Male Perspective On Construction of Masculinity Is
Male Perspective On Construction of Masculinity Is
Male Perspective On Construction of Masculinity Is
163
How to Cite This Article: Khan, A. & Malik, R. (2023). Male Perspective on Construction of Masculinity:
Issues and Challenges in Lahore. Journal of Social Sciences Review, 3(1), 737-746.
https://doi.org/10.54183/jssr.v3i1.163
Vol. 3, No. 1 (Winter 2023) Abstract: Masculinity is the dominant gender discourse of masculine behaviour
embedded in men’s everyday practices, behaviours, and actions. Since at least
Pages: 737 – 746
the 1980s, these gendered social norms have been argued to create stress,
ISSN (Print): 2789-441X strain, and conflicts for men. Investigating those experiences and circumstances
where gender patterns are less or more open to change is an important task of
ISSN (Online): 2789-4428
this research. Therefore, this study aims to include men in the “study up”
approach of the gender research domain and include their experiences in the
Key Words conversation of gendered lobbying under patriarchal perceptions. Using the
Male Perspectives, Masculinity, Gender Role Strain paradigm as a guiding framework, the study intends to
Gender Role Strain, Essentialism, explore the male perspective on the construction of masculinity in
Constructionism contemporary Pakistani society. A qualitative phenomenological research
design has been used, and snowball and purposive sampling techniques are
Corresponding Author: used in conjunction for the recruitment of participants with the help of pre-
defined inclusion criteria. The participants of the study are diverse in terms of
Amna Khan age, educational background, and family situation. Each participant was
Email: aymmi71@yahoo.com interviewed at length using an in-depth interview guide, including topics from
the beginning of childhood across the lifespan. The result of the interviews
supports the social constructionist perspective of masculinity and also focuses
on the strain and challenges of the masculine norms associated with the
existing conceptions of masculinity and gender role strain.
Introduction
“Everybody has heard the women’s stories. But concept of power into the social constructionist
nobody has heard the men’s” (Clark, 2014). views of gender and argued that it is this
existence of a power that serves and encourages
Gender is considered a system in which men and
the gender dichotomy (Brod & Kaufman, 1994).
women act out the roles attributed to them on the
basis of their sex, i.e., assigned societal divisions Feminists (Daly & Lind, 1988; Heimer, 2000)
(Ewing & Schacht, 1998). Hearn and Collinson argued that gender must be seen as a product of
(1998) argue that gender is essentially linked to power relations between both sexes: males and
sex categories but socially constructed and females, not simply the conformation of roles
changeable. Connell (1995) and West and and configuration of masculine or feminine
Zimmerman (1987) maintained the fluid nature behaviours. Scholars like Coles (2009), Connell
of gender. Two debates exist in reference to (1995), and Tranter (2005) said that men are the
sex/gender categories: first and foremost, it is main holders of all the powers. So, the
related to the apparent naturalness of superordinate position that men have relative to
gender/sex; and the other is in relation to power. the other sex is seen as certain and accepted, too.
Perhaps, it was feminists who initiated the This male dominance is embedded in all
Amna Khan and Raana Malik
institutions, such as the economy, religion, more strictly than feminine behaviour is
ideology, family and politics (Eckert & expected from girls, and it is demanded and
McConnell-Ginet, 2003; Lorber, 1994). Through promoted from a very early age. These superior
these institutions, gender norms of hegemonic traits must be seemed and followed by any male
masculinity and femininity are learned and child (Taubman, 2018). Consequently, men are
perpetuated (Bozok, 2012). As endorsed by Lorber constrained by cultural norms and standards of
(2005), masculinity and femininity are not society to show masculine traits.
inborn, i.e. children are taught these traits.
Therefore, gender is not simply seen as roles and Table 1
attributes of males and females but as power Robert Brannon (1976) presents traditional ideals of
relations between the two groups. Society and masculinity
cultures have prescriptive standards of
Masculine Ideals Traits
masculinity and femininity, which are directed
Earns
and judged in order to maintain male domination.
Breadwinner money/Provider of
Within a patriarchal cultural context, there family
are definite socially constructed gender roles and
Independent Takes action /Violent
behaviours about what it means to be a man
/Aggressive if necessary
(Thomos & Levant, 2012). Expectations related to
masculinity have been shown to influence men Solves
towards certain behaviours, which are mostly Achieving problems/Enjoys
exercised to avoid feminine behaviours, /Unemotional “masculine”
restricting emotions, assuming authority and activities
being a provider & breadwinner of the family, Hard-
Gets the job done
striving for status and achievement, especially in working/Physical
sports and work (Edwards & Jones, 2009). Males Dominant
Takes control
and females understand their masculinity and /Competitive
femininity through family, peer groups and
acquaintances and learn how to socialize into Heterosexual/Forceful Initiates sex
dichotomous “traditional” gender roles. These
systems of social learning are considered identity These traditional gender roles of men, endorsed
processes that the family and other primary by various theories of gender and researchers, are
groups help to create and maintain (Carter, 2014) masculine ideals for being a real man in any
So, it is expected to be a man in any patriarchal society (Bozok, 2011; Connell, 2005;
patriarchal culture. Men must follow the Davis & Lacker, 2004; Fields et al., 2015; Hadebe,
traditional ideals of masculinity. Traditional 2010). Focusing on traditional gender roles of
masculine ideals are the main source for males to masculinity, whether obeying these ideals or not,
execute sexist and patriarchal values, which have believes that experiences associated with it are
negative outcomes and affect their interpersonal purely reactions to masculinity (Harris & Harper,
relationships (O’Neil, 2008). It distresses family 2008; Kahn, 2009). These traditional gender
in the form of husband & wife relationship, roles are produced in specific situations, and
fatherhood and even their own selves because these might include the educational system,
family is the primary institution which customary laws and regulations, the state and its
perpetuates and rationalizes masculinity and mechanism, religion, culture, media and
femininity (Amin, Adebayo, Chandra &Kageston, especially family, as discussed earlier.
2018). Masculine traits are demanded from boys
738 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions
Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 739
Amna Khan and Raana Malik
women, and thereby supports the male two broader theoretical positions are used:
chauvinist status quo. However, scholars, essentialism and constructionism. This study
activists and feminists are now increasingly stresses the argument that the social
acknowledging the importance of including men constructionist approach is more suitable for
(Connell, 1995 & 2005; England, 2010; Esplen, understanding the complexity and diversity of
2006; Peretz, 2016). masculinity and exploring how masculine
identities are formed and facing strains in the
The work on gender-related issues has been
situation of changing gender roles and relations.
carried out in Pakistan, too. Being head of the
Connell (2005) states that in the popular ideology
family and being breadwinner, and being non-
of masculinity, it is often believed to be a natural
expressive were dominant roles of a Pakistani
consequence of male biology for the better
man. Family is the primary institution that
understanding of these problems, strains and
sustains these gender ideals. A Plethora of
challenges. Pleck (1981) first proposed the
research (Akhtar & Akbar, 2016; Ali & Gavino,
“gender role strain” paradigm of masculinity,
2008; Hussain, Habib & Akhter, 2014; Rehman &
and according to this paradigm, Strains arise when
Roomi, 2012; Rabbani, Qureshi, & Rizvi, 2008;
males’ gender role displays deviate from the
Raza, 2007; Tahir, 2017) were conducted on
dominant, or hegemonic, masculine ideology,
feminism, and transgender peoples, women
defined as a set of socially constructed norms that
rights, possibilities and limitations of women
dictate appropriate male behaviour (Thompson &
often presented men as problematic, but the
Pleck, 1995). Up to the present theories, Pleck’s
problem of other sex male is invisible in the
GRSP has been an extremely recognized and
Pakistani literature. So far, studying the down
endorsed theory in both psychological and
approach can be seen clearly in the domain of
sociological fields, and it proposes that when
gender research. Gender researches in Pakistan,
men are socialized in a traditionally masculine
mainly working on masculinity, only focus on
way, they suffer from the negative consequences
shifting tradition of masculinity, changing
of the social pressure to perform that traditional
gender patterns, representation of masculinity in
masculinity.
linguistics, masculinity & psychological well-
being of men, economic and breadwinner role of
men (Ali et al., 2011; Adil, Shahid & Arshad, 2017) Methodology
Qualitative methodology is mostly used to gather
Due to the absence of a study approach in a
an in-depth understanding of individuals,
gender research area unavailability of literature
phenomena, or events when quantitative
on male role attitudes and relatable strains, it has
methods are not suitable or limited (Patterson,
not yet been studied in a local context that draws
2002) as this study explores an in-depth
its importance for a researcher to explore it in
understanding of masculinity and gender role
Pakistan. Therefore, this study aims to include
strain, its propagation and its existence in
men in the “study up” approach of the gender
Pakistan. It is appropriate for a qualitative
research domain and include the male
approach to be taken. For the selection of the
perspective on contemporary masculine models
right sample size for a phenomenological
and possible threats by exploring their
research design study, it has been recommended
experiences in the conversation of gendered
that interviewing as few as five participants is
lobbying under patriarchal perceptions. The
sufficient, and twenty-five are acceptable until
present study may be a pioneering step in this
saturation is achieved. In this study, 25
particular area of masculinity and aims to explore
participants were interviewed, which is seen as
the severity of gender role strain related to men.
the ideal sample in phenomenological research
Moreover, to understand gender and masculinity,
design. In this qualitative study, two sampling
740 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions
Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 741
Amna Khan and Raana Malik
participants’ point of view about masculinity society is not like before. His command and sub-
seems to be learned from their father’s role, and ordinances are not like before. So, by brainwashing
their opinions were influenced by their religion my wife, I kept telling her that her job was not so
too. The most male often referred to religious important and you are doing this because of her own
belief in their answers, specifically when they choice. There is no competition between us. The last
talk about their family responsibilities and decision will be mine in every matter. Always
breadwinning role: remember I’m the man of the house, so” 34-year guy
742 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions
a way that they can be distinguished and get In this research study, most of the
respect. The same participant claim that: It participants claim that they are not opting for
provides them with a feeling of acceptance and changing gender roles as they should be
excites/soothes their masculinity. considered for an egalitarian society, but they are
taking it as a compulsion because of economic
This study also pictures these two facts that
crisis, unemployment issues, status and evolving
normative standards of masculinity are
new society. It also demonstrates that being true
compromising, or we can say that it is in crisis.
to the expectations of society rather than to
As mentioned earlier, the term crisis in
oneself does not really lead to contentment but
masculinity discourse refers to the
causes stress and discrepancies to one who
transformation of roles instead of ruination.
expects wealth, fame, and social position to offer.
Hamber’s (2010) scholarly work asserts that male
Just as Levent et al. (2017) and Brannon (1976)
role strains are caused by the social transitions
also stressed that this transition of gender roles
through which traditional masculine roles have
could potentially result in role confusion and
become obsolete and dysfunctional. In order to
strains. The outcomes indicate that males have
deal with these challenges, it is necessary for
experienced conflicting and unclear criteria for
them to recognize their pain and suffering. The
masculinity. As be successful turns out to be more
effects caused by a certain type of masculinity
challenging as a product of a perplexing and
caused emotional, physical and psychological
changeable standard of masculinity that is
damage to their well-being. Shortly, they have to
shrinking and exalted. Among the more
be a “new man.
prominent findings has been the connection in
The contemporary composed masculinity men between low self-esteem and restrictive
develops to eliminate a few facets of traditional emotionality, restrictive affectionate behaviour,
normative masculinity and its practices but not and discrepancies between work/family
all aspects, for instance, occupational relationships and a strong element of religion
achievement, breadwinning and heterosexuality regarding the primary breadwinner
which cause strains and role confusion. In
accordance with another study in Pakistan, the Conclusions
supreme masculine roles caused extreme gender
This article illustrates that the Pakistani context
role strain among Pakistani men, and now the
owes to a specific culture which creates and
changing gender roles in urban spaces are adding
makes stronger the understanding and meanings
fuel to the fire (Adil, Shahed & Arshad, 2017).
of masculinity. Having an awareness of the
Similarly, a participant said:
existence of the crisis of masculinity and its
“One of his colleagues confronted him that His multiple meanings challenges prejudgments and
wife is BS-17 Officer and he is BS-15 (as the notions about the normative masculine ideals in
breadwinning and authoritative role is associated men. The findings reveal that the structured
with the Male gender). It gives him psychological patriarchal system has extreme effects on males’
stress, and as a consequence, he has become a chain early childhood and adolescent socialization.
smoker and can’t be much friendly to his wife. He is
Predominantly, it reveals that the persisting
more reluctant and reserved in front of her, even
culture of masculinity has been traumatizing and
though he understands the fact that there should be
damaging the emotional and socio-psychological
no scale or educational differences between them, but
development of men, their sexual orientation and
still, he is unable to cope with these feelings because
exaggerated gender patterns and difference.
of societal pressures within his family or public
Males are positioned in a cultural context in such
gathering.”
a way that they are propelled to live up to the
Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 743
Amna Khan and Raana Malik
standards of masculinity and condemned if they Burn, S. M., & Ward, A. Z. (2005). Men's
are expressing their emotional, mental, and Conformity to Traditional Masculinity and
overall feelings. One of the main reasons for male Relationship Satisfaction. Psychology of men &
gender victimization or suffering is anxiety, masculinity, 6(4), 254.
addiction and abuse related to gender roles Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive
because they are not prone to connect and theory of gender development and
interact efficiently with others in friendly and differentiation. Psychological review, 106(4),
long-term behaviours. Therefore, males stray 676.
within a challenging space and compromise their Carter, M. (2014). Gender Socialization and
human agency. So, to fulfil this gap and to get rid Identity Theory. Social Sciences, 3(2), 242–
of their anxiety entirely, they become obsessed 263. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci3020242
and addicted to behaviours, such as risky abusive Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of
behaviour, drug consumption, money and work. mothering. Berkeley: University.
Clark, J. N. (2014). A crime of identity: Rape and its
References neglected victims. Journal of Human
Adil, F., Shahed, S., & Arshad, H. (2017). The Rights, 13(2), 146-169.
burden of being a man in a patriarchal Coles, T. (2009). Negotiating the field of masculinity:
society. Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 4(2), The production and reproduction of multiple
57-70. dominant masculinities. Men and
Akhter, N., & Akbar, R. (2016). Critical Analysis of masculinities, 12(1), 30-44.
Life of Pakistani Women: Views of Educated Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities: Knowledge,
Women. Journal of Elementary Education, 26(1), power and social change. Berkeley/Los.
111–121. Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities: Knowledge,
Ali, P. A., & Gavino, M. I. B. (2008). Violence power and social change. Berkeley/Los.
against women in Pakistan: A framework for Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005).
analysis. Journal-Pakistan Medical Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the
Association, 58(4), 198. Concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859.
Amin, A., Kågesten, A., Adebayo, E., & Chandra- https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
Mouli, V. (2018). Addressing Gender Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005).
Socialization and Masculinity Norms Among Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the
Adolescent Boys: Policy and Programmatic Concept. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859.
Implications. Journal of Adolescent Health, https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639
62(3), S3–S5. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.06.0 inquiry & research design: Choosing among five
22 approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Blazina, C., & Watkins Jr, C. E. (1996). Masculine Daly, K., & Chesney-Lind, M. (1988). Feminism
gender role conflict: Effects on college men's and criminology. Justice Quarterly, 5(4), 497–
psychological well-being, chemical 538.
substance usage, and attitudes towards help- https://doi.org/10.1080/07418828800089871
seeking. Journal of Counseling Davis, T., & Laker, J. A. (2004). Connecting men
Psychology, 43(4), 461. to academic and student affairs programs and
Bozok, M. (2012). Constructing local masculinities: A services. New Directions for Student Services,
case study from Trabzon, Turkey. 2004(107), 47–57.
Brod, H., & Kaufman, M. (Eds.). (1994). Theorizing https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.132
masculinities (Vol. 5). Sage Publications Davis, T., & Laker, J. A. (2004). Connecting men
to academic and student affairs programs and
744 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions
services. New Directions for Student Services, Hearn, J., & Collinson, D. L. (1998). Men,
2004(107), 47–57. masculinities, managements and organisational
https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.132 culture. German Journal of Human Resource
Eckert, P., & Mcconnell-Ginet, S. (2003). Management, 12(2), 210-222.
Language and Gender. New York: Cambridge. Heimer, K. (2000). Changes in the gender gap in
Edwards, K. E., & Jones, S. R. (2009). “Putting My crime and women’s economic marginalization.
Man Face On”: A Grounded Theory of College Criminal Justice, 1, 427-483.
Men’s Gender Identity Development. Journal Hussain, S., Habib, B., &Akhter, J. (2014).
of College Student Development, 50(2), 210– Computational Analysis of" Stereotypes as
228. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0063 Cause of Gender Inequality": A Study of
England, P. (2010). The Gender Revolution: Universities of South Punjab,
Uneven and stalled. Gender & Society, 24(2), Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences
149–166. (PJSS), 34(2).
https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243210361475 Kahn, J. S. (2009). An introduction to masculinities.
Esplen, E. (2006). Engaging men in gender equality: John Wiley & Sons.
positive strategies and approaches: overview and Lorber, J. (1994). Paradoxes of gender. Yale
annotated bibliography. Institute Of University Press.
Development Studies, University of Sussex. Lorber, J. (2004). “Night to his day”: The social
Fields, E. L., Bogart, L. M., Smith, K. C., construction of gender. Race, class, and gender in
Malebranche, D. J., Ellen, J., & Schuster, M. A. the United States: An integrated study, 6, 54-65.
(2015). “I Always Felt I Had to Prove My O’Neil, J. M. (2008). Summarizing 25 Years of
Manhood”: Homosexuality, Masculinity, Research on Men’s Gender Role Conflict
Gender Role Strain, and HIV Risk Among Using the Gender Role Conflict Scale. The
Young Black Men Who Have Sex with Men. Counselling Psychologist, 36(3), 358–445.
American Journal of Public Health, 105(1), 122– https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008317057
131. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2013.301866 Peretz, T. (2016). Why Study Men and
Fischer, A. R. (2007). Parental relationship Masculinities? A Theorized Research
quality and masculine gender-role strain in Review. Graduate Journal of Social
young men: Mediating effects of Science, 12(3).
personality. The Counseling Rabbani, F., Qureshi, F., & Rizvi, N. (2008).
Psychologist, 35(2), 328-358. Perspectives on domestic violence: case study
Gelfer, J. (2016). The Five Stages of Masculinity: from Karachi, Pakistan. Eastern Mediterranean
A New Model for Understanding Health Journal = La Revue de Sante de La
Masculinities. Masculinities & Social Change, Mediterranee Orientale = Al-Majallah Al-
5(3), 268. Sihhiyah Li-Sharq Al-Mutawassit, 14(2), 415–
https://doi.org/10.17583/mcs.2016.2169 426.
Hadebe, L. (2010). Zulu masculinity: culture, faith https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18561735
and the constitution in the South African Raza, F. A. (2007). Reasons for the Lack of
context (Doctoral dissertation). Women’s Participation in Pakistan’s
Harris, F., & Harper, S. R. (2008). Masculinities go Workforce. Journal of Middle East Women’s
to community college: Understanding male Studies, 3(3), 99–102.
identity socialization and gender role conflict. https://doi.org/10.2979/mew.2007.3.3.99
New Directions for Community Colleges, Rehman, S., & Azam Roomi, M. (2012). Gender
2008(142), 25–35. and work‐life balance: a phenomenological
https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.322 study of women entrepreneurs in Pakistan.
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise
Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 745
Amna Khan and Raana Malik
Development, 19(2), 209–228. Thomas, K. D., & Levent, R. F. (2012). Does the
https://doi.org/10.1108/14626001211223865 endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology
Schacht, S., & Ewing, D. (Eds.). (1998). Feminism moderate the relationship between exposure to
and men: Reconstructing gender relations. NYU violent video games and aggression?. The Journal
Press. of Men’s Studies, 20(1), 47-56.
Schwartz, J. P., Waldo, M., & Daniel, D. (2005). Thompson Jr, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1995).
Gender-Role Conflict and Self-Esteem: Masculinity ideologies: A review of research
Factors Associated With Partner Abuse in instrumentation on men and masculinities.
Court-Referred Men. Psychology of Men & Tranter, D. (2005). Different than dad: a
Masculinity, 6(2), 109. phenomenological exploration of masculine
Smiler, A. P., & Gelman, S. A. (2008). gender role strain (Doctoral dissertation,
Determinants of Gender Essentialism in Memorial University of Newfoundland).
College Students. Sex Roles, 58(11-12), 864– West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing
874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008- gender. Gender & society, 1(2), 125-151.
9402-x
Tahir, M. (2017). Domestic Violence against
Women in Pakistan and its Solution from an
Islamic Perspective: A Critical and Analytical
Study. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2986723
746 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428