceeded.
Also VmaxTyre can limit the maximum take-off mass. A higher mass will increase
the required speed for lift-off with a given flap setting, and because the
maximum allowed tyre speed may restrict VL0E, it may also limit the allowed
take-off mass, if a higher flap setting cannot be selected for climb performance
reasons.
VREF
VREF is the reference landing speed.
• It must not be less than 1.23 VSR0.
• It must not be less than VMCL.
Note: It is a regulatory speed which is determined in accordance with the

conditions below, but not the actual speed the pilot always uses for approach.
Usually an additional margin is added to account for the effect of wind, in
particular turbulence, to make sure that the airplane does not slow down below the
reference speed.
VFTO
Vp-ro's final take-off speed. It is the speed achieved at 1500 ft after

transitioning to the en-route configuration with one engine inoperative.
For take-off, the sequence of speeds attained throughout the ground roll and
initial climb is shown in figure below.
Figure 5.1. Take-off speeds
Let’s discuss now the effect of several variables on the determination, or in

some cases choice of the above-mentioned speeds.
VMC depends on temperature. The lower the temperature, the higher the
power or thrust available during take-off and the higher the turning force in
case of an engine failure. For flat-rated engines (i.e. those limited artificially to
provide a constant maximum thrust below some outside temperature in order
to limit the working temperatures inside and safe engine life) VMC is constant
or slowly increases over a range of temperatures and then starts decreasing
more quickly above the temperature which starts limiting engine power or
thrust.
Figure 5.2. Rotation speed - VR
is limited by ground controllability because if the crew has to stop below

VMCG, they would not be able to maintain direction if they would try to
continue with the take-off. Above that, there is usually a range of allowed
speeds. If is selected low, it will lead to a very short accelerate-stop
distance because the aircraft will not be rolling so fast at the latest moment
when the pilot can still decide. However, if the engine fails just after this
moment, it will take a lot of time and ground distance to reach VR at which the
airplane can be rotated so that all the related conditions are met, i.e. to be
controllable and flyable and be able to reach at least V2mjn at 35 ft. Therefore
the take-off run and distance will be significantly higher than the accelerate-
stop distance. If is progressively increased, we will get to a point at which
the accelerate-stop distance equals the take-off distance, which is what we
call the balanced take-off. If is increased further, at some point it will be
too fast to be stopped on the remaining runway and stopway, if present. This
is when the take-off run and distance are short and the accelerate-stop
distance is long. It does not always mean that balanced take-off is always the
best one. Even the aerodrome distances (TODA and ASDA) might not be equal
because of the (non-)existence of clearway, stopway and their length. A
balanced take-off is preferred if TODA equals ASDA, because this allows for
the greatest take-off weight. If can be increased to VR, it gives the pilot an
opportunity to stop till the very last moment. Remember that it is not only an
engine failure which calls for an aborted take-off. It might be equally serious
mechanical or electrical problem, any fire or smoke on board and other
complex failures. Apart from that, a high Vi is desired also because the closer
it is to VR, the shorter the distance covered in between those two in case of
engine failure. This means that the airplane will lift off sooner, which will give
it better obstacle clearance (measured from TODA). Runway contamination
requires to be lowered. It has little effect on the take-off distance but it
increases the accelerate-stop distance due to the lack of braking efficiency. Icy
and slippery contaminants require more reduction for the same runway
than thick drag-producing ones.
If the runway is long enough, less flap setting may be selected. This will lead to
higher VR and V2, but climb performance will be improved as a result of lesser
drag. The use of a higher flap setting (e.g. flaps 20° instead of flaps 10°) will
result in a decreased stall speed. As a result the V2 speed will also decreased
since it is determined as a specific margin above the VSR speed. Flap setting
does not affect VMCA, therefore at high flap settings V2min could be decreased
due to VSR reduction, but this reduction will be limited by 1.1 VMCA (because
VMca does not reduce with flap higher setting).
V2min's limited by controllability, stall and climb-gradient. If the airplane is

light and enough thrust remains even in case of engine failure, the actual V2
may be selected higher to give a greater margin over stall and better
controllability (less deflection of rudder). The stall speed limited V2mjn would
be low but to ensure controllability, it needs to be increased to 1.1 VMCA. If
the airplane is heavy the lower limit is restricted by the stall speed. The ideal
upper limit is the Vx which gives the best angle of climb. However, it might be
too big for the runway length. The maximum field length limited take-off mass
is usually achieved with the scheduled V2 below Vx, the best angle of climb
speed, sacrificing some climb gradient. If the airfield is climb performance
limited, V2 has to be increased to the best angle of climb speed and therefore
mass has to be lower or the runway has to be long enough. This is called the
increased V2 or improved climb technique.
Figure 5.3. Minimum take-off safety speed - V2min
The chart in the figure below shows the take-off tyre speed limitation so that
it is not necessary to use the flight computer to find the maximum indicated
air speed for the limiting ground speed until lift-off and the corresponding
limiting mass.
Figure 5.4. Maximum tyre speed
To determine the limiting mass for 225 mph tyres, enter the lower edge with
the outside air temperature and break the line at the appropriate pressure
altitude. This will give you the still-air mass limit. To correct for wind, different
flap setting, PMC off or different tyres, use the corrections below the chart.
The brake energy limiting mass can be determined from a chart similar to the
one shown in the figure below. It contains corrections for slope and wind.
NORMAL ’AKE DECREASE BRAKE RELEASE MASS BY 303 kg *C« EACM
KNOT Vi EXCEEDS WmI DETERMINE NORMAL V- W to SPEEDS FCR uO»NER
BRAKE RELEASE MASS
IMPROVED CLjMB TAKE OFF DECREASE CLIMB MASS IMPROVEMENT 8Y ifiC kg

FOR EACH KNOT V EXCEEDS Vuet DETERMINE V- VW. Vj SPEED INCREMENTS
FOR Tt€ LOiMER CUM8 MASS IMPROVEMENT
Figure 5.5. Brake energy limiting mass
Enter the chart with the expected take-off mass and airport pressure altitude
in the left part. Continue horizontally to the right and break the line at the
appropriate outside air temperature. Move down vertically until you arrive at
the take-off mass again. From there, move right to read off the maximum
brake energy speed. If this one turns out to be smaller that your scheduled V1?
you cannot take-off with this mass. For you not to be forced to repeat the
procedure again and again until you find a sufficiently low mass, corrections
are provided to decrease the take-off mass by an amount for every 1 kt
difference between VMBE and V^.
Note: In this chart, you cannot go backwards starting at the maximum and
searching for the maximum mass because mass is used two times.
When a too low is erroneously selected and the pilots continue take-off
after an engine failure immediately before V1} the aeroplane will need to
accelerate on one engine over a greater speed range. As engine thrust is lower
and drag is higher, acceleration will take longer. TORR and TODR will increase
and obstacle clearance on the take-off flight path will be reduced or even
insufficient. In case of being accidentally selected too high, the aeroplane
will have to be decelerated from a higher speed, probably overrunning the
available stopway.
STU DY TEST
5.3. Take-off
5.3.1. Take-off distances
There are different procedures to determine the two-engine and single-engine
take-off run, take-off distance and accelerate-stop distance. For each of those
distances, a two- and a single-engine distance is determined and the higher of
both values is then used for further calculations and to see if the declared
distances of the runway are sufficient or if the take-off mass has to be
reduced.
Dry runways
The all-engine take-off distance is 1.15 times the distance from the beginning
of roll to a screen height of 35 ft.
All engines operating 15%
Take-off distance
Figure 5.6. Take-off distance - all engines
The one-engine-inoperative take-off distance is the distance from the

beginning of roll to a screen height of 35 ft with the engine failing at VEF.
All engines operating 1 Engine inoperative
Figure 5.7. Take-off distance - engine failure
The all-engine take-off run is 1.15 times the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to VL0F;
• one half of the distance between VL0F and a screen height of 35 ft.
Figure 5.8. Take-off run - all engines
The one-engine-inoperative take-off run is the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to VL0F with the critical engine
failing at VEF;
• one half of the distance between VLqf ar|d a screen height of 35 ft.
Figure 5.9. Take-off run - engine failure
The all-engine-operating accelerate-stop distance is the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to
• the distance covered in 2 seconds of acceleration with all engines after

with no braking force applied yet;
• the stopping distance from the above attained speed.
Figure 5.10. Accelerate and stop distance - all engines
The one-engine-inoperative accelerate-stop distance is the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to VEF, accelerating with all engines;
• the distance covered between VEF and accelerating with one engine
out;
• the distance covered in 2 seconds of acceleration with one engine out after

1 Engine inoperative
Accelerate - stop distance
Figure 5.11. Accelerate and stop distance - engine failure
Accelerate-stop distances have to be demonstrated with not more than 10 %

of the aeroplane brakes. It is not allowed to include the decelerating effects of
means other than wheel brakes if the possibility exists that these may be
unavailable in an accelerate-stop situation (remember that many take-offs are
rejected because of malfunctions). Furthermore, control of the aeroplane must
not require exceptional piloting skills. Therefore, for example, the use of
reverse thrust on the remaining engine for the demonstration of the
accelerate-stop distance following an engine failure is not permitted.
There is no margin included in accelerate-stop distances for rejected take-offs

with hot brakes. Therefore, in order to be certain that the aeroplane can
indeed stop within the specified distance, the brakes must be given time to
cool completely after landing or rejected take-off before another attempt is
made. Pilots are provided with minimum brake cooling times following a
rejected take-off, or a landing in different configurations, to ensure that the
brakes are able to meet the expected deceleration performance.
Figure 5.12. Brake cooling schedule
Example: Find the minimum required brake cooling time following a rejected
take-off at 130 KIAS with a take-off mass of 55 000 kg. Pressure altitude 0 ft,
OAT +20 °C, in a 10 kt headwind component.
1. The speed that governs brake energy, as we already know, is the ground
speed from which we have to decelerate. The speed that can most easily
be seen in the cockpit is the indicated airspeed on the ASL With 10 kt of
headwind, our IAS of 130 kt is equal to a GS of 120 kt.
2. We enter the graph on the upper side from the left at our take-off mass
of 55 000 kt and proceed to the right until we intersect with the 120 kt
line. From there, we go vertically downwards to the REF line. Make sure
not to confuse the RTO and landing mass sets of lines when using the
graph.
3. The next step is to account for aerodrome pressure altitude. We can

proceed vertically through that section, as our pressure altitude of 0 ft is
equal, to the REF line.
4. From the next REF line, we apply the OAT correction. Follow the closest
guideline downwards to the OAT of 20 °C, then continue vertically.
5. As we are assessing the brake cooling time for a rejected take-off, we do

not have to apply corrections for brake configuration. Our brake
configuration will be max manual, no reverse, which is the REF line.
6. Exiting the graph vertically, we reach a column subdivided into ranges I

to IV, with our line running through range III, which is declared the
"caution range". The recommended procedure is to delay further take
offs and inspect the landing gear after 30 minutes. Our recommended
brake cooling time on the ground is equal to 73 min.
MORE INFO L"
Depending on the cause of the aborted take-off, it may be required to quickly

disembark the passengers, and probably even perform an immediate
emergency evacuation. Especially when the take-off has been aborted at high
ground speeds and with a heavy aeroplane, pilots have to keep in mind that
the brakes have probably been used to their absolute limit and may be
screaming hot. When the aeroplane now sits on the runway, the heat radiating
from the disks will heat up the tyres and probably cause them to burst. It is
therefore absolutely necessary to keep all occupants well clear of the landing
gear area to avoid injuries by flying parts.
Wet runways
The all-engine take-off distance is 1.15 times the distance from the beginning
of roll to a screen height of 35 ft.
There are two questions that probably come to your mind looking at the last two
pictures. Why does the aircraft accelerate for another 2 seconds? And why does
the pilot accelerate to if an engine has failed? The answer to the first one is
that no system starts working the moment you touch its control button, lever or
any other device. If brakes are used, it takes some time before full pressure is
applied, let alone the effect of the anti-skid system that might measure the
pressure so that wheels do not become blocked immediately. For thrust reversers,
the thrust or power lever has to be, for example, below a particular thrust setting,
somewhere around idle, for the pilot to be able to apply them. All these minor
actions take some time so as a result, the airplane will never start decelerating
immediately and this is why that 2-second delay is counted with.
The answer to the second question is that not all engine malfunctions deserving
an aborted take-off are easily recognizable. In case of turboprops, there might be
leak of oil in the pitch changing mechanism. The propeller will set itself to a
different pitch than that corresponding to the take-off power setting. The
monitoring mechanism will detect this change and will send out a pitch-changing
signal. More oil will be let in, temporarily setting the propeller back, but this will be
repeated over and over again. The engine in this case periodically loses and
regains power, possibly making it difficult to spot the problem. Other issues might
include engine stall or insufficient power. Therefore, we must expect that the
pilots will be identifying the problem and deciding on the best solution for some
time before reaching V^.
Neither of those considerations means that a pilot should on purpose delay their
action in aborting take-off. These limitations are there to account for
unintentional delays in human behaviour and system operation.
Take-off distance
Figure 5.13. Take-off distance - wet runway (all engines)
The one-engine-inoperative take-off distance is the distance from the

beginning of roll to a height of 15 ft with the engine failing at VEF, but it is still
required that V2 is achieved at 35 ft.
Take-off distance
Figure 5.14. Take-off distance - wet runway (engine failure)
The all-engine take-off run is 1.15 times the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to VL0F;
• one half of the distance between VL0F and a screen height of 35 ft.
All engines operating 15%
Figure 5.15. Take-off run - wet runway (all engines)
The one-engine-inoperative take-off run is the distance from the beginning of

roll to VL0F.
Figure 5.16. Take-off run - wet runway (engine failure)
The all-engine-operating accelerate-stop distance is the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to V^;
• the distance covered in 2 seconds of acceleration with all engines after

the stopping distance from the above attained speed.
All engines operating Braking
Figure 5.17. Accelerate and stop distance - wet runway (all engines)
The one-engine-inoperative accelerate-stop distance is the sum of:
• the distance from the beginning of roll to VEF, accelerating with all engines;
• the distance covered between VEF and accelerating with one engine
out;
• the distance covered in 2 seconds of acceleration with one engine out after

1 Engine inoperative
All engines operating Braking
Figure 5.18. Accelerate and stop distance - wet runway (engine failure)
5.3.2. Effects of runway line-up

The distances declared by the airport are measured from the beginning of the
runway. However, the typical layout of an airport does not allow an airplane to
start the take-off roll from the beginning of the runway. Most taxiways are
connected to the runway at an angle, varying from right-angled line-ups
mostly at the beginning of the runway to approximately 30°- or 45° line-ups
from high-speed turn-off intersection taxiways. At some airports, no taxiway
is built at the beginning of the runway so all aircraft line up somewhere in the
middle and taxi to the end to make a 180° turn. As a result of this, the airplane
actually uses up some of the declared distance before it even starts rolling just
to finish the turn and align itself with the runway. Therefore it is impossible to
taxi onto the runway in such a way as to start the roll from the beginning of
the runway by self-positioning. A tow would be needed to push the aircraft
back by the distance lost in the turn, but this would clearly take too much
time.
The European certification regulations (CS-25) do not require this line-up loss
to be included in the data presented in the AFM. The manufacturer is allowed
to publish the take-off distance data as measured from any point where the
airplane starts rolling, irrespective of whether this is done at the beginning of
the runway or not.
It is the operator's responsibility to take into account the loss of runway

distance. The regulation even specifies that TODA and TORA have to be
corrected for the distance of the main wheels from the beginning of the
runway, while ASDA is corrected for the distance of the nose gear from the
runway beginning. Some manufacturers may provide take-off distance data
including the runway alignment loss, in which case the operator can directly
take the AFM data and use them to determine the take-off, take-off run and
accelerate-stop distances. If the AFM does not provide such data, the
operator must calculate the corresponding loss. This loss is then subtracted
from the declared distances to determine the remaining useable runway
distances.
It is not required to calculate the loss in your ATPL examinations, neither does
the pilot need to calculate it for actual take-off, it is calculated once by the
operator, although nowadays it is mostly the performance software that takes
care of it. However, to have a general idea, the calculation depends on the
following:
• The turning radius of the main and nose wheel

• The distance between the main and nose gear (called the wheel base)
• A minimum safety distance between the wheel and the runway edge as
given in ICAO Annex 14
5.3.3. Effects of inappropriate rotation

It is not a good idea to rotate too early, even though it is a natural reaction if
one sees an obstacle on the runway or the end is coming closer too fast. If
rotation is initiated too soon, less force is developed on the elevator so it
takes more effort to rotate. This on its own is not a big problem if the
maximum deflection at that speed can lift you off. However, the airplane may
be below its minimum control speed, which means a sudden engine failure will
send the airplane scratching the runway with its wing, or you may rotate
before the minimum unstick speed, which means your airplane will keep on
rolling with its nose wheel in the air, producing much more drag and slower
acceleration than if kept on the ground until the right speed. EASA only
requires that the take-off distances calculated under the conditions above are
not too short in case the airplane is rotated 5 kt below the scheduled VR.
There is no allowance for earlier rotation.
A late rotation means that the airplane is faster than expected and it has lost
more distance along the runway. Therefore the calculated obstacle clearance
will not be assured.
It is also important to realize that as long as the aircraft is on the ground, it is

supported by (at least) the main wheels, which are the point the airplane
rotates about. At the moment of lift-off, the centre of gravity becomes the
rotation point. This is located in front of the main wheels and therefore the
airplane will have a tendency to pitch up. A tail strike may occur if rotation is
too fast and with a too high an angle.
Note: The position of the stab trim has a significant effect on the rotation and also
on the rate of rotation.
If the stabilizer is incorrectly positioned for take-off (to achieve a greater nose-
up pitch attitude) then the consequence could very well be an earlier rotation
of the aeroplane and at the same time at a much faster rate).
Slow rotation, in contrast, will lead to a lower angle of climb but greater
acceleration. Therefore the calculated gradient will not be met and the aircraft
will fly a longer distance before reaching the screen height, which means the
actual take-off distance will be longer than calculated.
Other factors
Corrections for wind and runway slope are included in the charts, although
the requirement for 50 % of headwind and 150 % of tailwind still holds, if not
already factored in the charts. Crosswind is not accounted for by regulatory
margins as it does not influence take-off distances. However, maximum
demonstrated crosswind on a dry runway is stated in the aircraft's manual,
and, if no further data are given, CS-25 requires that all aircraft are tested at
10 kt of crosswind on contaminated runways. It is not normally assumed for
class A airplanes to be operated on unpaved runways. If they are certified for
that, data will be provided in the airplane flight manual.
Airframe contamination increases aircraft drag and thus increases the distance
to reach the take-off speeds. At the same time, the aircraft will have less
tendency to lift off when the calculated rotation speed is applied, hence the
actual lift-off speed will be higher.
5.3.4. Contaminated runways

Definitions
Runway contamination is a serious problem. It increases the take-off distance
and can lead to a runway overrun or excursion in case of asymmetric thrust.
For the purpose of specifying required aeroplane performance, the following
definitions apply to runway states:
• Dry runway. A runway which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes
those paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or
porous pavement and maintained to retain "effectively dry" braking action
even when moisture is present.
• Damp runway. "A runway where the surface is not dry, but when the
moisture on it does not give it a shiny appearance." The runway shows a
change of surface colour, but no reflections are visible.
• Wet runway. A runway of which the surface is covered with water, or
equivalent, less than specified by the "contaminated runway" definition or
when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface to cause it to
appear reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.
Contaminated runway. A runway covered in 25 % or more by:
o Surface water more than 3 mm or by slush, or equivalent loose snow
o Snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further
compression and will hold together or break into lumps if picked up
(compacted snow)
o Ice, including wet ice
Contaminants can be of different type, which largely affects the efficiency of

brakes but also the way the contaminant can be removed or disappears with a
change in temperature. In aviation, the following types of contaminant or
runway states are recognized:
• Rime or frost-covered. Covered with a white substance which disappears

upon touching. Frost forms on surfaces with a temperature of 0 °C or less
and moisture present in the air.
• Dry snow. Snow which can be blown if loose or, if compacted by hand, will
fall apart again upon release; specific gravity: up to but not including 0.35.
• Wet snow. Snow which, if compacted by hand, will stick together and tend
to or form a snowball; specific gravity: 0.35 up to but not including 0.5.
• Slush. Water-saturated snow which with a heel-and-toe slap-down motion
against the ground will be displaced with a splatter; specific gravity: 0.5 up
to 0.8.
• Ice. A hard, solid and uniform layer of contaminant giving reflections
• Compacted or rolled snow. Snow which has been compressed into a solid
mass that resists further compression and will hold together or break up
into lumps if picked up; specific gravity: 0.5 and over
• Frozen ruts or ridges. Uneven areas of compacted snow and/or ice that can
be removed only with difficulty.
Friction coefficient and estimated surface

friction
Probably the most useful tool to assess aircraft performance on contaminated
runways is the technical measurement of the friction coefficient, which gives a
clear and relatively objective picture of how effective will brakes be, if used,
relative to a dry runway. However, not all airports are equipped with a
measuring device, and those that are usually only use it in the winter when
snow and ice are commonplace.
Most manufacturers publish tables which relate the type of contaminant and
its depth to an estimated effect of brakes, called the estimated surface
friction. This scale is not only used by manufacturers but also by pilots if they
try to report the experienced braking effect or by the ATC if the airport uses
human observation and experience instead of a measuring device. It is only an
estimate as different people may assess the situation in a different way, and
the effect may also be different on aircraft with different masses and tyre
pressures. In Europe and according to ICAO, it is reported in 5 plus 1 degrees:
• Good (code number 5)

• Medium to good (code number 4)
• Medium (code number 3)
• Medium to poor (code number 2)
• Poor (code number 1)
• Unreliable (code number 9) - not meaning worse than 1 but rather
inconsistent in different parts, impossible to measure or to determine
Both EASA and FAA discontinue the support of exact braking coefficients in
favour of the more general estimated categories (good, medium to good...), as
it has been shown that exact values close to the next level lead pilots to
believe that the friction is not so bad (nearly one step higher), resulting in the
underestimation of risks. The coefficients are, according to ICAO, correlated
to the estimated surface friction as follows.
Braking coefficient Estimated surface friction

> 0.4 Good
0.36 to 0.39 Medium to good
0.30 to 0.35 Medium
0.26 to 0.29 Medium to poor
0.25 > Poor
Performance calculations increase the take-off distance (or rather the

accelerate-stop distance) to account for the worse stopping capability of
brakes. However, crosswind can be a significant safety factor on contaminated
runways, irrespective of their length, as it is not only the braking distance but
also directional controllability that matters if braking action is poor. Should an
engine fail, especially during take-off with the remaining engine at full thrust,
keeping the airplane on the runway may become difficult as the steerable
nosewheel also skids on the pavement. Thus, most aircraft have lower
crosswind limits for decreasing braking coefficients. Alternatively, take-offs on
narrow runways (less than 45 m or 30 m depending on the type) might be
prohibited.
Procedures for operations on contaminated runways are still normal

procedures and they are covered by the operations manual - part B. The same
manual contains performance charts or tables to determine distance or mass
penalties for such runways, and the limitations section thereof states the
applicable crosswind or runway width limits. Specific knowledge about these
procedures is not required for the performance examination and is therefore
covered in the volume on operational procedures.
Hydroplaning
In general, hydroplaning is a situation when the tyre loses contact with the
pavement due to a layer of water in between, effectively travelling on the
water surface rather than the runway. Aircraft tyres are designed with two
parallel grooves to displace the water trapped below the wheel, yet these
grooves have only a limited capacity. At some point, due to the amount of
water, the changing shape of the tyre when loaded and the properties of
water, the draining capability is lost and water builds up between the tyre and
the pavement.
Probably the most common type of hydroplaning occurs in a situation where

the runway is flooded to such an extent that, as speeds builds up, the tyre
cannot penetrate through the layer of water and is instead kind of floating on
a water cushion. Scientific research shows that the speed at which this
happens depends on the density of the contaminant (the following formulae
showing coefficients representative of water) and on whether the wheel spins
up (such as during landing) or down (such as during a rejected take-off). The
speeds at which hydroplaning occurs are:
Vspin-up [kt] = 7 .7 x y/tyre pressure [psi]
VSpin-down [kt] = 9 x tyre pressure [psi]
These coefficients are based on sea level pressure. At higher altitudes, as the
surrounding air is less dense, the same tyre pressure (opposed by less air
pressure) effectively acts on the surface with more force and hence behaves
as a higher-pressure tyre, thus allowing for a higher speed before hydroplaning
occurs.
The spin-up scenario is what happens every time an aircraft lands on a

flooded runway, so it is more common than a rejected take-off leading to
hydroplaning at a larger speed. Note that there must be a sufficient layer of
water, typically deeper than the tyres' grooves. Otherwise, no hydroplaning
can occur.
Vi on wet or contaminated runways

As we have seen above, when planning a take-off from a wet or contaminated
runway, two things will happen: Firstly, we expect a slower acceleration due
to an increase in drag as the aircraft tyres plow through the contaminant
(called displacement drag) and a spray of contamination is created which
strikes the landing gear and airframe (impingement drag). Secondly, we have
some degree of reduction in surface friction, which causes a longer distance to
decelerate to a full stop from a given speed. Both the take-off distance and
the accelerate-stop distance will increase, with the accelerate-stop distance
usually being affected more significantly.
When a take-off is limited by runway length, is usually selected so that full

use is made of both the TODA and the ASDA. As we already know, a lower
value of VJncreases the TODR and decreases the ASDR. For take-offs from
wet runways, a lower called the "wet V^" can be used to reduce ASDR at
the expense of TODR and allow for the maximum permissible take-off mass
on wet runways. Pilots have to make sure that the lower wet does not
violate the VMCG limit.
5.3.5. Aircraft classification number

There is a considerable range of masses in Class A, ranging from small
turboprops or light jets just over 5 700 kg to large wide-body airliners with
masses up to several hundreds of kilograms. Similar to roads, heavy aircraft
damage runways, especially on landing when there is additional force acting
on the surface as a result of the impact. It would not be economical to build all
airports to support the weight of the largest airliners. Therefore every aircraft
has its aircraft classification number or ACN, which depends on the airplane’s
maximum mass and the tyre pressure to represent the effect it has on the
surface. It would be possible to calculate it for any actual mass but that would
be impractical. ACNs are calculated for aircraft types irrespective of the actual
mass or for a range of masses.
Pavement classification number or PCN is the value representing the bearing

capability of the airport movement areas with different safety margins applied
to different parts depending on how stressed those parts usually are.
The PCN code is divided in five sections (e.g. 45 / R / A / W / U):
1. Load capacity (digit)
2. Design:
• Rigid (R), e.g. concrete

• Flexible (F), e.g. asphalt pavement
3. Subgrade category strength:

• A: high
• B: medium
• C: low
• D: ultra low
4. Maximum tyre pressure:
• W: no limit
• X: 254 psi
• Y: 181 psi
• Z: 72 psi
5. Method:
• T: technical evaluation
• U: physical testing by usage
The basic rule is that airplanes cannot be operated to and from airports if their
ACN exceeds the airport’s PCN. However, one-off visits are generally
permitted after prior arrangement because a single landing and movement on
the airport will not damage the surface if ACN is slightly higher, the standard
values of possible exceedance being 10 % for flexible runways and 5 % for
rigid runways. Further information can be found in ICAO regulation.
MORE INFOl"
5.3.6. Engine flat-rating

Modern jet aircraft often feature so-called "flat-rated engines". Generally, the
maximum possible thrust output of a jet engine is limited by the turbine gas
temperature (TGT) to prevent the turbine blades from thermal damage. The
lower the outside air temperature, the higher the possible thrust output to
comply with the TGT limit. In theory, this means that there is an almost linear
correlation between temperature and thrust output.
ICAO - Annex 14 Aerodromes, Attachment A
19.1.1 Overloading of pavements can result either from loads too large, or from a
substantially increased application rate, or both. Loads larger than the defined
(design or evaluation) load shorten the design life, whilst smaller loads extend it.
With the exception of massive overloading, pavements in their structural behavior
are not subject to a particular limiting load above which they suddenly or
catastrophically fail. Behavior is such that a pavement can sustain a definable load
for an expected number of repetitions during its design life. As a result, occasional
minor over-loading is acceptable, when expedient, with only limited loss in
pavement life expectancy and relatively small acceleration of pavement
deterioration. Forthose operations in which magnitude of overload and/or the
frequency of use do not justify a detailed analysis, the following criteria are
suggested:
a. for flexible pavements, occasional movements by aircraft with ACN not

exceeding 10 % above the reported PCN should not adversely affect the
pavement;
b. for rigid or composite pavements, in which a rigid pavement layer provides a

primary element of the structure, occasional movements by aircraft with
ACN not exceeding 5 % above the reported PCN should not adversely affect
the pavement;
c. if the pavement structure is unknown, the 5 % limitation should apply; and
d. the annual number of overload movements should not exceed approximately

5 % of the total annual aircraft movements.
19.1.2 Such overload movements should not normally be permitted on pavements

exhibiting signs of distress or failure. Furthermore, overloading should be avoided
during any periods of thaw following frost penetration, or when the strength of
the pavement or its subgrade could be weakened by water. Where overload
operations are conducted, the appropriate authority should review the relevant
pavement condition regularly, and should also review the criteria for overload
operations periodically since excessive repetition of overloads can cause severe
^horfAoinQ o^ npivpinpnt I ifa or rAoinrA mAior rAhî hi on of nA\/AmAnt
19.1.1 Overloading of pavements can result either from loads too large, or from a
substantially increased application rate, or both. Loads larger than the defined
(design or evaluation) load shorten the design life, whilst smaller loads extend it.
With the exception of massive overloading, pavements in their structural behavior
are not subject to a particular limiting load above which they suddenly or
catastrophically fail. Behavior is such that a pavement can sustain a definable load
for an expected number of repetitions during its design life. As a result, occasional
minor over-loading is acceptable, when expedient, with only limited loss in
pavement life expectancy and relatively small acceleration of pavement
deterioration. Forthose operations in which magnitude of overload and/or the
frequency of use do not justify a detailed analysis, the following criteria are
suggested:
a. for flexible pavements, occasional movements by aircraft with ACN not

exceeding 10 % above the reported PCN should not adversely affect the
pavement;
b. for rigid or composite pavements, in which a rigid pavement layer provides a

primary element of the structure, occasional movements by aircraft with
ACN not exceeding 5 % above the reported PCN should not adversely affect
the pavement;
c. if the pavement structure is unknown, the 5 % limitation should apply; and
d. the annual number of overload movements should not exceed approximately

5 % of the total annual aircraft movements.
19.1.2 Such overload movements should not normally be permitted on pavements

exhibiting signs of distress or failure. Furthermore, overloading should be avoided
during any periods of thaw following frost penetration, or when the strength of
the pavement or its subgrade could be weakened by water. Where overload
operations are conducted, the appropriate authority should review the relevant
pavement condition regularly, and should also review the criteria for overload
operations periodically since excessive repetition of overloads can cause severe
shortening of pavement life or require major rehabilitation of pavement.
However, another limit exists which limits the maximum possible thrust: the
strength of the engine mountings and fuselage. At some low OAT, the thrust
that the engine would be able to produce while still complying with the TGT
limit would overstress the airframe. This is the so-called "flat-rating
temperature", below which the thrust output remains constant despite the
theoretical ability to produce more.
A typical flat-rating temperature for modern jet engines would be around

30 °C. That means that flat-rated take-off thrust can be produced up to this
temperature; for OATs above that, engine thrust decreases due to the TGT
limit.
Figure 5.19. Thrust output of a flat-rated engine
5.3.7. Assumed or flex temperature

So far we have expected that the maximum available thrust or power is used
for take-off. However, this would in most cases result in quite a short take-off
if the airplane is light or temperatures low, while engine life suffers if the
engine is frequently operated at maximum thrust with high internal
temperatures. Therefore modern engines in airplanes equipped with a flight
management system (FMS) allow the pilot to artificially set a higher outside
temperature, which will result in less fuel being sprayed into the engine
corresponding to the lower density of that new temperature. This is called
assumed or flex temperature depending on the aircraft manufacturer. This
take-off technique can only be used if the performance limited mass for that
runway on a given day is higher than the actual take-off mass. Apart from that,
this de-rating cannot be used in case of outside condition restrictions or some
malfunctions such as:
• Icy, slippery and contaminated runways

• Reported wind shear
• Anti-skid or thrust reverser malfunctions or power management control
(PMC) off
Notel: Take-off mass limitations can be divided in performance limitations and

structural limitations. Structural limitations depend on the physical characteristics
of the aircraft (e.g. bending strength of the wing root). Performance limitations
depend on the aircraft performance which in turn depends on several other factors
like engines, weather conditions, runway characteristics and conditions, etc.
Note 2: Operations on contaminated runways can be allowed in the case of the

"de-rate" method, as this method calculates the VMC speeds with the de-rated
thrust in mind, so there is less asymmetric thrust assumed, and that results in less
directional problems. The pilots should be aware of this and should not override the
thrust setting in an engine failure, therefore there is less risk of loss of directional
control. In the assumed temperature method, the VMC speeds are calculated for
the max, not reduced thrust, and the pilot could possibly decide to increase the
thrust to the full amount, causing a sudden increase in asymmetric thrust.
5.3.8. Take-off distance charts

You are expected to have studied the chapters on Class B Single-engine
(Chapter 3) and Class B Multi-engine (Chapter 4) performance so you should
be familiar with the general procedures to work with reference and correction
lines and curves in the charts. Therefore only the meaning of some scales and
some chart peculiarities will be explained here. There is actually only one
"distance" chart which uses TORA as the distance to be calculated and it
assumes a balanced field take-off. All other regulatory requirements and
unbalanced field take-offs are handled in tables providing speed and mass
corrections for different conditions.
Figure 5.20. Field length limit
The chart in the figure above is used to determine the maximum take-off mass
for the given field length (TORA):
1. Enter the chart with the airfield TORA in the left bottom corner. Move
up vertically to the reference line and correct for runway slope moving
along the correction curves.
2. Move up to the next reference line and correct for wind.

3. Move up to the next reference line and correct for flaps. Although the
lines are continuous, it is not possible to select and intermediate flap
position so either flaps 5 or flaps 15 have to be used, according to the
conditions given in the question.
4. Draw a line up to the edge.
5. Start now on the left side on the "AIRPORT OAT °C" scale and move
vertically up to the appropriate pressure altitude.
6. Move horizontally to the right from the intersection obtained in 5 until

you reach the reference line.
7. Draw a curve keeping the same relative distance from the two nearest
correction curves.
8. At the intersection of the curve drawn in 7 and line drawn in 4, move to

the right to the scale on the edge to read off the maximum mass limited
by field length.
9. Note the additional corrections in the bottom left corner such as air
conditioning packs off, engine anti-ice on or PMC off.
Packs off increase the permissible take-off mass or decrease the take-off
distance for any given mass because when operating, they use up some air
compressed by the compressor, which is ducted to the aircraft (bleed air) and
not blown through the engine to create thrust. Therefore if switched off, more
air gets to the engine and thrust is greater.
MORE INFOl"
Engine’s anti-ice, however, is not normally on and it is used only for adverse
weather operations. If switched on, it will use some hot air from the
compressor to be blown through the perforated sheet in the nacelles to warm
them up. Thus selecting anti-icing on uses more engine air and produces less
thrust.
The field length limited take-off mass (FLLTOM) is likely to be the most
Bleed air configuration
Take-off performance data assume the aircraft to be in the normal configuration

regarding systems that use bleed air from the engines. Any additional use of such
systems will reduce thrust available for take-off and hence result in longer
distances and lower climb gradients. However, some systems may be deliberately
turned off to increase performance if needed at the cost of passenger comfort.
There are generally two types of systems that use bleed air and are controllable by
the pilot: pressurization/air conditioning and pneumatic anti- or de-icing. Air
conditioning is usually on for take-off to assure smooth cabin pressure change for
passenger comfort and to provide warm or cold air to prevent the cabin from
becoming too cold in the winter or too hot in the summer. This normal air use is
accounted for in the performance data. When the take-off is performance limited,
i.e. either the climb gradient cannot be achieved for the given mass or the runway
is too short, the air-flow to the air conditioning ducts may be stopped by turning
the bleeds (the valves that control air flow from the engine to the ducts) off
instead of offloading some load. This redirects the air flow into the combustion
chamber and to the turbine to increase thrust. Care must be taken to switch the
bleeds back on shortly after take-off to start the aircraft pressurizing before the
cabin altitude has dropped too much as the recovery of air flow into the cabin may
cause unpleasant pressure changes. Aircraft equipped with the auxiliary power
unit (APU) can keep on pressurizing the cabin during take-off using APU air bleed
while enjoying the additional thrust of engines with the engine bleeds switched
off, the only penalty is the increased fuel consumption of the APU.
Nevertheless, the normal air-flow into cabin might be occasionally insufficient to

maintain the environment inside comfortable. A combination of a very hot day
with the cabin full of passengers may require the air conditioning packs to be
switched to the high flow mode to provide more fresh air inside. This requires
more air to be bled from the engines to increase the pack input pressure, which in
turn means that more of the air compressed in the engine compressor is ducted
away and does not generate thrust. Therefore operating air conditioning packs in
the high flow mode, if allowed by the manufacturer, increases the take-off
distance and decreases the take-off climb gradient. Simultaneous use of the APU
and pnoinpc tn nn\A/pr narkc ic nnt i ici iall\/ nnccihln di in tn i innm ini nrpcci irn frnm
the pilot: pressurization/air conditioning and pneumatic anti- or de-icing. Air
conditioning is usually on for take-off to assure smooth cabin pressure change for
passenger comfort and to provide warm or cold air to prevent the cabin from
becoming too cold in the winter or too hot in the summer. This normal air use is
accounted for in the performance data. When the take-off is performance limited,
i.e. either the climb gradient cannot be achieved for the given mass or the runway
is too short, the air-flow to the air conditioning ducts may be stopped by turning
the bleeds (the valves that control air flow from the engine to the ducts) off
instead of offloading some load. This redirects the air flow into the combustion
chamber and to the turbine to increase thrust. Care must be taken to switch the
bleeds back on shortly after take-off to start the aircraft pressurizing before the
cabin altitude has dropped too much as the recovery of air flow into the cabin may
cause unpleasant pressure changes. Aircraft equipped with the auxiliary power
unit (APU) can keep on pressurizing the cabin during take-off using APU air bleed
while enjoying the additional thrust of engines with the engine bleeds switched
off, the only penalty is the increased fuel consumption of the APU.
Nevertheless, the normal air-flow into cabin might be occasionally insufficient to

maintain the environment inside comfortable. A combination of a very hot day
with the cabin full of passengers may require the air conditioning packs to be
switched to the high flow mode to provide more fresh air inside. This requires
more air to be bled from the engines to increase the pack input pressure, which in
turn means that more of the air compressed in the engine compressor is ducted
away and does not generate thrust. Therefore operating air conditioning packs in
the high flow mode, if allowed by the manufacturer, increases the take-off
distance and decreases the take-off climb gradient. Simultaneous use of the APU
and engines to power packs is not usually possible due to unequal pressure from
each, which would result in air circulation between these two, hence the APU
cannot help with this increased air bleed to prevent thrust deterioration.
The penalty for using high pack flow or the benefit of turning the bleeds off is
commonly presented in performance charts as an equivalent change of take-off
mass that is permitted for the given distance or climb gradient as a result of this
non-standard configuration.
restrictive mass when operating from short runways in environmental
conditions allowing good climb performance - low field elevation, high
pressure and low temperature. It can be increased by selecting the highest
specified take-off flap setting that still complies with other limits.
5.3.9. Take-off distance (tables)

Alternatively, take-off distance data may be presented in form of tables rather
than graphs. This presentation allows for easier handling - you can note down
intermediate results and go on with the calculations rather than try to follow a
straight line through the whole page. Besides that, it is easier to interpolate
between two values as long as you has a calculator, so there is no need for
rounding. On the other hand, the tables are designed to work in the most
commonly used flow of calculation, i.e. starting with the field length available
and ending with the maximum allowed take-off mass. Working backwards,
though not impossible, is not as straightforward as going backwards in a
graph.
Tables are more suitable for electronic presentation, i.e. in an EFB. Tabulated
values can always be copied to a piece of paper and noted down, while graphs
are unusable in common PDF and similar readers. To effectively work with
graphs in an EFB, custom-made software that allows the pilot to draw lines
and hold them in place while zooming in and out or moving around is
necessary. Otherwise there is no reliable way of reading the data. Tables do
not require any drawing directly into the AFM or other source, moreover,
values can often be directly copied to the clipboard and used in a calculator.
The following images show take-off field length tables for a medium-range
twin jet. The data might look surprising at the beginning, for example, after
correcting for an uphill slope, the number that comes out of the table is
actually smaller than the initial take-off distance available used to enter the
table. This is because these tables use an "equivalent" runway concept. This
means that the table does not show how much the take-off distance increases
as a result of the given factor (runway slope, wind etc.). Instead, it gives you
the length of a virtual sea-level, no wind, no slope runway length where the
aircraft is limited to the same maximum take-off mass as that in the actual
conditions. For example, if the runway is 2 000 m long and has a 1 % uphill
slope, the first table gives you a value of 1810 m. This means that an aircraft
on an actual 2 000 m long runway with a 1 % uphill slow is limited by the same
maximum take-off mass as that aircraft on a 1810 m long flat runway.
Hl
[■I ■— IS
|»|
Figure 5.21. Take-off performance
Note that the 3rd and 4th tables are called Takeoff Field & Climb Limit
Weights, i.e. the resulting limiting mass meets both the field length limit and
the climb gradient limit referred to in Section 5.3.10. This saves one step in
the determination of the performance limited take-off mass and it is not
possible to tell whether, in the given conditions, the climb or the field length is
the limit. This might be a disadvantage when the actual mass is above the limit
and another runway is available on request. In the case of the limit being
aircraft is limited to the same maximum take-off mass as that in the actual
conditions. For example, if the runway is 2 000 m long and has a 1 % uphill
slope, the first table gives you a value of 1810 m. This means that an aircraft
on an actual 2 000 m long runway with a 1 % uphill slow is limited by the same
maximum take-off mass as that aircraft on a 1810 m long flat runway.
|s|
K B H— ■— 11
!■[ |H
Figure 5.21. Take-off performance
Note that the 3rd and 4th tables are called Takeoff Field & Climb Limit
Weights, i.e. the resulting limiting mass meets both the field length limit and
the climb gradient limit referred to in Section 5.3.10. This saves one step in
the determination of the performance limited take-off mass and it is not
possible to tell whether, in the given conditions, the climb or the field length is
the limit. This might be a disadvantage when the actual mass is above the limit
and another runway is available on request. In the case of the limit being
caused by runway length, the other runway could be chosen. If the climb is the
limit, the environmental conditions for the other runway will be the same and
there is no other solution but to reduce the take-off mass. Besides that, if
lower than maximum take-off flap setting is chosen, it is not sure whether
choosing a higher flap setting will help (which works if the limit is the field
length), so another calculation might be attempted in vain.
Let's see how to determine the field-length limited take-off mass from these
tables in the following conditions: TORA = TODA 2100 m, runway slope 1 %
up, headwind component 10 kt, the runway is dry, at a pressure altitude
(elevation corrected for QNH) of 1500 ft and with an outside air temperature
of 20°.
1. Enter the first table labelled Slope Corrections with the actual runway
distance, 2 100 m. The table provides data for 2000 and 2 200 m only.
Find the respective equivalent runway length in the column
corresponding to the slope, 1 %. The equivalent length for 2 000 m is
1810 m and the length for 2 200 m is 1980 m. 2100 m (our runway) is
halfway between the tabulated values, so the equivalent runway is also
halfway between the two results, i.e. (1810 + 1980)/2 = 1895 m. This
result effectively means that an aircraft that can take-off from a 2 100 m
long runway with a 1 % uphill slope, can at the same time take-off from
a 1895 m long runway with no slope.
2. Using the result from the previous step, 1895 m, enter the next table
labelled Wind Corrections. Locate the wind component column (note
that here the positive numbers are headwind and negative numbers are
tailwind), which is 10 in this example. Because the input value of
1895 m is not tabulated, interpolation between the rows corresponding
to 1800 m and 2000 m is necessary. The two equivalent distances to
interpolate between are therefore 1890 m and 2100 m. The
interpolation is now a little bit more complicated. 1895 m is 95/2 00
units upward from the lower value, 1890 m.
2100- 1890 = 210 m

210/200 = 1.05 m (this is the correction per one m of input runway
length)
1.05 x 95 = 99.75 m
1890 + 99.75 = 1 989.75 m = ca. 1990 m
The equivalent runway length afterwind correction is 1 990 m. This

means that an aircraft that needs 1895 m in 10 kt headwind will need 1
990 m for take-off in no wind conditions.
3. Now choose the appropriate table for the airport's pressure altitude. In
the image above, two tables are presented, for sea level and 2000 ft,
and both of them are for flaps 5. The AFM contains several pages of
such tables, for different altitudes and for different flap settings. You
must locate the ones appropriate to the desired pressure altitude (or the
closest two to interpolate) and for the given flap setting. If no flap
setting is given, remember that with regards to take-off distance, a
higher flap setting up to the maximum allowed one always shortens the
take-off distance and therefore allows to increase the field-length
limited take-off mass.
In this case, we need to use the two tables for sea level and 2 000 ft and
interpolated for the airport pressure altitude of 1500 ft. Enter the first
table with the equivalent length of 1 990 m, i.e. choose the two nearest
rows, 1800 m and 2 000 m, and copy the data from the two columns
corresponding to the two nearest temperatures (18° and 22° for an
outside air temperature of 20°).
The values to work with for sea level are 60.8 t (1800 m, 18°), 60.4 t
(1800 m, 22°), 64.0 (2 000 m, 18°) and 63.6 t (2 000 m, 22°). Now
interpolate for 1 990 m and 20°, the order does not matter.
For temperature: (60.8 + 60.4)/2 = 60.6 for 20° and 1800 m, (64.0 +
63.6)/2 = 63.8 for 20° and 2000 m
For length: 63.8 - 60.6 = 3.2 t for a difference of 200 m, i.e. 0.016 t per
1 m
190 x 0.016 = 3.0 t (rounded down to be on the safe side)

60.6 + 3.0 = 63.6 t
The limiting mass at sea level is 63.6 t.
Now repeat the same using the values from the 2 000 ft pressure
altitude table.
The values to work with for sea level are 58.8 t (1800 m, 18°), 58.4 t
(1800 m, 22°), 61.9 (2 000 m, 18°) and 61.5 t (2 000 m, 22°). Now
interpolate for 1 990 m and 20°, the order does not matter.
For temperature: (58.8 + 58.4)/2 = 58.6 for 20° and 1800 m, (61.9 +
61.5)/2 = 61.7 for 20° and 2 000 m
For length: 61.7 - 58.6 = 3.11 for a difference of 200 m, i.e. 0.0155 t per
1 m
190 x 0.0155 = 2.9 t (rounded down to be on the safe side)

58.6+ 2.9 = 61.5 t
The limiting mass at 2000 ft is 61.5 t.
Finally, interpolate for the actual pressure altitude of 1500 ft.
(63.6 - 61.5)/2000 = 0.00105 t per 1 ft of altitude

63.6 - 0.00105 x 1500 = 62.0 t
The result, i.e. the field-length limited take-off mass in the given
conditions is 62.0 t.
5.3.10. Take-off climb

For class A aircraft, take-off climb from the screen height of 35 ft where take
off distance ends up to a height of 1500 ft, where cruise or cruise climb
begins, is divided into four segments. These are not to ensure obstacle
clearance, which is calculated separately, but to guarantee manoeuvrability at
a reasonable height with one engine inoperative. Therefore wind has no effect
on climb performance, the height vs. distance covered over ground is not
considered, only performance in the air.
According to CS-25 airworthiness requirements, the demonstration of the

take-off flight path has to be based on the following conditions:
• The critical engine is simulated to fail at the most inconvenient point along
the take-off run (VEF)
• Aeroplane configuration may not be manually changed, except for gear

retraction. This is to account for the high pilot workload and raised stress
levels in an actual engine failure situation. Automatic propeller feathering
may be used, if available.
• Beneficial aspects like ground effect must not be used in the demonstration
of take-off performance.
• Compliance with the requirements has to be demonstrated for every
aeroplane mass, altitude and temperature with the established operational
limits; the centre of gravity has to be in the most unfavourable permissible
position for every configuration.
1” segment 2°*’ segment S'" segment 4lh segment
Power Takeoff Takeoff Takeoff Maximum continuous thrust
Landing Gear Down -»Up Up Up Up
Flaps Take-off Take-off Take-off .Up Up
Speed v2 V2 V2 toVno Vr,«
Required Gradients with One Engine Failed

Twin airplane sO 2.4% 1.2%
3-engine airplane 0.3% 2.7% 1.5%
4-engine airplane 0.5% 3.0% 1.7%
1” segment 2nd segment S'* segment 4”’segment
flaps up
gear up
break release
at least at least
400 ft 1500 ft
take-off distance take off-climb segments
Figure 5.22. Take-off climb
Segments:
• The first segment is defined as the one between the end of take-off at 35 ft
and a full retraction of the landing gear.
• The second segment is defined as the climb with the landing gear up, up to
an acceleration altitude which cannot be lower than 400 ft.
• The third segment is defined as a period from the start of acceleration until
the airplane is in en-route (clean) configuration and thrust is reduced to
MCT.
• The fourth segment is all flown in clean configuration until a height of
1500 ft above the aerodrome.
The climb gradient requirement for the 3rd and 4th segment is the overall
combined gradient between the point where acceleration is initiated until
1500 ft. The gradient should remain positive during acceleration but there is
no particular gradient required on its own.
Up to 400 ft, no turns exceeding a bank angle of 15° are allowed. Above this
boundary, bank angles may be increased up to 25°.
5.3.11. Take-off climb obstacle clearance

Recall that departure procedures are designed with a gradient of 3.3 %. None
of the gradients required for take-off climb is that high, let alone the combined
gradient in all segments. Therefore those requirements do not protect from
obstacles. It has to be verified that either on the departure track or on an
alternate engine failure procedure track designed for this purpose by the
operator, the airplane clears all obstacles by:
• 35 ft if no turn with a bank angle of more than 15° is required.

• 50 ft at the point where a turn of more than 15° is required.
• Laterally 60 m + 0.125 D where D is the distance from the end of TODA or
TOD if a turn is initiated before that, and for wingspan up to 60 m.
• Laterally 90 m + 0.125 D where D is the distance from the end of TODA or
TOD if a turn is initiated before that, and for wingspan over 60 m.
No turn must be required below 50 ft.
Obstacles do not have to be considered if being laterally:
• 300 m away in VMC or if sufficient lateral guidance is provided for bank

angles < 15°.
• 600 m away in other conditions for bank angles < 15°.
• 600 m away in VMC or if sufficient lateral guidance is provided for bank
angles > 15°
900 m away other conditions for bank angles > 15°.
Figure 5.23. Obstacle clearance
When calculating obstacle clearance, the gross gradient of the aircraft must be
decreased by (see also regulation in more info box below):
• 0.8 % for 2-engine aeroplanes

MORE INFO L"
V2 is restricted to shallow turns up to 15°, commensurate with the bank

limitation below 400 ft and the minimum acceleration to en-route
configuration at 400 ft. If V2 is to be maintained higher but steeper turns up
to 25° are required, the speed must be increased and the climb gradient will
be lower. If gradient decrements for turns above 15° of bank are not provided
in the AFM, the following corrections should be applied:
CS 25.115 Take-off flight path
(a) The take-off flight path must be considered to begin 11 m (35 ft) above the
take-off surface at the end of the take-off distance determined in
accordance with CS 25.113 (a) or (b) as appropriate for the runway surface
condition.
(b) The net take-off flight path data must be determined so that they represent
the actual take-off flight paths (determined in accordance with CS 25.111
and with sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph) reduced at each point by a
gradient of climb equal to:
1. 0.8 % for two-engined aeroplanes;

2. 0.9 % for three-engined aeroplanes; and
3. 1.0 % for four-engined aeroplanes.
(c) The prescribed reduction in climb gradient may be applied as an equivalent

reduction in acceleration along that part of the take-off flight path at which
the aeroplane is accelerated in level flight.
• For a bank angle of 20°, V2 + 5 kt and 2 x the 15° gradient decrement.
• For a bank angle of 25°, V2 + 10 kt and 3 x the 15° gradient decrement.
The chart to be used to find out the climb-limited take-off mass is shown in
figure below. It does not ensure obstacle clearance, it only determines the
maximum mass at which all the segment gradients will be met.
Figure 5.24. Climb limited take-off mass
To find out the climb-limited take-off mass:
1. Enter the lower edge scale with outside temperature and move vertically
up to the appropriate pressure altitude.
2. Break the line and move horizontally to the left to the flap position
reference line. Correct for flaps if flaps 15° are scheduled, e.g. because
of limiting field length.
3. Read off the climb-limited take-off mass on the left.

4. Correct for packs off, anti-ice on or PMC off if necessary.
The climb limited take-off mass is usually the most restrictive value when
operating in unfavourable environmental conditions (high field elevation, low
pressure and high OAT) from aerodromes with long runways and additional
stopway or clearway available. It can be increased by reducing drag during
climb-out, i.e., selecting the lowest specified take-off flap setting that still
complies with the field length limit.
There is no need to publish a separate climb-limit table if tables are used

instead of graphs. Before being shown in the AFM, the field-limited take-off
mass for each pressure altitude/temperature combination is checked against
the climb-limited mass for the same outside conditions, and the lower of the
two is displayed. Although the pilot does not know what the reason for the
limit is, it saves some pages not having to publish extra tables in the manual. A
graph could also theoretically have one more branch to include the climb limit
into the field limit one, but that would probably cause unnecessary clutter.
To calculate the mass at which obstacle clearance requirements are met, the
height of the obstacle and the distance from the brake release point has to be
known apart from the usual outside environment conditions. Usually, this will
be the most restrictive mass when operating in mountainous environments, as
isolated obstacles in the climb-out path can often be avoided by adjusting the
SID path. Various charts will be given for different flap settings.
Figure 5.25. Obstacle limit mass
Similarly to field-length performance data, obstacle limit data can also be

presented in the form of tables instead of graphs. This presentation has the
same advantages, above all the possibility to have the tables presented in an
EFB, no need to draw any lines, less rounding and more precise interpolation.
An example of such tables for a medium-range twin jet is presented below.
□u
Figure 5.26. Take-off obstacle limit weight
The obstacle-limit tables presented above use a so called reference mass

(showed as reference weight), i.e. a mass at which an obstacle of a given
height located at a given distance from the brake-release point is limiting at
sea level zero wind conditions. This basic reference mass is then corrected
using decrements shown in the other tables, each of them providing
corrections for one factor such as temperature, pressure altitude or wind.
Let's assume a take-off is planned from an airport at a pressure altitude of

1500 ft at 35° and 10 kt of headwind. There is a mast 100 m high at a
distance of 3 NM from the beginning of the runway.
1. First convert the distance of the obstacle into the units shown in the
table. For the purpose of our calculation, let's take 3 NM for 5.5 km (the
obstacle data will typically be more precise than given to the nearest
uc
Figure 5.26. Take-off obstacle limit weight
The obstacle-limit tables presented above use a so called reference mass

(showed as reference weight), i.e. a mass at which an obstacle of a given
height located at a given distance from the brake-release point is limiting at
sea level zero wind conditions. This basic reference mass is then corrected
using decrements shown in the other tables, each of them providing
corrections for one factor such as temperature, pressure altitude or wind.
Let's assume a take-off is planned from an airport at a pressure altitude of

1500 ft at 35° and 10 kt of headwind. There is a mast 100 m high at a
distance of 3 NM from the beginning of the runway.
1. First convert the distance of the obstacle into the units shown in the
table. For the purpose of our calculation, let's take 3 NM for 5.5 km (the
obstacle data will typically be more precise than given to the nearest
mile)
2. Find the reference mass at the intersection of the obstacle height

(100 m, rows) and distance (55 x 100 m, columns). This would be the
limiting mass for an airport at sea level at temperatures below 30° (as
the table states here - this may vary for other aircraft) in zero wind
conditions. The limiting mass here is 56.8 t. For obstacles or distances
other than listed, interpolation can be used.
3. Move to the next table showing temperature corrections. This particular

set of tables does not require corrections for temperatures at 30° or
below. Locate the actual temperature (35°) in the left column - as this
value is not tabulated, interpolation between 34° and 36° is needed.
Neither the reference mass of 56.8 t is tabulated so the nearest values
of 54 t and 58 t must be used.
From the table, interpolation between -2.11 (34°, 541), -2.2 t (34°, 58 t),
-3.11 (36°, 54 t) and -3.4 t (36°, 58 t) is needed.
For temperature: (-2.1 + -3.1)/2 = -2.6 t at 54 t and (-2.2 + -3.4)/2 = -2.8

for 58 t
For mass: (-2.8 - -2.6)/4 = -0.05 t per t of reference mass
-2.6 + 2.8 x -0.05 = -2.8 t (in this case rounding to -2.8 provides a safer
result, i.e. a higher mass decrement)
Subtract the calculated temperature correction of -2.8 t from the

reference mass, i.e. 56.8 - 2.8 = 541.
4. Enter the pressure altitude correction table with the airport pressure
altitude (1500 ft) and the mass obtained from the previous step, 541. In
this case, 1500 ft is not listed so the two nearest values for 1000 ft and
2000 ft are used. The corresponding decrements at 54 t to interpolate
are -0.8 t and -1.7 t. As 1500 ft is halfway between 1000 ft and
2000 ft, the correction is halfway between the tabulated values, i.e.
(-0.8 + -1.7)/2 = -1.3 t. The new adjusted mass is now 54 - 1.3 = 52.7 t.
5. Enter the final wind correction table with the result from the previous
step, 52.7 t, and the wind component, 10 kt of headwind. This time the
wind value is shown but interpolation would normally be needed for the
mass. However, at a closer look, the correction is 0.7 t for both the
nearest lower and higher mass, so this is also the correction to be
applied for the adjusted mass. After adjustment, the result is 52.7 + 0.7
= 53.4 t.
The obstacle limited mass in the given conditions is 53.4 t.
5.3.12. Regulated take-off mass

The highest aeroplane mass that complies with all the above limits, namely
field length, climb and obstacle limited mass, is called the performance limited
take-off mass (PLTOM). The performance limited mass can be improved using
various techniques, depending on which of the different types of mass is the
limiting one. Some factors are common to all, especially the environment, i.e.
increasing the pressure or lowering the temperature improves all of them,
however, these factors are beyond the control of the pilot.
Field-length limit
If the PLTOM is determined by the field-length limited mass and it is below
the actual or planned mass, the obvious solution is to choose a different,
longer runway, if available. If not, flap setting controls the field-length limited
mass, the larger the flaps, the shorter the take-off distance up to the maximum
take-off flap setting. However, bear in mind that a higher flap setting
decreases climb performance, so the two other limits, the climb and obstacle
limit, have to be recalculated again. Runway contamination also influences the
field length mass limit as the accelerate-stop distance is part of the take-off
distance data, you cannot tell whether the go-distance (take-off distance) or
stop-distance (accelerate-stop distance) is controlling. However, there is little
one can do about runway contamination.
Climb limit
The climb limit is determined by the aircraft's ability to meet the individual
gradients required in the four take-off segments between the end of take-off
and a height of 1500 ft. This depends on the environmental conditions
(pressure and temperature) and the flap setting - the lower the flap setting, the
better the climb is. Therefore if the climb-limited mass determines the PLTOM,
try to use the minimum possible flaps. Note that if flaps are changed for the
sake of the climb limit, the other limits (field length and obstacle) must also be
recalculated.
Another way of improving the climb gradients is to use the increased

V2/improved climb technique. If the runway is long enough, the aircraft may
accelerate to higher V1} VR and V2 so that V2 is as close as possible to the
best-angle-of-climb speed as possible (which is the minimum drag speed for a
jet aircraft). The climb gradient is measured with reference to the air, not the
ground, so it does not matter where the aircraft lifts off and if it uses more or
less of the runway for the take-off run.
Obstacle climb limit

The obstacle limit is given by the aircraft's ability to climb, the height of the
obstacle and its distance from the beginning of the take-off run. The first
aspect can be improved by a lower flap setting if the runway length allows it. If
you choose a lower flap setting, do not forget to recalculate all the other
limits, the climb limit will improve as well but the field-length limit will give a
lower mass than for the previous higher flap setting. A close-in obstacle (very
close to the runway) may not benefit from a lower flap setting. While less
flaps result in a higher climb gradient, the take-off distance is longer so the
aircraft actually lifts off closer to the obstacle and has less distance to climb in.
Another way of improving the obstacle limit is to use the increased

V2/improved climb technique. This results in the best angle of climb for the
given flap setting and if used together with the minimum flap setting, provides
the best climb capability of the airplane. However, it also uses a lot of runway
length so the field-limit might become controlling and, the aircraft lifts off
later, i.e. closer to the obstacle, so this technique works better for obstacles
that are not so close to the runway.
Other limits
The take-off performance may also be limited by the brake energy and tyre
speed limits. The brake energy limit is critical in high and hot environment at
high masses where the kinetic energy at is close to the brakes' capability to
absorb heat. Using a higher flap setting and not using the increased
V2/improved climb technique reduces and hence the kinetic energy to be
absorbed in case of a rejected take-off. The tyre speed limit is limited by the
maximum ground speed achieved during the take-off roll, i.e. hot and high
environment, tail wind and a high VR lead to achieving this limit. A higher flap
setting and not using the increased V2/improved climb technique decreases
VR and keeps the aircraft below this limit.
In order to find the optimum flap setting/highest PLTOM, the PLTOM first has
to be determined for every certified flap setting individually in order to ensure
that every limit has been considered and is complied with when using the
selected flap setting. Then, the flap setting providing the highest PLTOM can
be determined.
Let's assume that the following limits are obtained when doing take-off
calculations for flaps 10 for a planned flight:
Limit Limiting mass (flaps 10)

Structural take-off mass (MTOM) 67 t
Field-length limited take-off mass 68 t
Climb limited take-off mass 60 t
Obstacle limited take-off mass 581
Brake energy limited take-off mass not limited up to MTOM
Tyre speed limited take-off mass not limited up to MTOM
The table shows that for this particular take-off, climb performance is an issue.
The runway is apparently long enough as it would support a take-off mass
higher than the structural mass, but both the climb and obstacle limits are
significantly lower. In this case, a lower flap setting will help improve climb
performance, so a new calculation has to be done. The table below shows all
results at the same time, but typically the lowest flap setting would be chosen
first, and only if it became significantly limiting due to the field length, an
intermediate flap setting calculation would be additionally performed:
Limiting mass Limiting mass Limiting mass

Limit
(flaps 10) (flaps 1) (flaps 5)
Structural take-off
67 t 67 t 67 t
mass (MTOM)
Field-length
limited take-off 68 t 62 t 65 t
mass
Climb limited
60 t 66 t 641
take-off mass
Obstacle limited
581 65 t 63 t
take-off mass
Brake energy
not limited up to not limited up to not limited up to
limited take-off
MTOM MTOM MTOM
mass
Tyre speed limited not limited up to not limited up to not limited up to
take-off mass MTOM MTOM MTOM
Using the data in the table, if take-off is calculated for flaps 1 only, climb
performance improves but the field limit now becomes controlling. The
original PLTOM of 58 t as limited by obstacle clearance has improved, it is now
62 t as limited by the field length. There is still a 3-tonne difference between
the two limits (climb would now support a TOM of 65 t while the runway
length limits it to 62 t). This situation calls for a higher flap setting to give up
some climb but shorten the take-off distance. Flaps 10 have already been
attempted, but there is one more setting, flaps 5. After completing the
calculations, the data as shown in the last column are obtained. The PLTOM is
now 63 t, still limited by climb, but better than in the first case. To sum it up, to
find the best take-off configuration, choose the minimum mass of all the limits
for each flap setting and then choose the maximum mass of these preselected
ones.
In the example above, flap settings are limited by the final number of
configurations - flaps cannot be set to an intermediate position such as, e.g.
8°. However, the best PLTOM for flaps 5 shows that the field length can
support a higher mass than the climb. This means that additionally the
increased V2/improved climb technique can be used to further improve the
limit, i.e. to trade off some of the unused runway for better climb if take-off is
done at 63 t.
When operating in very favourable environmental conditions and from long

runways, it is possible that the performance limited take-off mass is higher
than the maximum structural take-off mass (MTOM). The highest mass at
which the aeroplane is legally permitted to take off is the lower of PLTOM and
MTOM and is called the regulated take-off mass (RTOM).
5.3.13. Use of EFB performance

calculations
Although the simplest form of an EFB contains an electronic version of the
AFM or another source of performance data in a viewer, electronic devices
have a much bigger potential in performance calculations. Nowadays it is not
uncommon for either manufacturers or specialized third-party providers to
offer take-off and landing calculation software. Such software contains not
only the performance database, i.e. the performance charts or tables coded
into the program, but also an airport database which contains information
about runways lengths, directions, slopes, obstacles in the take-off obstacle
accountability area or even different missed approach procedures with their
respective required climb gradients.
For the pilot, the biggest advantage of using such software is that he/she
chooses the aircraft registration, which is normally restricted to the fleet of
the operator, and the airport, which in turn offers a choice of runways
including intersections useable for take-off. The temperature and pressure has
to be entered manually, e.g. from the airport's ATIS. Other selections include
runway contamination, usually both as a braking coefficient and as a type of
contaminant and its depth, and choices such as the use of increased
V2/improved climb take-off. Such software also allows to set deferred defects
(open MEL items) which affect performance as well as an entry of any
additional obstacle or runway shortening as per the active NOTAMs.
Once all these parameters are entered, the software calculates take-off or
landing performance at a click of a button, taking all settings into
consideration. The software typically displays the maximum take-off mass, but
directly provides take-off speeds for the actual mass as entered before the
calculation. If the actual mass exceeds the limiting one, take-off speeds are
not shown and a clear warning is displayed. Most software offers solutions to
make take-off possible, e.g. when increased V2/improved climb take-off is
selected, but the runway length is too short and requires minimum VR and
V2, the software provides the correct and useable take-off speeds anyway,
without actually telling the pilot that there is no V2 improvement. For this
reason, settings such as "optimum" take-off leave it up to the software to
optimize speeds and configuration for the maximum take-off mass. However,
every setting can usually be forced into a fixed value, such as one particular
flap setting, which limits the amount of optimization allowed to the software.
The results of EFB performance software commonly differ from results

obtained from the AFM. First of all, the program does not round the values
throughout the calculation and only rounds the final figure to the required
number of digits. It commonly provides the limiting take-off mass accurate to
the nearest kg, which cannot be achieved with hard-copy AFM calculations.
Secondly, the software may contain performance functions rather than
discrete values, so trends that are not exactly linear can be calculated with a
higher degree of accuracy than that achieved by interpolating. Moreover, the
data in an AFM correspond to an average fleet of aircraft maintained in
accordance with the manufacturer's instructions and recommendations, but
remain valid for the whole life cycle of an aircraft and actually are the same for
all aircraft of the given type and configuration. In contrast to that, the
performance database in the EFB software can be customized, similarly to the
FMS database, for each individual aircraft registration, i.e. based on the age of
the engine and its performance degradation monitored through maintenance.
As a result of this, the data form the EFB performance software usually allow
for higher masses than the results determined from the AFM.
5.3.14. Take-off speeds

To obtain the basic take-off speeds for a balanced field, it is first necessary to
determine the density altitude band from a chart similar to the one shown in
the figure below.
Figure 5.27. Density altitude band
Using the appropriate density band, refer to the take-off speed tables (figure
below) to determine the basic V^, V2 and VR.
If clearway or stopway is available, can be adjusted. Those tables

technically readjust for unbalanced take-off. If clearway exceeds stopway
(TODA > ASDA), has to be decreased in order to decrease the accelerate-
stop distance to ASDA. If stopway exceeds clearway, or clearway does not
exist at all but there is some stopway (TODA < ASDA), can be increased
because a longer accelerate-stop distance can be accommodated. The
adjusted has to be checked back not to exceed VR and VMBE and to be
above VMCG. If all limits can be complied with, both the availability of a
clearway or a stopway can increase the field length limited take-off mass by
optimising V^.
Figure 5.29. Maximum allowable clearway
To determine take-off thrust setting, % N1 tables are used. Similar tables are
used for climb and go-around. N1 corresponding to outside conditions can be
found in a table similar to the one shown in figure below.
AWpo1 OAT PrttMur* Altitude ft
•c •F 1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
54 129 93 3 94 1 936
82 128 93 5 942 942 93 7
50 122 93 8 943 943 943 93 9
48 110 ! f»4 0 945 944 944 944 04 1
48 115 94 1 94 7 946 945 945 946 944
44 111 1 94 3 •40 948 | 84.7 947 947 94 0 946
42 m | 945 950 95 0 94 9 949 946 94 9 95 0 944
40 104 946 952 952 951 950 05 1 95 1 952 95 1 •49
18 100 94 8 963 95 4 95 3 952 95 3 95 3 954 953 062
38 97 951 955 955 955 954 956 956 956 955 954
34 93 95 3 957 95 7 967 958 95 8 95 B 958 05 7 968
32 90 955 959 959 958 958 960 960 959 959 96 8
30 95 95 2 96 1 96 1 960 960 06 3 962 96 1 960 960
28 82 I 94 9 958 96 3 962 962 965 964 963 962 96 1
28 79 946 955 960 | 984 98 4 966 965 965 964 963
24 75 I 942 952 95 6 96 1 965 96 8 96 7 96 7 96 6 96 5
22 72 93 9 948 953 957 982 96 9 969 969 968 966
20 SB I 93 6 945 95 0 954 959 £>56 071 971 970 960
18 M 93 3 942 94 7 95 1 956 96 3 96 B 973 972 071
18 61 93 0 939 943 94 H 952 960 964 969 974 973
14 57 92 5 93 5 940 944 949 95 6 96 1 966 970 075
12 54 92 3 932 93 7 94 1 946 953 958 963 967 972
10 50 1 92 0 929 93 4 93 8 942 950 954 95 9 964 96 8
8 46 917 926 93 0 93 4 93 9 946 95 1 956 960 965
6 43 913 922 92 7 93 1 936 943 •4.7 953 957 962
4 39 910 919 92 4 92 8 932 93 9 944 949 95 3 950
2 36 I 907 916 92 0 92 4 929 93 6 94 1 946 950 965
0 32 904 912 917 92 1 928 93 3 93 7 942 94 7 96 1
•2 28 | 900 909 914 918 922 92 9 93 4 93 9 943 948
-4 25 89 7 906 910 914 019 02 6 93 0 93 5 040 944
21 59 4 902 90 7 91 1 915 922 92 7 93 2 93 6 94 1
-3 18 I 89 0 899 903 907 012 910 92 3 920 03 3 93 7
10 14 1 88 7 896 900 904 908 915 920 925 92 9^ 93 4
-12 10 I 88 3 892 897 900 905 912 916 921 92 5 930
14 7 08 3 889 99 3 89 7 902 M3 013 018 9? 2 92 5
-18 3 87? 885 690 894 •98 905 909 914 918 92 3
-18 0 873 882 886 89 0 895 90 1 906 91 1 915 019
20 <4 870 878 883 88 7 89 1 898 902 907 911 916
•22 866 875 879 883 887 894 89 9 903 908 912
24 -11 86 3 871 875 88 3 884 89 1 89 5 900 904 90 8
-26 -15 85 9 888 872 878 880 687 891 896 900 905
-28 • 18 85 5 064 869 872 877 884 ea b 893 89 7 90 1
•30 •22 1 852 880 865 I 86 9 873 880 884 889 883 89 7
Valid for PMC ’on'. AC 'auto', engine antwce 'on' or off.

For A?C'off Add 1.0% N,,
Do not operate en^ne anti-ice 'on' at airport OAT above 10'C (50'F).
Figure 5.30. Take-off thrust settings (Nl)
Another set of tables to calculate the take-off speeds is presented below.

Note that these present essentially the same data in a different form. It only
illustrates how important is to be familiar with the layout and method of use
of tables and charts in each particular airplane flight manual.
Let's assume that the regulated take-off mass (the lowest of all the limits, i.e.
the structural maximum take-off mass, field-length, climb gradient, obstacle
and brake energy limited masses) for the day is 50 t for a take-off from an
airport at a pressure altitude of 1500 ft, 35°, 10 kt of headwind and form a
runway with a 1 % uphill slope. The take-off is to be done with flaps 5.
1. First determine the basic speeds for the given mass and flap setting, i.e.
50 t and flaps 5. There are no data exactly for 50 t, so 48 t and 52 t data
have to be used. From these data, is (112 + 118)/2 = 115 kt, VR is
(113 + 119)/2 = 116 kt and V2 is (120 + 125)/2 = 123 kt.
Note that there is a remark reminding you to check Vmcg, which is

shown in the last table. A simple look at the table shows that at 35° and
Let's assume that the regulated take-off mass (the lowest of all the limits, i.e.
the structural maximum take-off mass, field-length, climb gradient, obstacle
and brake energy limited masses) for the day is 50 t for a take-off from an
airport at a pressure altitude of 1500 ft, 35°, 10 kt of headwind and form a
runway with a 1 % uphill slope. The take-off is to be done with flaps 5.
1. First determine the basic speeds for the given mass and flap setting, i.e.
50 t and flaps 5. There are no data exactly for 50 t, so 48 t and 52 t data
have to be used. From these data, is (112 + 118)/2 = 115 kt, VR is
(113 + 119)/2 = 116 kt and V2 is (120 + 125)/2 = 123 kt.
Note that there is a remark reminding you to check Vmcg, which is

shown in the last table. A simple look at the table shows that at 35° and
pressure altitudes between the sea level and 2 000 ft, Vmcg is
somewhere between 97 and 103 kt so the determined speed is well
above this speed. If was lower after all the corrections, take-off
would not be possible.
2. The next table labelled VR, V2 adjustments shows corrections to be

applied for the given environmental conditions, temperature and
pressure altitude. Each of the three speeds has its own subtable. In this
case, interpolation is needed both for temperature and pressure altitude.
A calculator may be used, but the speed eventually needs to be rounded
to a whole knot and the differences are small, so a more simple approach
can be adopted.
For the temperature interpolation (data for 30° and 40°) gives 1 kt at
sea level and 1.5 kt at 2000 ft. The interpolation between the pressure
altitudes will definitely give a number between 1 and 1.5, which can be
rounded to 1 kt. So the adjusted is (115 + 1) = 116 kt.
Using a similar technique, the corrections for VR and V2 are 1 kt and 0 kt

and the speeds are 117 kt and 123 kt respectively.
3. The last correction that has to be done is for wind and runway slope. In
this case the data are presented together as two subtables in one table.
Also note that the correction is only applied to i.e. effectively done
with respect to the accelerate-stop distance. While interpolation is
generally required, for the mass of 50 t, the 1 % slope adjustment is 1 kt
for both the lower and higher mass. The correction for wind is 0 kt for
the neighbouring masses and 10 kt of headwind. The final speed is
(116 + 1) = 117 kt which just equals VR, V2 remains 123 kt.
If the assumed temperature (reduced thrust) technique is to be used, i.e. the

airplane is not at its maximum take-off mass for that day, first the maximum
and minimum assumed temperatures have to be determined from charts
similar to those in figure below. This provides the margins between which the
thrust setting can be changed for that day. However, the reduced power
setting has to be sufficient for the actual take-off weight. Therefore only the
lowest temperature, at which the current take-off mass satisfies field length,
climb, tyre speed limit and obstacle clearance limit can be used. The
correction to N1 is determined from the difference between the actual
temperature and the lowest of all the limiting temperatures mentioned above.
MORE INFOl"
PMC ON
Assumed temp % N1 = Maximum Take-Off % N1 minus % Nt adjustment
Maximum Assumed Temperature °C
OAT Press. Alt 1000 (ft)

•c 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
55 71 71
50 69 66 68 69 70
45 57 66 66 67 67 67 68 70
40 65 64 64 64 64 64 64 66 68
35 63 62 62 62 61 61 62 63 64
30 61 60 60 59 59 59 59 60 61
25 61 59 58 57 56 56 56 57 58
20 61 59 58 57 55 53 54 54 55
15 & 61 59 58 57 55 53 53 52 52
below
Assumed Temperature Reduced Thrust

1 Basec on 25% TakeOtT TMrust Reduction
Figure 5.32. Assumed temperature reduced thrust

Reduced and derated thrust
On many occasions, full engine thrust available in the existing outside air
conditions is higher than needed, the most common cases being a light aircraft on
a long runway and cold, high-pressure outside conditions. To decrease engine
temperature and hence to save its life, thrust is commonly reduced in exchange
for a longer take-off distance and lower climb gradient. One might think that this
does not add much to safety - why would anyone wish to use more of the runway
then necessary or climb with a lower gradient? But in fact the thrust is only
reduced to stay within the regulatory margins, i.e. on another day in hotter
conditions or with a heavier aircraft, a pilot would still take-off using the same
runway length or achieving the same lower gradient and they would consider it
safe. Moreover, most engine failures, if not caused by external factors such as a
bird strike, actually occur at high thrust settings, therefore by reducing thrust as
much as possible the likelihood of an internal failure is minimized.
There are generally two methods of thrust reduction - derated and reduced (or
flex) thrust. Derated thrust means that the engine has several selectable thrust
ratings, i.e. modes of operation or predetermined values such as 100 %, 90 % and
80 %, although they are commonly referred to in kilopounds, for example 26 klbs.
for full thrust, 24 klbs. and 22 klbs. for derated thrust for a medium-range jet. This
derated thrust does not fully compensate the variable conditions because there
are relatively large steps between the available settings. Imagine a runway whose
TODA just meets the requirements for take-off for an aircraft at its maximum
mass. When mass is gradually decreased, full thrust has to be used until the mass
is reduced enough so that the length is just sufficient at the lower setting.
Decreasing mass further, a large number of mass increments occurs for which still
the first derate has to be used and some runway distance remains unused until
mass drops enough for the second derate. Therefore the level of optimization is
quite limited.
Another, more sophisticated method, is the use of reduced thrust through

assumed or flex temperature. Instead of selecting predetermined thrust values,
the engine is set up with wrong information about the outside air temperature.
Instead of the real (lower) temperature, a higher temperature is given, which
are relatively large steps between the available settings. Imagine a runway whose
TODA just meets the requirements for take-off for an aircraft at its maximum
mass. When mass is gradually decreased, full thrust has to be used until the mass
is reduced enough so that the length is just sufficient at the lower setting.
Decreasing mass further, a large number of mass increments occurs for which still
the first derate has to be used and some runway distance remains unused until
mass drops enough for the second derate. Therefore the level of optimization is
quite limited.
Another, more sophisticated method, is the use of reduced thrust through

assumed or flex temperature. Instead of selecting predetermined thrust values,
the engine is set up with wrong information about the outside air temperature.
Instead of the real (lower) temperature, a higher temperature is given, which
means less fuel will be let in the combustion chamber to combine with the
incoming air and hence less thrust produced. The assumed or flex temperature is
in fact the temperature at which the existing aircraft mass would become the
maximum performance limited one (obstacle, take-off climb, airfield length or tyre
speed). At the same time, the maximum reduction is limited to 25 % by regulation.
The new temperature is usually set through the FMS before take-off.
The two methods can be combined, i.e. first the thrust is derated by selecting a
lower fixed value and then additionally the assumed/flex temperature is inserted
to further decrease it. The FMS can process both pieces of information so usually
it does not matter which one is entered first but the logic of calculation must be
preserved, first the fixed derate is used to make use of most of the excessive
runway length or climb potential and only then the remainder which is not
sufficient for the next derate value is compensated by the temperature selection.
Doing the calculation the other way round would first produce a very high
temperature to account for most of the excessive performance if not all and not
enough space would remain for the fixed derate. Alternatively, only the fixed
derate or only the assumed/flex temperature may be used.
You may now wonder why would anyone ever use the fixed derate when a more
precise reduction can be done through temperature selection. The answer lies in
the way these two methods are reflected in take-off speed calculations. For
derated thrust, the new value is the maximum thrust that is expected to be used
even during an engine-failure and the minimum control speeds are calculated
accordingly lower than for full thrust. In case of assumed/flex temperature, the
take-off soeeds with the repulatorv margin are treater than minimum control
You may now wonder why would anyone ever use the fixed derate when a more
precise reduction can be done through temperature selection. The answer lies in
the way these two methods are reflected in take-off speed calculations. For
derated thrust, the new value is the maximum thrust that is expected to be used
even during an engine-failure and the minimum control speeds are calculated
accordingly lower than for full thrust. In case of assumed/flex temperature, the
take-off speeds with the regulatory margin are greater than minimum control
speeds for the full, not reduced thrust. It means that they might be higher, if
limited by VMC, not VS1, and hence a longer runway might be needed for the same
effective amount of thrust reduction. However, this gives the pilot the freedom to
override the reduced thrust setting and apply full thrust anytime they find it
necessary. Maximum thrust setting is physically available even for the derated
thrust, usually by pressing TOGA switches repeatedly or by thrust level
displacement beyond the normal take-off position. However, while there is no
restriction on its application for the reduced thrust method, for derated engines it
is normally only recommended in critical situations with both engines operating
such as terrain proximity warning or wind shear. For single engine operations,
bearing in mind that take-off performance including climb has been calculated for
this even at the lower thrust setting, the risk of the aircraft becoming
uncontrollable in direction might be more serious than the climb requirement.
Due to the differences in VMC calculations, the reduced thrust method is not
normally allowed in combination with potentially dangerous outside conditions
and non-normal configurations such as:
• icy or very slippery runways;

• contaminated runways;
• anti-skid unserviceable;
• reverse thrust unserviceable;
• increased V2 procedure;
• engine control (such as PMC) off.
In contrast to reduced (flex) thrust, derated thrust may be used when operating
from contaminated runways if performance is still sufficient and may even be
advantageous. As the maximum thrust value ever assumed to be applied is lower,
VMCg's lower with derated thrust and may allow for a greater reduction in Vi
speeds for the full, not reduced thrust. It means that they might be higher, if
limited by VMC, not VS1, and hence a longer runway might be needed for the same
effective amount of thrust reduction. However, this gives the pilot the freedom to
override the reduced thrust setting and apply full thrust anytime they find it
necessary. Maximum thrust setting is physically available even for the derated
thrust, usually by pressing TOGA switches repeatedly or by thrust level
displacement beyond the normal take-off position. However, while there is no
restriction on its application for the reduced thrust method, for derated engines it
is normally only recommended in critical situations with both engines operating
such as terrain proximity warning or wind shear. For single engine operations,
bearing in mind that take-off performance including climb has been calculated for
this even at the lower thrust setting, the risk of the aircraft becoming
uncontrollable in direction might be more serious than the climb requirement.
Due to the differences in VMC calculations, the reduced thrust method is not
normally allowed in combination with potentially dangerous outside conditions
and non-normal configurations such as:
• icy or very slippery runways;

• contaminated runways;
• anti-skid unserviceable;
• reverse thrust unserviceable;
• increased V2 procedure;
• engine control (such as PMC) off.
In contrast to reduced (flex) thrust, derated thrust may be used when operating
from contaminated runways if performance is still sufficient and may even be
advantageous. As the maximum thrust value ever assumed to be applied is lower,
VMCG's lower with derated thrust and may allow for a greater reduction in Vj_
than full power, permitting take-off with a higher mass if ASDA is limiting.
However, pilots must be aware of the risk of losing directional control in case the
derate is overridden and full thrust is applied - for example, when surprised by
windshear.
Figure 5.33. Maximum take-off % N1
Let's assume that a take-off is planned from an airport with a pressure altitude
of 1000 ft and the actual outside air temperature is 20°. The planned take-off
mass is 541, and the take-off performance graphs or tables show that this
mass becomes limiting on the same runway and wind conditions only if the
outside air temperature increases to 45°. This means that up to 45°, take-off is
possible, so if the engine is convinced to give as little thrust as it would give at
45°, take-off can be performed while saving the engine's life.
1. First enter the first table labelled Maximum Assumed Temperature - this
checks the regulatory condition that thrust will not be reduced by more
than 25 %. Using the actual outside air temperature of 20° and the
airport's pressure altitude of 1000 ft, it shows that the maximum
assumed temperature for the day is 59°. This is above the performance
limited one (45°), the lower of the two, i.e. 45° must be used for further
calculations.
2. Determine the maximum N1 for the day from the second table labelled
Maximum Take-off % Nl. At an assumed temperature of 45° and a
pressure altitude of 1000 ft, the Nl to start with is 94.7 %. Also check
the bottom line labelled Minimum assumed temperature - this prevents
the use of assumed temperatures that are very close to the actual
temperature when there is no significant performance margin to use this
technique. The minimum assumed temperature at 1000 ft is 28°, so
using 45° is possible.
3. Enter the last table labelled % Nl Adjustment for Temperature

Difference, this further adjusts the Nl for the amount of thrust
reduction, as the other tables only work with the assumed temperature
irrespective of what the actual outside air temperature was. Here the
difference is 45 - 20 = 25°, so interpolation is needed between the rows
labelled 20 and 30 (the difference) and the data can be found in the
column labelled 45 (the used assumed temperature. This gives two
adjustments, 2.7 % and 3.6 %, so the intermediate value for 25° of
difference is 3.2 %. The Nl to set for take-off equals the maximum Nl
minus the respective adjustment, i.e. 94.7 - 3.2 = 91.5 %.
The basic take-off run chart provides distances and masses for paved dry
runways. If the runway is contaminated, there will be and mass penalties to
account for the worse acceleration caused by higher wheel friction as the
wheel ploughs through the contaminant and the decreased friction in a
rejected take-off. Contaminated runway data are usually determined by
calculation, not flight tests, as the range of different contaminant and their
depth makes it impossible to repeatedly measure performance in the same
conditions to provide reliable statistics. Most manufacturers determine such
performance based on water equivalent depth, which is the amount of water
that causes the same runway surface degradation for performance purposes
as the actual contaminant does. An example of those corrections is provided
in figure below.
Figure 5.34. Contaminated runway penalties
The difference between the field-limited mass and the current climb-limited
mass has to be determined first for improved climb performance when more
runway length is used in order to achieve a higher speed and a better climb
gradient after take-off. The left side then shows the possible increase in climb
limited mass if this technique is used, i.e. the new take-off mass to be checked
against the maximum tyre and brake energy speed. The right side provides the
adjustments to V2 and VR.
NORMAL TAKE-OFF SPEED
INCREMENTS kt
(CLIMB LIMIT MASS) 1000 kg 1000 kg
Figure 5.35. Climb mass improvement
STUDY TEST
5.4. Climb
Jet engines designed to operate at very high altitudes and capable of
powering an aircraft even in single-engine operations usually show astonishing
performance at low flight levels. Therefore there is a wide range of techniques
available for climb. In normal operations, the aircraft climbs out at V2 plus 10
to 20 kt up to an acceleration height (usually between 800 ft and 3 000 ft
AAL) at which flaps are retracted and any speed between the minimum clean
speed and the maximum speed is usable. The choice of the best climb speed
depends on several factors:
• Structural limit: Maximum IAS

• High speed stall limit: Maximum M
• Low speed stall limit: Minimum clean speed
• Maximum angle of climb: Vx
• Maximum rate of climb: VY
• Time vs. fuel for the sector: Cost index

• ATC and airspace restrictions: 250 kt below FL100 (class D-G for IFR)
• Safety considerations: 250 kt below FL100 (birds strike)
Vx (IAS) is rarely used for large jet aircraft for climb to the cruising level. If
obstacles exist, the airplane usually climbs without acceleration to a safe
altitude to avoid the acceleration segment with minimum climb. After that, no
obstacle problems usually exist. Alternatively a climb in holding above the
airport is carried out to gain height, so a higher than Vx speed can be used.
VY (IAS) would be ideal to get to the cruising level as soon as possible so that
engines are operated at efficient levels. However, it is often so low that the
aircraft would maintain a low forward speed, complicating air traffic control
and making separation from other en-route traffic at lower levels impractical.
Furthermore, as the rate of climb is maximized, the aircraft would climb with
such a rate at lower levels that the ATC would have trouble handing the
aircraft over from one sector to another and TCAS could indicate potential
collisions with aircraft flying above.
Therefore an intermediate speed (IAS) is chosen and provides relatively good

forward speed both for the ATC to be able to sequence climbing, descending
and overflying aircraft and also for the flight to proceed along its route to keep
sector times acceptable. Once above FL1OO, a continuous climb speed can be
chosen (usually as 270-290 kt IAS with transition to M0.74 to M0.78
according to the airplane manufacturer recommendations) or as a dynamic
value calculated by the FMS for each flight depending on the cost index
(higher cost index, higher speed) and forecast wind (higher speed for
headwind).
Figure 5.36. Speed change vs. altitude
As the airplane is climbing at a constant IAS, the true air speed increases (see
figure above). With the increase in TAS, the climb gradient (gain of height per
horizontal distance travelled) will decrease. However, the rate of climb (gain of
height per unit of time) will increase as the aeroplane can cover a larger
distance within the same time.
Apart from airspeed selection and acceleration during climb, the climb
gradient theoretically also depends on turns. During a turn, the airplane
requires more lift due to its increased load factor. In order to maintain airspeed
at full power, the rate of climb would have to be reduced. However, as was
already discussed, jet airplanes usually have enough excess power to reduce
throttle for climb. Therefore, to maintain airspeed and rate of climb during a
turn, the thrust setting can simply be increased.
There is no regulatory limit on the maximum TAS an airplane can fly so this on
its own would not pose a problem. However, recall the definition of the Mach
number (Mach = TAS -r Local Speed of Sound). It is the TAS divided by the
local speed of sound, VA which depends on temperature. The higher the
temperature the higher the speed of sound. Even for a constant temperature,
such as flight at one level, an increasing TAS would result in the limiting Mach
number. At some stage the airflow somewhere on the wing would become
close to transonic with the associated effects of boundary layer separation
and high speed stall. As the airplane climbs into colder atmosphere, not only
does the TAS for the constant climb IAS increase due to lower density but also
VA decreases. This means that while maintaining a constant IAS, the airplane
quickly approaches the Mach number limit. To prevent this, an altitude called
speed transition or cross-over altitude is planned at which the airplane starts
maintaining a constant Mach number. The selected M equals the previously
flown IAS at this level. Above that, IAS starts decreasing again to prevent high
speed stall while maintaining M. The true air speed also decreases, although
not at such a rate, because the decreasing temperature calls for decreasing
TAS for a constant M (see figure below). Climb gradient will increase again, if
engine power permits, and the rate of climb will decrease. If the airplane
reaches the tropopause, the lapse rate becomes much lower or and hence the
drop in TAS also slows down. It eventually becomes constant in climb as the
temperature lapse rate also becomes 0. Nevertheless, the IAS keeps on
decreasing due to the lower density, which varies all throughout the
atmosphere.
FL
Figure 5.37. Cross-over altitude
Without the speed transition, the airplane would achieve its limiting Mach
number and suffer from high speed stall. If a constant M was attempted from
the ground, a high M number at a low level would result in exceeding the
maximum IAS (structural limit). A low M number appropriate to the low level
safe speed would, contrarily, result in an IAS at or below the stall speed at
higher levels. Therefore the speed transition is necessary to assure a higher
than stall speed (IAS) at low levels and lower than high speed stall M at higher
levels.
5.4.1. Increased V2 procedure

When the performance limited take-off mass is the climb limit, the increased
V2 procedure can be used to optimise PLTOM, which is why the procedure is
also called "improved climb" by other manufacturers. As we have seen before,
acceleration causes a shallower climb. So how could that possibly increase the
climb limit?
Remember that the best angle of climb, or rate of climb, for jet aircraft is
achieved at the speed for minimum drag (Vx). The take-off safety speed V2,
however, is usually significantly lower than Vx, resulting in an increase in total
drag due to high levels of induced drag and thus in a shallower climb. By
increasing V2, total drag reduces, more excess power is available and the
airplane can climb more steeply, all other parameters remaining unchanged.
The most common reason to apply the increased V2 procedure is to optimise

PLTOM. The higher airspeed resulting in a lower drag can not only be used to
climb more steeply at the same mass, but also to increase the mass at which
the minimum climb gradient can be achieved.
The higher take-off mass will also result in increased and VL0F speeds.
Graphs or tables in the flight manual are often provided to find the optimum
V2, the one at which climb limited take-off mass is equal to field length limited
take-off mass, and performance limited take-off mass is highest.
Apart from the increase in TODR, we also have to consider tyre speed and
brake energy limits. Plus, a longer brake cooling time will probably be required
should the take-off be rejected.
STUDY TEST
5.5. Cruise
5.5.1. General
Speeds in low sectors, usually up to FL270, are commonly reported as IAS
because of ATC regulations. Above those altitudes, airplanes fly Mach
numbers. Apart from that, speed is limited to IAS 250 kt below FL100 to
reduce the damage caused by possible bird strike and to facilitate air traffic
control around airports. Therefore, an airplane will typically climb in cruise at a
constant IAS of less or equal to 250 kt up to FL100, where it will accelerate to
the recommended climb speed (usually in the range of 270 to 300 kt). This IAS
will be maintained until the speed transition altitude (also cross-over altitude)
at which it just equals the selected climb Mach number.
When climbing at constant IAS:
• TAS increases
• Mach number increases
Mach number depends only on temperature. The higher the temperature, the
higher the speed of sound and therefore the lower the Mach number for a
given TAS. As altitude increases, TAS for a given IAS increases but
temperature is lower, having a double effect on the increase of M.
Once the speed transition level is climbed through, the airplane will maintain a
constant M, which will result in:
• Decreasing IAS
• Decreasing TAS
Figure 5.38. IAS, TAS, M with altitude
Tables are generally provided for a climb scheduled at one IAS and one M
thereafter. They show the total time, fuel used, air distance flown and average
TAS to complete the cruise climb to a selected altitude.
There are several techniques for cruise flight that trade off speed for fuel
consumption.
5.5.2. Maximum endurance

As discussed in the Chapter 2, there is little use but for a situation when the
aircraft is delayed on purpose, for example when holding during snow removal
at the destination airport. It is recommended to hold at the minimum drag
speed for a jet and the minimum power speed for a turboprop. Both of them
give the lowest fuel flow or fuel used per hour for the appropriate category.
5.5.3. Maximum range

This is the speed at which specific range or distance flown per fuel used is
maximized. Therefore this technique will be preferred if minimal consumption
on a given sector is sought. The appropriate speed is VMD for a turboprop and
1.32 VMD for a jet.
5.5.4. Long range cruise
Theoretically, this should be the same speed and technique as Maximum
Range. However, at VMD or 1.32 VMD for a prop and a jet respectively, sector
times may become unbearably long for passengers. Therefore a higher power
setting is usually recommended, which still gives a good specific range (about
99 % of the maximum range) but increases the speed and decreases sector
times.
The disadvantage of these three techniques is that as mass decreases as a

result of fuel consumption, the corresponding IAS also decreases. This is
impractical first of all because the pilot would have to constantly change the
power setting and secondly it would cause problems controlling aircraft in
sequence in busy airspace. Most airplanes will therefore fly a constant M
above FL270 (which also gives constant IAS at a given altitude unless
temperature changes) and constant IAS below that flight level if restricted by
ATC. Some turboprops actually commonly fly at maximum power at high
altitudes, which results in a slightly increasing IAS over time as fuel is used and
mass decreases. If fuel consumption is not an issue, the airplane can be flown
at maximum speed.
Figure 5.39. Specific range vs. speed with changing mass
5.5.5. En-route obstacle clearance

In case of engine failure in cruise flight, the airplane must:
• Either have a positive net climb gradient at 1000 ft above all obstacles
within 5 NM either side of the intended track.
• Or continue to an aerodrome where landing performance is complied with,
clearing all obstacles 5 NM either side of the track by 2 000 ft.
• The net gradient must be positive at 1500 ft above the landing aerodrome
with one engine inoperative.
The net gradients are the gross gradients decreased by:
1.1 % for 2-engine airplanes.

1.4 % for 3-engine airplanes with one engine inoperative and 0.3 % with 2
engines inoperative.
1.6 % for 4-engine airplanes with one engine inoperative and 0.5 % with 2
5.5.6. Optimum altitude

General
At optimum altitude the given sector is flown with the lowest fuel
consumption or lowest total cost for FMS equipped aircraft. For minimum fuel
use, in still air conditions, this is the altitude at which the fuel flow per NM is
minimized or NM per fuel used is maximized. It depends on a combination of
specific fuel consumption (SFC, the amount of fuel used per one unit of thrust
per hour) and the TAS at which the airplane flies with the given thrust at any
altitude. For a jet engine, the SFC gradually decreases with altitude while TAS
increases. With respect to that, the higher the altitude, the better. However,
as altitude increases, so does the flight Mach number in part because of the
increasing TAS and in part because of the decreasing outside temperature. At
high Mach numbers, drag starts increasing due to the onset of compressibility
effects. To overcome that drag, more thrust is needed at any given speed,
which increases fuel consumption and decreases the amount of miles flown
per one unit of fuel. The optimum altitude therefore is that at which TAS is
maximized before the increase of drag leads to increased fuel use. There are
several factors that influence the optimum altitude.
Mass
The heavier the aircraft is, the lower the optimum altitude is. Recall from the
general performance theory section that to achieve the greatest distance with
minimum fuel, the aircraft must be flown at the speed at which the ratio of
speed to drag is maximized, which is 1.32 x VMD. Also recall that at any given
speed, a heavier aircraft must be flown with a higher angle of attack than a
lighter one, which increases the overall drag and shifts the drag curve up and
to the right. As a result, VMD increases with mass so at any given altitude both
VMd and its derivative, 1.32 x VMD, will correspond to a higher M for higher
masses and the compressibility effect will show at that level while it still does
not show for a lighter aircraft flown at a lower speed. To avoid it, heavier
aircraft must stop their climb lower where their respective 1.32 x VMD does
not show an increase of drag.
Temperature
One might think that increasing temperature at any level (pressure altitude)
will increase the speed of sound, consequently decreasing the Mach number
and postponing the compressibility effect. However, do not forget that for any
indicated air speed, higher temperature means lower density and a higher true
air speed, which takes precedence. So in general the higher the temperature
is, the lower the optimum altitude is.
Speed
Although so far only the optimized flight at 1.32 x VMD has been discussed,
should you be required to fly a particular speed, e.g. at ATS’s request, the
range also differs at different altitudes and there is again only one optimum
altitude for that day. A combination of high selected speed and a high cruising
altitude results in high TAS and M and therefore drag increases. For high
cruising speeds, lower altitudes are optimal and for lower speeds a higher
altitude will be better.
Cost index
The cost index influences the FMS’s choice of the "best" speed for the day to
balance time-dependent and fuel-dependent costs. A high cost index makes
the FMS choose a higher cruising speed and therefore a lower altitude would
be optimal. For a low cost index, the recommended cruising speed is lower
and hence a higher altitude is optimal.
Wind
All of the above mentioned factors include only the aircraft’s performance and
properties. Wind is an external factor and does not influence the
aerodynamics of flight, but it results in different ground speed. Two situations
may arise. In the first case, imagine that wind is constant across a wide range
of levels, which is unlikely, but it illustrates the point. Recall the general
performance theory and the choice of speed for best range. In headwind, a
higher speed gives a better speed to drag ratio compared to the no-wind best
range speed. Commensurate with the comments above, this higher speed
might be above the threshold of pronounced compressibility effects at a
certain level and therefore a lower level is optimal. In contrast, for tailwind, the
recommended best-range speed is lower than in still air and therefore it is
possible to let the airplane climb higher before compressibility starts
increasing drag significantly.
Besides that, wind is hardly ever constant with altitude. Although it generally
increases with altitude, the movement of air masses often causes
irregularities. Leaving all aerodynamics and performance theory
considerations behind, it is sometimes reasonable to choose a level above or
below the optimum altitude, simply because of the wind conditions. If there
are strong headwind conditions at the optimum altitude, it could be better to
fly higher or lower than at the optimum altitude, if the headwind above or
below the optimum altitude is weaker. The same applies for tailwind. If there
is a strong tailwind above or below the optimum altitude, it might be beneficial
to choose such level with higher tailwind conditions.
However, is it not always possible to achieve the optimum altitude respecting

all the aforementioned factors. The most common problems are:
Aircraft limitations
All aircraft have a maximum operating altitude, most commonly restricted by

the maximum differential pressure between the outside pressure altitude and
the inside cabin altitude for passenger comfort. On cold days and for light
aircraft, the optimum altitude can be above this structural limit and hence it is
unusable. The maximum approved operating level then becomes the optimum
altitude. Other aircraft limitations might include the lack of suitable oxygen
quick donning masks (compulsory above certain levels), space radiation
indicators or navigation and surveillance equipment mandatory in the upper
airspace (see an Operational Procedures textbook for details on mandatory
equipment).
Trip distance
For very short trips (a few hundred miles) such as regional high-density routes,
diversions or ferry flights, the distance is simply too short to climb to the
optimum flight level and then descend. At most a few minutes would be spent
at the cruising level or, in extreme cases, the top of descent actually lies
before the top of climb, making it impossible to reach. A short-trip optimum
altitude is then selected by balancing the higher fuel consumption at a lower
level with the high fuel flow at full thrust in climb. The shorter the trip and the
heavier the aircraft is, the lower the recommended short-trip optimum
altitude is. There are separate charts provided by the manufacturer to help
you find the best level.
Step climb
In contrast to short sectors, on very long sectors the airplane burns enough
fuel to become significantly lighter during the flight. Considering the factors
affecting the choice of optimum altitude, other conditions unchanged, a
lighter aircraft requires a higher optimum altitude. Knowing this, long-distance
flights are commonly planned at an increasing altitude along the way. Ideally,
the loss of mass could be converted into continuous climb as fuel is burnt off
so as to maintain the optimum altitude at any moment. This is obviously very
impractical for the ATC because different aircraft would climb at a different,
yet in all cases very slow rates and a number of levels would have to be
reserved for each aircraft with an adverse effect on capacity. Although some
aircraft can occasionally request "cruise climb", in which at least the current
and the next same-direction flight level are reserved for them to climb as they
burn fuel, the most common way is to use step climb. In cruise conditions, the
airplane maintains altitude along the route up to a point at which it can safely
achieve the next same-direction level, i.e. usually 2000 ft and above, then it
starts climbing with a normal rate of climb to the higher level and maintains it
until it can make another step.
The fuel per mile penalty of not flying at the optimum altitude is initially
approximately similar for flying the same amount of feet below and above it.
Supposing that an airplane starts at its optimum level, after a while it would
(for example) be one level below, but from the point of view of flight
economics, the result would be the same as if it was one level above.
Therefore instead of climbing just one level (which is moreover widely
impossible due to the directional level-separated flow), the airplane climbs
two levels, which reduces the number of steps to a half while keeping the
same efficiency.
There are some situations in which the pilots may decide not to make use of
the step climb method and yet obtain better overall performance. One of
these would be omitting the last step climb along a route when the aeroplane
is about to start a descent towards the destination. It may then happen that
the step climb to the new optimum altitude would burn more additional fuel
than could be saved at that altitude before power is reduced for descent.
Another reason would be to make use of advantageous meteorological
conditions such as staying within the core of a (tailwind) jetstream to reduce
the air distance to be travelled, flight time and associated fuel consumption.
Apart from optimising performance, other aspects can lead to not executing
step climbs, such as avoiding bad weather or reported turbulence. And finally,
the optimum altitude can simply be unavailable due to air traffic restrictions.
Buffet onset boundary
Recall from the Principles of Flight that by definition stall is the separation of
flow over the wing, which results in the inability to produce lift. You are
probably very much acquainted with low speed stall, when speed is too low
and a high angle of attack is maintained to obtain the desired lift, which in turn
results in flow separation because of the geometry of the air flow vector with
respect to the wing. However, there is also high speed stall in which the air
flow is so fast that it accelerates to the speed of sound as it moves over the
wing. This creates shock waves, which in turn causes flow separation near the
trailing edge, although this time the angle of attack is not the culprit. By now
you should know that low speed stall is not necessarily dependent on speed.
When pulling back on the control column suddenly and vigorously, it is
possible to create a critical angle-of-attack condition without necessarily
flying slow. However, if you imagine slow and continuous deceleration, the
loss of speed will be counteracted by a gradual increase of angle of attack.
Therefore you can precisely associate the loss of lift or stall with the stall
speed at which this happens. The first indication of stall is buffeting or small
repeated movements of the flight controls caused by the separation of the
boundary layer at the trailing edge. This onset of stall (before the whole wing
is fully stalled) is the low-speed onset boundary. However, a similar effect, i.e.
control wheel buffeting, will occur at the high-speed stall onset, again as soon
as flow separation begins before the wing is fully stalled. This is the high
speed onset boundary.
Now recall the distribution of forces in a turn. You know that the total force
developed on the wings points up and inwards. A higher speed or a higher
angle of attack must be used to counteract the force of gravity. As a result, the
critical angle of attack is achieved at a higher speed and the buffet is felt at
the same time. On the high-speed side, the angle of attack itself plays no part
and the onset of the buffet only depends on the speed. However, the higher
the angle of attack, the more the air is accelerated at any given speed of flight.
At low altitudes, the maximum IAS (a structural limit to prevent too much load
on the wings) comes first well before the airplane gets anywhere near the
critical Mach number. However, at high altitudes where air is less dense, even
lower than maximum IAS results in high TAS and high M. While the low-speed
stall occurs at all altitudes at the same indicated air speed for any given bank
angle (neglecting compressibility effects), the high-speed stall appears at an
ever-decreasing IAS as the airplane climbs. At some point, the minimum (stall)
speed reaches the maximum (critical M) speed and the airplane cannot slow
down nor speed up even a little bit without approaching one of the two stalls,
which is the aircraft’s aerodynamic ceiling for the given conditions (mass and
density).
It is obvious that it would be very dangerous to fly airplanes this way.

Therefore EASA regulations require that airplanes are flown so that
inadvertent acceleration of 0.3 g does not result in stall. The situation
described above when the low- and high-speed limits meet at the ceiling is a 1
g case where the airplane is about to stall on the low and high speed side alike
when just flown with a loading of 1 g. The change of 0.3 g (i.e. from 1 g for
level flight to 1.3) for example corresponds to a turn with a 40° bank angle.
Therefore the regulatory buffet onset boundary is set to a speed at which
increasing the load from 1 g to 1.3 g would cause stall. However, this does not
mean that the aircraft is completely safe from experiencing high-speed buffet
or stall at speeds below the maximum operating Mach number. Uncritical
movement of control elements can well cause the airplane to exceed the 1.3 g
margin - for example, in a rushed reaction to a TCAS RA.
On modern EFIS-equipped aircraft, this is often indicated by a yellow band

ending in a red or red and black band. The yellow band is the 1.3-1 g stall area,
i.e. the airplane would be stalled in a turn or in a wind gust but can still fly
straight and level. The red or red and black band starts where the 1 g stall is
achieved, i.e. the airplane is just stalled in straight and level flight without
further disturbance.
Figure 5.40. Primary flight display
Buffet onset boundary charts are provided to determine the speed at which
low- or high-speed stall occurs. Even though the low-speed stall depends on
IAS, it can always be expressed as a (very low) Mach number at a particular
altitude and temperature. Therefore these charts use M for both stall limits
and allow them to be determined for various loads representing different bank
angles, gusts or manoeuvres. An example of such a chart is shown in figure
below.
Figure 5.41. Buffet onset boundary
Looking back at the step climb procedure described in the previous section,
care must be taken not to climb to an altitude at which the margin between
the low- and high-speed buffet onset boundary is too narrow, if existent at all.
If using an FMS to predict maximum and optimum flight levels, the maximum
level displayed will normally guarantee the regulatory ceiling (a rate of climb of
at least 300 ft/min and the 1.3 g buffet onset boundary protection in EASA)
where a speed exists at which the airplane can be flown between or just at
the beginning of the buffet margins. However, the FMS cannot predict the
state of atmosphere and it only recognizes current outside ISA deviations. If
temperature inversion or deviation from the standard lapse rate exist, the
FMS will base its M predictions on temperatures that might not be
encountered at higher levels once climb is initiated. Therefore accepting a
flight level predicted as at or just below the maximum FMS calculated level
might prove unattainable, let alone the fact that flying at the maximum level
provides only 1.3 g protection, which might be insufficient in rough weather.
One more point that should be taken into account is the effect of mass and
CG. As previously said, the speed of stall onset does depend on mass for the
lower end but not for the higher, Mach limited end. Not so the regulatory
1.3 g boundary. As the g load is by definition the ratio of the total
aerodynamic force divided by the mass, the same 30 % margin is a variable
range of forces depending on mass. The higher the mass, the more difference
in the absolute value of force is between 1 g (100 % of the force of gravity
corresponding to the mass) and 1.3 g (130 % of force). As this force is
translated into a range of speeds for the purpose of display on the airspeed
indicator and FMS calculations, there is a wider range of speeds for 1 to 1.3 g
at a high mass than for a low mass. Therefore as mass increases, the yellow
boundary onset bands come wider and closer together, effectively reducing
the maximum safe altitude. As far as CG is concerned, its forward position
requires more lift and hence angle of attack at any given speed, so the aircraft
is producing more lift for the given mass and also has a higher mass and stall
speed, so the buffet margin also decreases.
Cost index
Aeroplane operators are in constant competition with other service providers

inside and outside the aviation industry, as users normally have a variety of
service providers to choose from. In order to offer their services at a good
price, airlines have to ensure to operate as economically as possible.
The cost index is the primary method of influencing FMS’s calculations of

economic speeds for climb, cruise and descent. Without it, the economic
speeds would be calculated only to minimize fuel consumption on a sector.
However, airlines do not consider only fuel costs but also time costs, i.e. those
variable costs that increase with flight time. These include, among others, the
cost of maintenance such as periodic checks that depend on flight hours,
although most other maintenance costs can be also related to hours of
operations in a particular airline or crew wages. To give preference either to
speed to minimize time-related costs or to fuel economy to minimize fuel use,
a value called cost index is calculated as the ratio of time costs to fuel costs:
Time costs
Cost index = Fuel costs
The units vary. Some manufacturers directly use time costs in $ per hour and
fuel costs in cents/lb of fuel, while others use tables to transform real values
into index numbers. This is why some FMSs will allow an input of 0 to 99,
others from 0 to 999 or any other value as decided by the manufacturer.
However, what all these systems have in common is the logic. For an input of
0, there are no time costs and therefore the only objective of the FMS is to
minimize fuel use on the sector. Therefore a speed close to the maximum
angle-of-climb speed is scheduled for climb, a very shallow descent at the best
L/D speed is planned at idle thrust and the aircraft cruises at its best range
speed. However, if the maximum value of cost index is used, the maximum
speed (Vmo/Mmo) will be used for climb, cruise and descent. See figures
below for the variation of climb and descent profiles with cost index.
Distance
Figure 5.42. Cost index

The units vary. Some manufacturers directly use time costs in $ per hour and
fuel costs in cents/lb of fuel, while others use tables to transform real values
into index numbers. This is why some FMSs will allow an input of 0 to 99,
others from 0 to 999 or any other value as decided by the manufacturer.
However, what all these systems have in common is the logic. For an input of
0, there are no time costs and therefore the only objective of the FMS is to
minimize fuel use on the sector. Therefore a speed close to the maximum
angle-of-climb speed is scheduled for climb, a very shallow descent at the best
L/D speed is planned at idle thrust and the aircraft cruises at its best range
speed. However, if the maximum value of cost index is used, the maximum
speed (Vmo/Mmo) will be used for climb, cruise and descent. See figures
below for the variation of climb and descent profiles with cost index.
Figure 5.42. Cost index

Note that for both climb and descent the profiles and not linear. The lines
break at some point. First of all, they are both approximations because both
the rate of climb and descent will continuously vary as the primary control
parameter is the FMS calculated speed, not a constant rate or angle. Secondly,
remember the relationship between IAS and M. At high levels, maintaining a
high IAS is impossible because it approaches or exceeds the critical Mach
number. Therefore at those levels the FMS commands its calculated Mach
number. Only below the speed transition is the indicated air speed used for
reference.
The cost index is set into the FMS on the ground to optimize the whole flight
profile but it can be changed in flight if needed. Obviously, as it prefers speed
to fuel saving, changing it to a higher value might result in insufficient fuel to
complete the flight to the planned destination. However, if fuel is the primary
concern such as in case of extensive weather avoiding or aerodrome closures
for snow removal, setting the cost index to 0 will lead to the minimum possible
fuel consumption for the rest of the flight.

General
With both engines operating, a passenger jet can easily reach flight levels as
high as 350 of higher. However, these levels become generally impossible to
maintain when an engine fails. If the engine fails just after take-off, the pilots
do not even attempt to climb high and they maintain just a few thousand feet
to overcome nearby obstacles and return back, or they keep a low level (such
as FL100) to fly to a take-off alternate aerodrome. If the engine fails in cruise
flight, the cruising level cannot be maintained further. There are two extreme
cases but any other flight profile in between is also possible. Either the pilots
wish to keep speed and the aircraft has to start descending immediately, or
they prefer to keep level for a while and the aircraft uses any surplus speed to
slow down to the minimum drag speed and maintain altitude. The aircraft has
to commence descent anyway when the minimum speed approaches. In
between, the airplane can maintain the assigned altitude for a while to slow
down a little, to take some initial action such as securing the failed engine and
possibly to send a distress message before descent begins. The aircraft then
descends to a level which can be maintained with the remaining engine,
typically somewhere between FL150 and FL25O depending on aircraft type,
mass and outside temperature.
Over flat terrain, any of these profiles is theoretically usable. However, there
are some mountain ranges such as the Himalaya, where the highest peaks are
above the level which can be safely maintained with one engine inoperative. It
would make sense not to overfly such areas at all, but that would limit the
most direct and hence economical routes between some points on the earth.
Therefore a procedure called drift down is designed to overcome this problem.
Applying drift down, the airplane can fly in areas where the minimum safe
altitudes are above its single engine ceiling as long as they are small enough
for the airplane to clear the area in descent before its level drops too low. As
the level-off altitude is higher for a lighter airplane, fuel jettisoning can be
used to increase it unless the fuel is needed to complete the flight (no suitable
en-route alternate is close enough).
ICAO (Annex 2) and state regulations require that a flight is performed at

altitudes which provide at least 1000 ft obstacle clearance within 5 NM from
the expected aircraft position, which is increased to 2 000 ft in mountainous
terrain at the state’s discretion. Besides that, EASA requires that:
• Either have a positive net climb gradient at 1000 ft above all obstacles
within 5 NM either side of the intended track.
• Or continue to an aerodrome where landing performance is complied with,
clearing all obstacles 5 N M either side of the track by 2 000 ft.
• The net gradient must be positive at 1500 ft above the landing aerodrome
The net gradients are the gross gradients decreased by:

• 1.1 % for 2-engine airplanes.
• 1.4 % for 3-engine airplanes with one engine inoperative and 0.3 % with 2
• 1.6 % for 4-engine airplanes with one engine inoperative and 0.5 % with 2
For drift down, it is clear that a net positive gradient is unattainable because
the aircraft cannot even maintain level. Therefore the second point is applied.
From any point along the route and the cruising altitude, it must be proved
before the flight that the aircraft will clear all obstacles at least by 2 000 ft and
the gradient of descent must be increased by 1.1 % for 2-engine airplanes in
the flight planning stage so in reality the aircraft is likely to clear the obstacles
with more than 2000 ft.
Now think of the various profiles described at the beginning of this section. If
the pilot chooses to descend immediately to keep speed, obviously the profile
will differ very much from the second option of maintaining the level as long
as possible and then descending at a lower speed. Generally the higher the
speed in descent is, the greater the loss of altitude per distance flown. To give
the aircraft the best operational characteristics, the manufacturer
recommends a drift-down procedure and the published descent profile data
are then only valid if the procedure is complied with. In general, if obstacle
limited, the drift down procedure is based on the following steps:
• The remaining engine operating at its maximum continuous thrust

• Level maintained while the airplane slows down from its cruising speed to
the drift-down speed (max L/D) or VMD for a jet and generally Vx for a prop
• Descent at the drift-down speed to the aircraft’s single engine ceiling to

minimize height loss per distance
• If needed, climb to a higher ceiling as more fuel is used the aircraft becomes
lighter
You might be surprised by the last step, but it really is possible. Initially the
airplane might descend to overcome the first mountain range but there might
be one more in the way and once the airplane has lost one engine, we cannot
assume it to be flying at a high cruising level to commence a new drift down.
However, if there is sufficient distance between the obstacles so that the
single-engine ceiling is above the second obstacle after some time and fuel
burn, the flight can be dispatched.
There is one more thought you should consider. The drift-down profiles used
for flight planning are based on the net performance, which differs from the
actual one measured in flight tests (gross performance) by regulatory safety
margins. Because of that, it might be necessary to follow either one particular
route over a high-obstacle area or an escape strategy might be needed to
divert the aircraft to a valley when the net single-engine ceiling is low. At the
same time, the obstacles outside the planned route are not evaluated and
therefore accepting clearance for a shortcut between two points is not
accounted for.
Once already flying, the pilot may notice that the aircraft can maintain much
higher altitudes with one-engine inoperative, which is the gross ceiling. While
flight planning tables and graphs use net ceiling, the FMS shows the actual
gross ceiling. As a result, the pilot may accept a change of route or shortcut if
the gross ceiling allows the aircraft to stay at or above the minimum safe
altitude in the area. Nevertheless, such a flight plan cannot be legally filed
because of the increased net performance requirements. At the same time, if
the minimum safe altitude can be maintained with the gross ceiling along the
whole route, there is no need to comply exactly with the drift down procedure
because the level-off altitude will always clear the obstacles no matter what
speed and profile is used for descent.
Optimum Driftdown Speed One Engine Inoperative
Initial Maximum Continuous % N , 0.74 Mach A/C Auto (High)
TAT °C
Pressure
Altitude •50 ■40 ■30 25 -20 -15 ■10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
(")
37.000 93.0 9S.0 97.0 98.0 98.7 98.3 98.0 97.6 970 96.5 960 95.7 95.1
35.000 92.4 945 96 5 97.5 98 4 98.3 980 976 970 96.5 960 95.7 95 1
33.000 91.5 93 5 95.5 965 974 984 98 1 977 971 966 96 1 958 952
31.000 90.3 92 3 94.3 95.3 962 971 98.1 97.7 971 966 96 1 95.8 952
29.000 893 913 93 2 94.1 95 1 960 969 977 971 966 96 1 958 952
27.000 88 1 90 1 92.0 929 93 9 94 8 95 7 96 6 971 966 96 1 958 952
DriftOown Speed/Level Off
Mass (1000 kg) Optimum Level Off Attitude (fl)

Driftdown ISA ♦ 10’C &
Start dnftdown Level off Speed KIAS ISA + 15°C ISA ♦ 20‘C
below
70 67 245 14.200 12.900 11,400

65 62 237 16.700 15.500 14.200
60 57 228 19,200 18,200 17,000
55 52 218 21.900 20.900 19,800
50 48 209 24.800 23.800 22.800
45 43 198 27.700 26 900 26.000
40 38 187 30.700 30,100 29.300
35 33 175 33.900 33.400 32.700
Figure 5.43. Drift down speeds and level off altitudes
The table in the figure above shows typical data presentation for drift down.
The upper part allows to set the appropriate maximum continuous thrust on
the live engine and the lower part gives the drift-down speed and the gross
level-off altitude. Observe that the notes in the upper section show M0.74.
This is the speed at which the engine failure is expected to occur, after which
a deceleration segment is assumed to slow down to the optimum drift-down
speed before descent. If the failure occurs at a higher cruising speed, e.g. 0.78,
the horizontal segment will be longer, which means that the aircraft will be, on
average, a little bit higher at all times and the level-off altitude will finally be
achieved at a longer distance from the initial engine-failure point. Data are
usually not available for various cruising speeds with the lowest expected
cruising speed being the worst case and any other higher speed providing
better than published performance.
Also recall from the general performance and principles of flight theory that
the ratio of lift to drag (L/D) does not depend on mass, it depends on the
shape and qualities of the aircraft. In case of a complete loss of thrust (both
engines failed), the geometry of the descent path would be independent of
mass. Also recall that the speed at which the best L/D ratio can be achieved
depends on mass. Looking at the table in Figure 5.43, you can quickly figure
out that the higher the mass is, the higher the optimum drift down speed is.
With one engine inoperative, the remaining engine provides some thrust and
the drift-down angle or descent path is the consequence of the difference
between thrust required and available. Considering thrust available (engine
parameter) to be constant in the existing outside air conditions, there is more
thrust deficiency for heavier aircraft and hence the descent is steeper.
Note: For a turboprop, as long as one engine is operating, the best drift down speed
will be that where the difference between power available (lower than that
required) and power required is lowest, which does not occur at the best L/D speed
or Vmd-
There are several factors influencing drift down.
Aircraft mass
As previously mentioned, the descent profile is the result of the difference

between the thrust required to maintain altitude and thrust available from the
remaining engine. Engine performance is independent of aircraft mass, it only
depends on air density, i.e. the altitude and temperature. The heavier the
airplane is, the more thrust it required to maintain level and the gap between
what would be needed and what is available widens. This results in steeper
descent for heavier aircraft, i.e. less distance is covered before the airplane
reaches its level-off altitude. Besides that, the horizontal deceleration phase
will be shorter even before descent is commenced due to the higher angle of
attack for each initial speed and the resulting higher drag.
Temperature
Temperature influences both the thrust of the remaining engine and the initial
cruising and level-off altitude. There is less thrust available in warm
temperatures and both two- and single-engine ceilings are lower, thus giving
the drift-down profile a lower starting and level-off altitude at any mass and
steeper descent
Wind
Wind influences the ground distance flown for any altitude change. Headwind
shortens the ground distance so the drift-down profile appears steeper with
respect to ground. However, tailwind helps the airplane fly forwards and
hence a longer ground distance is covered for the given height loss. This is
why it is not necessarily the mid-point over a mountainous area where the
decision to continue or turn back is made. Assuming a symmetrical obstacle,
the point is shifted into the headwind direction because the profile is steeper
there.
Figure 5.44. Level off altitude vs. wind
Aircraft configuration
Several aircraft systems decrease the thrust available on the remaining engine
to overcome obstacles, but turning them off to increase it creates an equally
hazardous condition. Engine or wing anti- and de-icing pneumatic systems use
bleed air, but might be needed in IMC conditions to protect the airframe, so
their use must be expected and thrust penalties applied. To increase the net
ceiling and make the aircraft’s performance more attractive, manufacturers
might count with the air conditioning switched off at low levels where
pressure from the aircraft dissipates at a slower rate and hence the aircraft
remains pressurized even if no more air is blown in to it for some time.
Therefore below a certain altitude, leaving the air conditioning on means
further performance penalties.
To determine the profile and see if all obstacles along the route can be
overcome, a set of graphs such as those shown in the figure below and
Figure 5.46 are used. For flight planning purposes, they must show the net
drift down path and level-off altitudes. The gross mass of the aircraft must not
be higher than the gross mass at which it will be able to clear the highest
relevant obstacle by the margin specified in relevant regulations. When flying
over extensive mountainous areas, the requirement to comply with the
maximum possible mass for a sufficiently high level-off in case of drift-down
can be another limit to the take-off mass.
Figure 5.45. Level off altitude vs. mass
Note that the penalties for non-standard configurations. They are presented
as an increase in mass, which means the aircraft can level off only at a lower
level. In reality, the systems do not increase mass but they use air bled from
the remaining engine so the engine produces less thrust and cannot maintain
such a high level as it could if these systems were inoperative. The lack of
thrust is transformed into additional aircraft mass for easier presentation.
Figure 5.46. Time and distance to reach level off altitude
A chart such as the one in figure above allows to determine the time and
distance it takes to reach each altitude (representing the altitude needed to
overcome an obstacle) from the initial cruising level (shown in the chart’s
header). In this example, if the critical obstacle in the area requires a safe
altitude of 25 000 ft (pressure altitude, must be corrected for QNH) for an
aircraft of 45 000 kg of equivalent mass, the planned route cannot be further
than 128 NM from the obstacle in the given wind, otherwise the aircraft
would not clear it.
Probably the trickiest part is the "equivalent gross mass at engine failure". As
previously mentioned, higher temperatures lead to lower thrust so the
difference between thrust required and available widens and the descent path
is steeper. Instead of publishing several graphs for different initial
level/temperature combinations, the deficiency in thrust can be transformed
into higher mass with more drag powered by the same initial thrust. Therefore
to correct for temperature, a new mass, which produces the same drag as the
engine’s thrust decrease due to high temperature, must be determined and
used as the starting point. To do that, the inset in the upper right corner can
be used.
STUDY TEST
5.6. Descent
5.6.1. Descent techniques
Similarly to climb, there is a wide range of speeds that can be used for
descent. The situation is even simpler because engine thrust is not a limit, the
gravity helps the airplane come down and hence higher speeds are achievable.
In fact, for most jet aircraft the problem is to find enough drag to slow the
airplane down before approach if it is too high and too close to the airport. To
save fuel, it is best to wait with descent until the so called top of descent
where engines are set to idle and the airplane basically glides down to the
ground. This is called a continuous descent, as opposed to a descent profile
where the aircraft descends more steeply by 2 000 or 4000 ft and then
maintains level flight, requiring engines thrust to prevent slowing down and
probably stalling.
MORE INFO L"
Even in a "continuous descent" situation, there are various descent profiles

available. When flying the aircraft at the best gliding speed (max L/D ratio) or
the nearest higher safe speed if that one is beyond the prescribed safety
margins, the path angle is minimized, the airplane loses the least amount of
altitude per distance flown and it minimizes the overall fuel consumption on
the sector because the top of descent is far away from the destination and a
long distance and time are spend in descent. If, however, the maximum speed
(Vmo/Mmo) 's chosen, the top of descent is shifted towards the destination
and the high speed produces high drag, which results in a high angle and rate
of descent. Normally an optimum descent speed is calculated by the FMS
taking into account the cost index to leverage sector times and fuel costs.
The longitudinal wind component also has an impact on the descent profile. A
headwind pushes the descending aircraft away from its destination, allowing it
to descend at a lower angle or rate within the air mass, reducing the build-up
of airspeed and thus assisting the pilots in dumping their potential energy
Energy management
One of the basic laws of physics is that the total energy of a system can never
decrease or increase - energy can only assume another form. Basically, three
forms of energy have to be considered with aircraft descent: potential energy,
kinetic energy and chemical energy.
Potential energy is contained in every body which is at a certain height. Some

other form of energy has been applied to lift it to its height, is stored as potential
energy and can be released when the body loses height again.
Kinetic energy is movement. A body moving through a medium at a certain speed

has a kinetic energy required to overcome drag, or resistance to movement.
Chemical energy is energy which is stored in a substance and can be released -

transformed into another form - by burning the substance. Chemical energy in
aircraft comes from fuel.
Heat is another form of energy, which is "of no more use" to aviation purposes. It
is created by "using up" energy, for example as friction heat develops in brake
disks.
An aircraft in cruise level has a high amount of potential energy which the pilot
has to get rid of when descending. If he simply pushed over the stick, potential
energy would be transformed into kinetic energy, and the aircraft would exceed
its speed limits.
Chemical energy, meaning fuel consumption, is what costs money. It is therefore

best for an operator to reduce the application of chemical energy as much as
possible, by descending with the engines at idle. This also reduces the build-up of
kinetic energy, because some of the potential energy is now used to overcome
drag.
Most modern jet aircraft, however, are built to minimise drag and fuel
consumption in cruise, which means that idling the engines is not sufficient to
completely bleed of the excess potential energy of cruise. Additional components
are attached to the aircraft which can be deployed in descent to artificially
other form of energy has been applied to lift it to its height, is stored as potential
energy and can be released when the body loses height again.
Kinetic energy is movement. A body moving through a medium at a certain speed

has a kinetic energy required to overcome drag, or resistance to movement.
Chemical energy is energy which is stored in a substance and can be released -

transformed into another form - by burning the substance. Chemical energy in
aircraft comes from fuel.
Heat is another form of energy, which is "of no more use" to aviation purposes. It
is created by "using up" energy, for example as friction heat develops in brake
disks.
An aircraft in cruise level has a high amount of potential energy which the pilot
has to get rid of when descending. If he simply pushed over the stick, potential
energy would be transformed into kinetic energy, and the aircraft would exceed
its speed limits.
Chemical energy, meaning fuel consumption, is what costs money. It is therefore

best for an operator to reduce the application of chemical energy as much as
possible, by descending with the engines at idle. This also reduces the build-up of
kinetic energy, because some of the potential energy is now used to overcome
drag.
Most modern jet aircraft, however, are built to minimise drag and fuel
consumption in cruise, which means that idling the engines is not sufficient to
completely bleed of the excess potential energy of cruise. Additional components
are attached to the aircraft which can be deployed in descent to artificially
increase drag and thus maintain the speed within limits.
Pilots should carefully manage energy during descent in order not to get caught in
a "high and fast" situation with unstabilised approach while at the same time
avoiding to "dump" too much of their potential energy in early stages of descent,
because getting low on energy during approach would require them to add more
chemical energy by advancing the thrust levers and consuming fuel.
when the top of descent remains unchanged. The top of descent could also be
moved closer to the destination in headwind conditions, but this is not
desirable as it requires the aircraft to maintain altitude for a longer time, using
more fuel. In a tailwind, the top of descent often needs to be positioned
further away from the destination in order to be able to dump enough energy.
This has the additional advantage of being able to reduce thrust to idle earlier
and save more fuel.
Similar restrictions as for climb apply to descent:
• Structural limit: Maximum IAS

• High speed stall limit: Maximum M
• Low speed stall limit: Minimum clean speed
• Time vs. fuel for the sector: Cost index
• ATC and airspace restrictions: 250 kt below FL100 (class D-G for IFR)
• Safety considerations: 250 kt below FL100 (birds strike)
A high indicated air speed generally cannot be maintained when starting

descent at a high altitude because it would correspond to a Mach number at
or above the aircraft’s critical M, i.e. above Mmo. Therefore Mmo can be at
best maintained down to a level at which it just equals VM0. Below that, the
maximum VM0 (IAS) speed can be maintained to maximize drag and expedite
descent. Even for other descent schedules at lower speeds, most likely a
constant Mach number will be maintained, which results in variable, gradually
increasing IAS until the planned descent IAS is achieved, which is maintained
further. Similarly to climb, the altitude at which the chosen descent M equals
the descent IAS is called speed transition. While the FMS gives a particular
M/IAS combination to optimize flight according to the set cost index, in
general M and IAS are not fixed pairs. If the pilot desires, the aircraft may
initially descend at the cruising speed of e.g. M0.78 and then transition to
different speeds such as 280 kt for a normal descent or 300 kt for a faster and
steeper descent. This will obviously affect the level of speed transition: M0.78
first becoming equal to 280 kt at a higher level and to 300 kt at a lower level.
Different descent profiles at various M/IAS combinations might be provided
by the manufacturer to estimate time, fuel and distance in descent. In real
flight, the FMS shows a vertical profile either based on its own calculation
(economy flight) or based on pilot’s input (desired speeds) and descent is
controlled by adding thrust or reducing speed (lower drag and thus lower
vertical speed with engines on idle) when the airplane is below the profile or
by adding drag (speed brakes) or increasing speed when above the desired
flight path.
The figure below shows how the true air speed changes during a constant
M/IAS descent with altitude. Note that above the tropopause, as temperature
remains constant, the TAS for the given M is also constant. However, the pilot
can see an increasing IAS on their instruments because pressure increases
with descent and hence IAS for the given TAS also increases.
Figure 5.47. Changes in TAS during constant M/IAS descent
To remember the changes in the various speeds, the schematic in figure below
may help. They only show the relative direction of change (increase or
decrease), not the magnitude, because the changes are essentially non-linear
as changes in density are also non-linear.
Figure 5.48. Changes in speed with altitude
It can be seen from the first graph that a descent with constant Mach number
causes a gradual increase in IAS. Therefore, the margin to low-speed buffet
will increase while keeping the same distance from high-speed buffet - the
constant Mach number is a constant fraction of the local speed of sound.
When the descent procedure is changed to constant IAS, the margin to low-
speed buffet remains constant, while at the same time increasing the margin
to high-speed buffet.
Although it might be surprising, an aircraft can be stalled even in descent and

even though the objective of getting lower is certainly fulfilled, it is not done
so in a safe manner. There are several moments during a typical descent when
the risk is increased.
5.6.2. Vertical speed modes

ATC often assigns a particular rate of descent or a requirement to reach a level
by a specific point along the route. Using the vertical speed mode, the aircraft
simply pitches down to maintain it and if thrust is not reduced, such as in case
of the autothrottle being inoperative or if the commanded rate of descent is
too high, the aircraft starts accelerating. At high levels near the ceiling where
the margin between the high speed buffet onset boundary and the cruising
speed is low, the aircraft can achieve a speed equal to the critical Mach
number and high speed stall occurs. The rate of descent is dependent on the
aircraft’s drag, which in turn is the function of its IAS. As the aircraft descends
further into warm and dense air, the TAS and M for the given IAS decrease
and the high-speed stall condition disappears. Although, relying on this is not
safe because of controllability and an action to reduce speed by reducing the
rate of descent or even levelling off must be taken as soon as the stall is
recognized.
At lower levels, using too high vertical speeds results in IAS overspeed (VM0),
which affects the structural integrity of the aircraft but does not lead to a
stalled condition. For aircraft equipped with the 1.3 g buffet boundary band or
indication (see Section 5.5.6), this band disappears below the level where
Mmo equals VM0 because the red limiting line starts showing VM0 instead of
Mmo, which would correspond to an IAS which is not allowed anyway, so
even an increase of 0.3 g load does not get the aircraft anywhere close to the
high speed buffet boundary.
5.6.3. Level-off
On the low side of the speed range, if operating without the autothrottle on,
there is a risk of not adding enough thrust when descent is completed. This
risk is even more exacerbated if speed reduction is required, because it is a
common practice to descend at a very high speed to increase drag and then
lose speed in horizontal flight without adding thrust. The effect should be
familiar to you, the airplane gradually increases pitch to maintain level until
reaching the critical angle of attack and stalling.
For both the conditions, regaining control and recovering proper speed is the
primary goal. Altitude considerations are secondary because without proper
control and steady air flow over the wings, the altitude itself cannot be
maintained anyway.
5.7. Landing
5.7.1. Landing requirements
Landing
The horizontal distance necessary to land and to come to a complete stop
from a point 15 m (50 ft) above the landing surface must be determined for:
• Standard temperatures
• Each weight
• All altitudes
• All winds, within operational limits
In:
• Non-icing conditions
• Icing conditions with the most critical of ice accretion
Requirements for determining the distances:
• The aircraft must be in landing configuration

• Stable approach, with a CAS of not less than VREF that must be maintained
down to 15 m (50 ft) height
VREF:
• In non-icing conditions, VREF may not be less than:
° 1-23 VSR0
° VMCL
o Speed that provides manoeuvring capability

In icing conditions, VREF may not be less than:
o VREF for non-icing conditions

o 1.23 VSro with the most critical of ice accretion
Landings:
• Must be made without excessive vertical acceleration, bounce, nose over or

ground loop
• May not require exceptional piloting skill or alertness
Landing wind:
• Landing distance must include correction factors for:

o Not more than 50 % of the nominal headwind
o Not less than 150 % of the nominal tailwind
Landing field-length requirements

For landing field length requirements, similar charts or tables to those used for
take-off are given in the AFM. Essentially, the same factors affect take-off and
landing, except for slope, which has the opposite effect - a downhill slope
extends the landing distance.
Landing - dry runways:
• Aeroplane shall be able to make a full stop landing at the destination and
alternate aerodrome at the estimated time of arrival from 50 ft above the
threshold:
o Turbo jet: within 60 % of the landing distance available
o Turbo propeller: within 70 % of the landing distance available
• For steep approaches, the operator shall use a screen height of less than
60 ft, but not less than 35 ft.
• When determining the landing mass, the operator shall take into account:
o The altitude of the aerodrome
o Not more than 50 % of headwind, not less than 150 % of tailwind
o Runway slope in direction of landing if greater then ±2 %
• For dispatching the aeroplane it shall be assumed that:
o The aeroplane will land on the most favourable runway in still air; or
o The aeroplane will land on the runway most likely to be assigned,
considering wind speed and direction, ground handling of the aircraft,
landing aids and terrain.
Landing Field Limit Weight - Dry Runway

Flaps 40
Anti-skid Operative and Automatic Speedbrakes
Category "A" Brakes
Wind Corrected Field Length (M)
HELD LENGTH WIND COMPONENT (KIN)
avaii MMJ
<M) •15 .10 -5 0 10 20 30 441
1000 860 920 1000 1070 1140 1200 1260
1200 950 1020 1100 1200 1270 1340 1410 14X0
1400 1100 11X0 12X0 1400 14X0 1550 1630 1700
1600 1250 1350 1460 1600 16X0 1760 IX4O 1920
1800 1400 1510 1640 1800 18X0 1970 2050 2140
2000 1550 1670 1820 2000 20X0 2170 2270 2360
2200 1700 1X30 2000 2200 2290 23X0 2480 25X0
2400 1X50 2000 21X0 2400 2490 2590 2690 2X10
2600 2000 2160 2360 2600 2690 2790 2910 3030
2X00 2160 2320 2540 2800 2X90 MMM> 3120 3250
3000 2310 2490 2720 3000 3100 3210 3330
3200 2460 2650 2900 3200 3300
3400 2610 2810 3070 3400
3600 2760 2970 3250 3600
Field Limit Weight (1000 KG)

WIND AIRPORT PRhSSl RE ALTITUDE (FT)
<. iiRRI «. TED
HEID LENGTH 0 2000 4000 6000 xooo
(M)
1000 34.0 32.0
1200 43.1 407 3X.5 36 3 339
144X1 52.3 49.4 46.X 44J 414
1600 57.9 56.0 54.1 5X0 49.0
1800 63.0 60.9 58.9 56.9 54.9
2000 67.6 65.3 63.2 61.1 59.0
2200 69.2 66X 645 624
2400 67.? 65.4
2600 68.3
Decrease field limit weight by 8050 kg when using manual speedbrakes.
Source B737 manual

NOT FOR NAVIGATION USB.
Figure 5.49. Field length limited landing mass (table)
Example: Find the field length limited landing mass for a flaps 40 landing at a
destination aerodrome with a pressure altitude of 2000 ft PA. The available
field length is equal to 2 200 m, a tailwind component of 5 kt is expected.
1. The first step is to correct the available field length for the wind
component using the upper table. In a 5 kt tailwind, the wind corrected
field length for our 2 200 m field is equal to 2 000 m.
2. At a pressure altitude of 2 000 ft, our field length limited landing mass is
equal to 65 300 kg.
Figure 5.50. Field length limited landing mass (graph)
Apart from determining the field length limited landing mass, the graph can
also be used in reverse direction to find the required field length for a given
landing mass.
Landing - wet runways:
• When the weather reports/forecast indicate that at the time of arrival the
runway may be wet, the landing distance available shall be at least 115 % of
the landing required.
• When the weather reports/forecast indicate that at the time of arrival the
runway may be contaminated, the landing distance available shall be at
least:
o The landing distance required for wet runways.
o 115 % of the landing distance in accordance with approved contaminated
landing distance data; whichever is greater.
5.7.2. Factors affecting landing
Apart from the longitudinal wind component, which has already been
mentioned, other environmental and aircraft factors affect the landing
performance.
Air density
Pressure altitude and temperature affect air density. Low air density reduces
available engine performance, and while this is usually not a factor in case of a
successful landing attempt, it can limit the maximum permissible landing mass
by reducing the aircraft's climb capacity in case of a go-around. Furthermore, it
also has a slight impact on the landing distance required. Reverse thrust in hot,
low-density air is reduced just as much as forward thrust, leaving more energy
for the wheel brakes to absorb.
Aircraft systems
Modern jet aircraft required to touch down at relatively high speeds feature
several devices to help deceleration after touch-down, relieving some of the
stress on the brakes and allowing for a shorter landing run and/or higher
landing mass.
Ground spoilers, also called lift dumpers, have two effects. Firstly, they break
the airflow over the wing in order to reduce the lift produced at a given
airspeed, pushing the aircraft down onto its wheels more firmly and making
wheel brakes more effective while at the same time reducing the probability
of hydroplaning. And secondly, they create additional drag, increasing the
deceleration capability.
Thrust reversers redirect the flow of air exiting the engine. When the power
levers are advanced in reverse mode, the force of thrust opposes the direction
of aircraft movement and decelerates it. Several limitations can apply to the
use of reverse thrust. The reason for most of these restrictions is that, in case
of engine failure, differential thrust would make it difficult to maintain
directional control.
Autobrakes and anti-skid are two more systems which indirectly improve the
deceleration capability. With autobrake active, the pilot need not step on the
wheel brakes after touch-down. The autobrake ensures they are fully applied
at the earliest useful moment so that no valuable runway length is wasted
until brake application. Anti-skid allows for the highest possible brake
application at any point of time. The system releases the brakes when it
senses a tyre skidding over the surface, and reapplies them as soon as
possible, reacting faster than a human pilot would and thus also reducing
braking distance to a minimum.
Runway condition
The effect of runway conditions on take-off has already been discussed in the
corresponding section. Similar considerations apply to landings on wet and
contaminated runways. Generally, it can be said that non-dry surfaces increase
the landing distance required. Three types of hydroplaning have to be
considered for landing:
Dynamic hydroplaning
Occurs when the runway is flooded to such an extent that the tyre cannot
penetrate through the layer of water and floats on a water cushion.
Remember the speeds at which hydroplaning occurs on water:
Vspin-up [kt] = 7 .7 x ^/tyre pressure [psi]
Vspin-down [kt] = 9 x tyre pressure [psi]
The spin-up scenario happens when an aircraft lands on a flooded runway

with a layer of water deeper than the tyre's grooves. The best way to prevent
hydroplaning on landing is to make a positive landing so that the tyre
penetrates the layer, and then slow down below the critical speed preferably
using reversers. There is also a theory that when landing in heavy rain, the
approach speed should be increased due to the decreased lift and increased
drag of water on the fuselage, however, most manufacturers do not
recommend so.
Viscous hydroplaning
This type of hydroplaning occurs in lower layers of water than in case of

dynamic hydroplaning, when water creates a thin film and just fills up the
pores, holes or grooves in the pavement, making it effectively smooth and
reducing friction drag, preventing deceleration.
Reverted rubber
Unlike the preceding types, which depend on speed and water layer only, this
type needs one more factor, which is heat. Therefore it mostly happens during
rejected take-offs or if heavy braking is used instead of reversers on landing.
When a tyre heats up from the brakes and there is water underneath, the heat
effectively boils the water into vapour, which in turn reverts the rubber into its
uncured and softer state. As the tyre softens, its shape changes, allowing the
vapour and water to become trapped under the tyre, which touches the
pavement only on its sides. The vapour cushion provides a smooth surface
with little friction.
The effect of wet or contaminated runways on landing distance depends on

the remaining surface friction and additional amount of roll drag created by
the contaminant. Therefore, very smooth contamination such as ice is most
unfavourable. Loose, dry snow, for example, does not reduce friction drag as
massively and has a braking effect in itself, which is why its adverse effect on
deceleration and landing distance is less. Factors for landing distances on
different types and depths of contaminations are usually provided in the flight
manual, often expressed as "equivalent water depth", meaning the depth of
water that would have the same effect as the actual contamination.
5.7.3. Landing climb

Another limiting factor is the landing and approach climb (CS 25.119 and
25.121). They are air gradients calculate relative to the air, not ground, so they
do not assure obstacle clearance and are not affected by wind. However, as
they are usually limited by available engine power, they are affected by
environmental variables such as air density (pressure altitude and
temperature). While the aircraft should not be dispatched on a flight if not
meeting these gradients at the expected landing mass, it can happen that a
diversion is needed at a point where too much fuel remains. Unless in a time-
critical emergency, and if equipped so, an aircraft can dump fuel to lower the
mass and improved the landing performance.
The landing climb with all engines operative must be at least 3.2 % with:
• All engines operating with that power which is available 8 seconds after the
initiation of the thrust lever from idle to take-off thrust.
• Landing configuration.
• A climb speed of:
o Not less than 1.13 VSro
o Not less than Vmc|
o Not more than 1.23 VSR0
The discontinued approach gradient with one engine inoperative must be not
less than:
• 2.1 % for 2-engine airplanes

The discontinued approach gradient must be achieved with:
• the critical engine failed and the remaining engines at take-off setting.
• normal approach speed but not greater than 1.41 VSri.
• flaps in approach configuration if the approach VS1 does not exceed

1-1 vso.
The landing climb chart to determine the limiting landing mass is shown in the
figure below.
Figure 5.51. Climb limited landing mass
Similar to the regulated landing mass, the regulated landing mass can be
determined as the lowest of:
• Field length limited landing mass

• Approach climb limited landing mass
• Landing climb limited landing mass
• Maximum structural landing mass
5.7.4. Quick turnaround

The minimum landing distance given in the landing chart expects heavy
braking. Therefore brakes will be hot and if a take-off is initiated soon and
needs to be aborted, they will not be able to absorb the heat. Therefore if
heavy braking was used, enough time needs to be provided to cool the brakes.
The time limit is different for every type and it is stated in the AFM. The tables
show the maximum landing mass at which heavy braking will produce just
enough heat to be dissipated within the minimum ground time. For any mass
above that, wheels must be inspected before the next take-off after the time
limit.
Maximum Quick Turnaround mass (1000 kg)

Aerodrome
Pressure Airport OAT
Altitude •F -60 -40 ■20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 130
(ft)
•c -51 -40 -29 -18 -7 4 16 27 38 49 54
-1000 68 67 65 64 62 60 59 58 57 56 55
0 67 65 64 62 61 59 58 57 56 55 54
1000 66 64 63 61 60 59 57 56 55 54 54
2000 64 63 61 60 59 57 56 55 54 53
3000 64 62 60 59 56 56 55 54 53 52
4000 62 60 59 56 56 55 54 53 52 51
5000 61 59 66 6? 55 54 53 52 51
6000 60 58 57 55 54 53 52 51 50
7000 59 57 56 54 53 52 51 50 49
8000 58 56 54 54 52 51 50 49 49
9000 56 55 54 53 51 50 49 49 48
Add 350 kg per 1% uphill slope Add 1100 kg per 10 kt headwind

Subtract 1150 kg per 1% downhill slope Subtract 7450 kg per 10 kt tailwind
Figure 5.52. Quick turnaround mass
If the landing mass is higher than the quick turnaround limit, the minimum
required brake cooling time can be found in the same graph that is used for
rejected take-offs. When maximum braking is not required for landing, the
adjusted brake energy will be lower and can be derived from the provided
graph for every certified braking schedule.
BEFORE EXAM L"
STUDY TEST
Regarding Airbus A320 cooling time, there are no brake cooling time tables
required. In short, the ECAM will give a caution and will display the alert BRAKES
HOT whenever at least one brake temperature is above 300 °C. This value is the
reference for the cooling time of the brakes since take-off is not permitted with
brakes temperature of 300 °C and higher. Nevertheless, as long as the brakes
temperature is lower than 300 °C, the airplane will be able to take-off. This
temperature will be monitored by the flight crew on the WHEEL system display
page. When the airplane lands and arrives at the parking stand, the pilots will
release the parking brake when the chokes are in place so that the brakes can cool
down faster. The pilots need to avoid setting the parking brake for another reason
as well: The parking brake uses the yellow hydraulic fluid to pressurize the system
and this fluid has a flash point of 300 °C. So, if the hydraulic fluid leaks and the
temperatures exceed 300 °C, there is a high risk of fire.
VSR is the reference stall speed.
VSro is the reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSri is the reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
VS1G is the one-g stall speed at which the aeroplane can develop a lift force
VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative.
VMCg is the minimum control speed, on or near ground.
VMca's the minimum control speed, take-off climb.
VMCl is the minimum control speed, approach and landing.
VEF is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during take-off.
Vi is the maximum speed in the take-off at which the pilot must take the first
action to stop the aeroplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
Vr is the rotation speed.
V2min is the minimum take-off safety speed.
V2 is the take-off safety speed.
VMU is the minimum unstick speed.
V|_Op is the lift-off speed.
VMbe's the maximum brake energy speed.
VmaxTyre's the maximum ground speed the tyres are designed for.
VREF is the reference landing speed.
Aircraft classification number expresses the relative effect of aircraft induced

load on airport pavement. It must be equal to or lower than the pavement
classification number.
Assumed temperature is an artificial temperature introduced to the FMS to de
rate engine and save its life.
Take-off climb segments are divided into four segments (for more information
see the following table).
Aircraft classification number expresses the relative effect of aircraft induced
load on airport pavement. It must be equal to or lower than the pavement
classification number.
Assumed temperature is an artificial temperature introduced to the FMS to de
rate engine and save its life.
Take-off climb segments are divided into four segments (for more information
see the following table).
1st segment 2nd segment 3rd segment 4th segment

Power Take-off Take-off Take-off Maximum continuous thrust
Landing Gear Down —♦ Up Up Up Up
Flaps Take-off Take-off Take-off -»Up Up
Speed v2 v2 V2 to V,to V„o
Required Gradients with One Engine Failed

Twin airplane SO 2.4% 1.2%
3-engine airplane 0.3 % 2.7% 1.5%
4-engine airplane 0.5 % 3.0% 1.7%
Up to 400 ft, no turns exceeding a bank angle of 15° are allowed. Above that,
bank angles may be increased up to 25°.
Take-off climb obstacles clearance:
o By 35 ft if no turn with a bank angle of more than 15° is required.
o By 50 ft at the point where a turn of more than 15° is required.
o Laterally by 60 m + 0.125 D where D is the distance from the end of TODA or
TOD if a turn is initiated before that, and for wingspan up to 60 m.
o No turn must be required below 50 ft.

o 300 m away in VMC or if sufficient lateral guidance is provided for bank
angles < 15°.
o 600 m away in other conditions for bank angles < 15°.
angles > 15°.
o No turn must be required below 50 ft.

angles < 15°.
o 600 m away in other conditions for bank angles < 15°.
angles > 15°.
o 900 m away other conditions for bank angles > 15°.
decreased by:
o 0.8 % for 2-engine airplanes

o Either have a positive net climb gradient at 1000 ft above all obstacles within
5 NM either side of the intended track.
o Or continue to an aerodrome where landing performance is complied with,
o The net gradient must be positive at 1500 ft above the landing aerodrome
The net cruise gradients are the gross gradients decreased by:
o 1.4 % for 3-engine airplanes with one engine inoperative and 0.3 % with 2
engines inoperative
engines inoperative
The regulatory requirements on the landing distance are:

o LD < 0.6 x LDA for turbojets.
decreased by:

o Either have a positive net climb gradient at 1000 ft above all obstacles within
5 NM either side of the intended track.
o Or continue to an aerodrome where landing performance is complied with,
o The net gradient must be positive at 1500 ft above the landing aerodrome
The net cruise gradients are the gross gradients decreased by:
engines inoperative
engines inoperative
The regulatory requirements on the landing distance are:

o LD < 0.6 x LDA for turbojets.
o LD < 0.7 x LDA for turboprops.
o On wet runways, the dry runway LD must be factored by 1.15.
The landing climb with all engines operative must be at least 3.2 %.
The discontinued approach gradient with one engine inoperative must be not
less than:
o 2.1 % for 2-engine airplanes.
APPENDIX
Glossary
A
Accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA) The length of the take-off run
available plus the length of stopway, if such stopway is declared available by
the State of the aerodrome and is capable of bearing the mass of the airplane
under the prevailing operating conditions.
Airplane An engine-driven fixed-wing aircraft heavier than air that is

supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its wings.
c
Clearway A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the
control of the appropriate authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area
over which an airplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified
height.
Contaminated runway A runway of which more than 25 % of the runway

surface area within the required length and width being used is covered by:
• surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 inches) deep, or by slush, or loose

snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 inches) of water;
• snow which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further
compression and will hold together or break into lumps if picked up
(compacted snow); or
• ice, including wet ice.
D
Dry runway A runway which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes
those paved runways which have been specially prepared with grooves or
porous pavement and maintained to retain "effectively dry" braking action
even when moisture is present.
Landing distance available (LDA) The length of the runway that is declared
available by the state of the aerodrome and suitable for the ground run of an
airplane landing.
M
Maximum operational passenger seating configuration (MOPSC) The
maximum passenger seating capacity of an individual aircraft, excluding crew
seats, established for operational purposes and specified in the operations
manual. Taking as a baseline the maximum passenger seating configuration
established during the certification process conducted for the type certificate
(TC), supplemental type certificate (STC) or change to the TC or STC as
relevant to the individual aircraft, the MOPSC may establish an equal or lower
number of seats, depending on the operational constraints.
p
Performance class A airplanes Multi-engine aeroplanes powered by turbo
propeller engines with an MOPSC of more than nine or a maximum take-off
mass exceeding 5 700 kg, and all multi-engine turbo-jet powered aeroplanes.
Performance class B airplanes Aeroplanes powered by propeller engines with

an MOPSC of nine or less and a maximum take-off mass of 5 700 kg or less.
Performance class C airplanes Airplanes are airplanes powered by

reciprocating engines with an MOPSC of more than nine or a maximum take
off mass exceeding 5 700 kg.
Take-off distance available (TODA) The case of airplanes is the length of the
take-off run available plus the length of the clearway, if provided.
Take-off mass The mass including everything and everyone carried at the
commencement of the take-off for helicopters and take-off run for airplanes.
Take-off run available (TORA) The length of runway that is declared available
by the state of the aerodrome and suitable for the ground run of an airplane
taking off.
V
VEF The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during take-off.
VLof The lift-off speed.
VMc The minimum control speed with the critical engine inoperative.
VMca The minimum control speed, take-off climb.
VMcg The minimum control speed, on or near ground.
VMcl The minimum control speed, approach and landing.
VMu The minimum unstick speed.
VR The rotation speed.
Vref The reference landing speed.
Vs The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is
controllable.
Vso The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing
configuration.
VSR The reference stall speed.
VSro The reference stall speed in the landing configuration.
VSri The reference stall speed in a specific configuration.
VSi The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed obtained in a
specified configuration.
Vslg The one-g stall speed at which the airplane can develop a lift force
VY The speed for best rate of climb.
Vi The maximum speed in the take-off at which the pilot must take the first
action to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance.
V2 The take-off safety speed.
V2min The minimum take-off safety speed.
w
Wet runway A runway of which the surface is covered with water or an
equivalent, less than specified by the "contaminated runway" definition or
when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface to cause it to appear
reflective, but without significant areas of standing water.
APPENDIX
Abbreviations
A
A Surface area
ACN Aircraft Classification Number (see also PCN)
AFM Aircraft Flight Manual
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
ASD Accelerate-Stop Distance A

C
ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance Available D
E
ASDR Accelerate-Stop Distance Required F
G
ATC Air Traffic Control H
I
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
K
ATS Air Traffic Service
M
C N
P
CA Coefficient for aerodynamic force Q
R
CAS Calibrated Air Speed S
T
CD Coefficient for Drag
W
CL Coefficient for Lift
CG Centre of Gravity
CP Centre of Pressure
CS Certification Specification (EASA CS)
D
D Drag
E
EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency
EFB Electronic Flight Bag
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System
F
c
Fa Aerodynamic Force D
E
FCOM Flight Crew Operating Manual F
G
FF Fuel Flow H
FL Flight Level
K
FMS Flight Management System
ft foot (feet)
N
P
G Q
R
g Gravity S
T
H vw
hp Horse power
hPa Hectopascal
IAS Indicated Air Speed

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
inHg Inch of mercury
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
J A
C
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
D
E
K F
G
kt knot(s) H
J
L K
L
L Lift
M
LD Landing Distance N
P
LDA Landing Distance Available Q
R
LDR Landing Distance Required S
T
V
M W
m Mass
M Mach
MEL Minimum Equipment List
MEP Multi Engine Piston

N
Nmo Maximum Operating Mach number
NAM Nautical Air Miles
NOTAM Notice to Airman
P Power A
C
PCN Pavement Classification Number (see also ACN)
E
PMC Power Management Control
Q I
QFE Quantified Field Elevation or Q Field Elevation J
K
QNH Quantified Nautical Height or Q Nautical Height L
M
R Np
ROC Rate Of Climb
R
RLTOM Runway Length-limited Take-Off Mass
T
ROD Rate Of Descent V
W
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
RTO Rejected Take-Off
s
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
SEP Single Engine Piston

SR Specific Range
T Thrust
TAS True Air Speed
TMA Terminal Manoeuvring Area
TOD Take-Off Distance

A
r
TOD Top Of Descent
D
TODA Take-Off Distance Available E

F
TODR Take-Off Distance Required
H
TOGA Take-Off I Go-Around I
J
TOM Take-Off Mass K
L
TOR Take-Off Run
N
TORA Take-Off Run Available
TORR Take-Off Run Required

R
S
V T
V
v Velocity W
VEF Critical engine failure speed
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VFTO Final take-off speed
VLO Landing gear operating speed
VLOF Lift-off speed

Vmaxtyre Maximum tyre speed
VMBe Maximum brake energy speed
VMC Visual meteorological conditions
VMC Minimum control speed
VMCA Minimum control speed (air) take-off climb
VMcg Minimum control speed ground

A
VMcl Minimum control speed during approach and landing
C
D
VMD Minimum drag speed
E
F
VMO Maximum operating speed
G
VMP Minimum power speed H

I
VMU Minimum unstick speed J
K
Vp Aquaplaning speed L
M
VR Rotation speed N
P
VREF Reference landing speed
Q
R
Vs Stall speed
S
T
VSR Reference stall speed
V
Vso Stall speed in landing configuration W
VS1 Stall speed in specific configuration
Vslg One-g stall speed
Vx Best angle of climb speed
VY Best rate of climb speed

Vi Take-off decision speed
V2 Take-off safety speed
V2mjn Minimum take-off safety speed
w
W Weight
A
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
APPENDIX
Literature and
Regulations
Regulations
CAP 698 CAA JAR-FCL Examinations: Aeroplane Performance Manual. (3rd

Edition)
European Commission. (2012, Oct 25). Commission Regulation (EU) No

965/2012 of 5 October 2012 laying down technical requirements and
administrative procedures related to air operations pursuant to Regulation
(EC) No 216/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official
Journal of the European Union. L 296/1.
APPENDIX
Formulae
Fa = I CApv2A
Where:
• Fa is any aerodynamic force caused by air flowing around and object (drag,
lift...)
• CA is the coefficient describing how much of the aerodynamic force is
created in given conditions (and differs for drag and lift depending on type
of wing, shape of aircraft, configuration...)
• p is the density of air (considered for now constant in our snapshots of level
flight)
• v is the speed at which the airplane flies relative to the surrounding air
• A is the surface area over which the air flows to create the force (wing area,
aircraft cross-section)
L = E + mg cos 0
Where:
• Lis the lift

• E is the elevator downward lift
• m is the aircraft’s mass
• g is the acceleration due to gravity and
• 0 is the angle of climb, or the angle between the local horizontal plane and
the aircraft’s path
Power
Angles of climb and descent
T—D
Angle of climb = sin 7 = w
D — T
Angle of descent = sin 7 =
Rate of climb
ROC
Rate of descent
ROD =* w
Specific fuel consumption
SFC = FF x
jet OP Hprop
Specific range
i
SR = v x FF
SR = v x
(Tjet or Pprop) x SFC
Aquaplaning speed
The speed at which aquaplaning is likely to happen depends on tyre pressure,

p, and contaminant specific gravity, o. Specific gravity of water, the most
common contaminant, is 1.
p
8
Take-off field requirements
TODA = TORA + clearway

ASDA = TORA + stopway
h gradient

Aground — da|r X GS
TAS
Cost index = Time costs

Fuel costs
APPENDIX
Learning Objectives
Below, you can find the Learning Objectives of this subject as designed by
EASA and contained in Amendments 4, 6 and 8 to AMC/GM to Part-FCL (ED
Decision 2018/001/R, ED Decision 2018/011/R and ED Decision
2019/017/R) that came into effect in 2020.
Note that the term 'mass’ is used to describe a quantity of matter, and weight’
when describing the force. However, the term weight’ is normally used in aviation
to colloquially describe mass. The professional pilot should always note the units to
determine whether the term weight’ is being used to describe a force (e.g. unit
newton) or quantity of matter (e.g. unit kilogram).
For theoretical knowledge examination purposes:
• Climb angle is assumed to be air-mass-related.

• Flight-path angle is assumed to be ground-related.
• Screen height for take-off is the vertical distance between the take-off
surface and the take-off flight path at the end of the take-off distance.
• Screen height for landing is the vertical distance between the landing
surface and the landing flight path from which the landing distance begins.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

032 Performance

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

032 Performance

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

032 Performance

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aviationefflam

FIRST EDITION 224

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

1.2. EASA certification specifications

1.3. Operational requirements

1.4. EASA performance classes

2. General Performance Theory

2.1.1. Stages of flight

2.1.2. Steady flight

2.1.3. The four basic forces

2.1.4. Horizontal flight

2.1.7. Thrust and power

2.1.9. Thrust available - propeller engine >

2.1.10. Thrust required >

2.2. Effect of variables on aeroplane performance >

2.2.1. Thrust vs. altitude >

2.2.2. Thrust vs. mass >

2.2.3. Power available >

2.2.4. Power required >

2.2.5. Power vs. altitude >

2.2.6. Power vs. mass >

2.2.7. Minimum and maximum speeds >

2.2.8. Effect of altitude >

2.2.9. Effect of mass >

2.2.10. Angle of climb >

2.2.11. Rate of climb >

2.2.12. Factors affecting climb performance >

2.2.13. Angle of descent >

2.2.14. Rate of descent >

2.2.19. Take-off and landing

2.2.20. Aerodrome distances

3. Class B Single-Engine Airplanes

3.3. Factors affecting performance

3.4.1. Corrections and considerations

3.4.2. Take-off performance charts

3.5.1. Corrections and considerations

3.5.2. Landing performance charts

3.6.1. Corrections and considerations

3.6.3. Climb performance charts

3.7.1. Corrections and considerations

3.7.2. Cruise performance charts

3.7.3. Glide distance calculations

4. Class B Multi-Engine Airplanes

4.1.2. Critical engine

4.2.1. Corrections and considerations

4.2.2. Take-off performance charts

4.3.1. Corrections and considerations

4.3.2. Landing performance charts

4.4.1. Corrections and considerations

4.5.1. Corrections and considerations

4.5.2. Drift-down procedure

4.5.3. Cruise performance charts

5. Performance Class A - Airplanes

5.3.1. Take-off distances

5.3.2. Effects of runway line-up

5.3.3. Effects of inappropriate rotation

5.3.4. Contaminated runways

5.3.5. Aircraft classification number

5.3.6. Engine flat-rating