Male Perspective On Construction of Masculinity Is

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Journal of Social Sciences Review (JSSR) DOI: https://doi.org/10.54183/jssr.v3i1.

163

How to Cite This Article: Khan, A. & Malik, R. (2023). Male Perspective on Construction of Masculinity:
Issues and Challenges in Lahore. Journal of Social Sciences Review, 3(1), 737-746.
https://doi.org/10.54183/jssr.v3i1.163

Male Perspective on Construction of Masculinity: Issues and


Challenges in Lahore

PhD Scholar, Department of Gender Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore,


Amna Khan
Punjab, Pakistan.
Chairperson, Department of Gender Studies, University of the Punjab, Lahore,
Raana Malik
Punjab, Pakistan.

Vol. 3, No. 1 (Winter 2023) Abstract: Masculinity is the dominant gender discourse of masculine behaviour
embedded in men’s everyday practices, behaviours, and actions. Since at least
Pages: 737 – 746
the 1980s, these gendered social norms have been argued to create stress,
ISSN (Print): 2789-441X strain, and conflicts for men. Investigating those experiences and circumstances
where gender patterns are less or more open to change is an important task of
ISSN (Online): 2789-4428
this research. Therefore, this study aims to include men in the “study up”
approach of the gender research domain and include their experiences in the
Key Words conversation of gendered lobbying under patriarchal perceptions. Using the
Male Perspectives, Masculinity, Gender Role Strain paradigm as a guiding framework, the study intends to
Gender Role Strain, Essentialism, explore the male perspective on the construction of masculinity in
Constructionism contemporary Pakistani society. A qualitative phenomenological research
design has been used, and snowball and purposive sampling techniques are
Corresponding Author: used in conjunction for the recruitment of participants with the help of pre-
defined inclusion criteria. The participants of the study are diverse in terms of
Amna Khan age, educational background, and family situation. Each participant was
Email: aymmi71@yahoo.com interviewed at length using an in-depth interview guide, including topics from
the beginning of childhood across the lifespan. The result of the interviews
supports the social constructionist perspective of masculinity and also focuses
on the strain and challenges of the masculine norms associated with the
existing conceptions of masculinity and gender role strain.

Introduction
“Everybody has heard the women’s stories. But concept of power into the social constructionist
nobody has heard the men’s” (Clark, 2014). views of gender and argued that it is this
existence of a power that serves and encourages
Gender is considered a system in which men and
the gender dichotomy (Brod & Kaufman, 1994).
women act out the roles attributed to them on the
basis of their sex, i.e., assigned societal divisions Feminists (Daly & Lind, 1988; Heimer, 2000)
(Ewing & Schacht, 1998). Hearn and Collinson argued that gender must be seen as a product of
(1998) argue that gender is essentially linked to power relations between both sexes: males and
sex categories but socially constructed and females, not simply the conformation of roles
changeable. Connell (1995) and West and and configuration of masculine or feminine
Zimmerman (1987) maintained the fluid nature behaviours. Scholars like Coles (2009), Connell
of gender. Two debates exist in reference to (1995), and Tranter (2005) said that men are the
sex/gender categories: first and foremost, it is main holders of all the powers. So, the
related to the apparent naturalness of superordinate position that men have relative to
gender/sex; and the other is in relation to power. the other sex is seen as certain and accepted, too.
Perhaps, it was feminists who initiated the This male dominance is embedded in all
Amna Khan and Raana Malik

institutions, such as the economy, religion, more strictly than feminine behaviour is
ideology, family and politics (Eckert & expected from girls, and it is demanded and
McConnell-Ginet, 2003; Lorber, 1994). Through promoted from a very early age. These superior
these institutions, gender norms of hegemonic traits must be seemed and followed by any male
masculinity and femininity are learned and child (Taubman, 2018). Consequently, men are
perpetuated (Bozok, 2012). As endorsed by Lorber constrained by cultural norms and standards of
(2005), masculinity and femininity are not society to show masculine traits.
inborn, i.e. children are taught these traits.
Therefore, gender is not simply seen as roles and Table 1
attributes of males and females but as power Robert Brannon (1976) presents traditional ideals of
relations between the two groups. Society and masculinity
cultures have prescriptive standards of
Masculine Ideals Traits
masculinity and femininity, which are directed
Earns
and judged in order to maintain male domination.
Breadwinner money/Provider of
Within a patriarchal cultural context, there family
are definite socially constructed gender roles and
Independent Takes action /Violent
behaviours about what it means to be a man
/Aggressive if necessary
(Thomos & Levant, 2012). Expectations related to
masculinity have been shown to influence men Solves
towards certain behaviours, which are mostly Achieving problems/Enjoys
exercised to avoid feminine behaviours, /Unemotional “masculine”
restricting emotions, assuming authority and activities
being a provider & breadwinner of the family, Hard-
Gets the job done
striving for status and achievement, especially in working/Physical
sports and work (Edwards & Jones, 2009). Males Dominant
Takes control
and females understand their masculinity and /Competitive
femininity through family, peer groups and
acquaintances and learn how to socialize into Heterosexual/Forceful Initiates sex
dichotomous “traditional” gender roles. These
systems of social learning are considered identity These traditional gender roles of men, endorsed
processes that the family and other primary by various theories of gender and researchers, are
groups help to create and maintain (Carter, 2014) masculine ideals for being a real man in any
So, it is expected to be a man in any patriarchal society (Bozok, 2011; Connell, 2005;
patriarchal culture. Men must follow the Davis & Lacker, 2004; Fields et al., 2015; Hadebe,
traditional ideals of masculinity. Traditional 2010). Focusing on traditional gender roles of
masculine ideals are the main source for males to masculinity, whether obeying these ideals or not,
execute sexist and patriarchal values, which have believes that experiences associated with it are
negative outcomes and affect their interpersonal purely reactions to masculinity (Harris & Harper,
relationships (O’Neil, 2008). It distresses family 2008; Kahn, 2009). These traditional gender
in the form of husband & wife relationship, roles are produced in specific situations, and
fatherhood and even their own selves because these might include the educational system,
family is the primary institution which customary laws and regulations, the state and its
perpetuates and rationalizes masculinity and mechanism, religion, culture, media and
femininity (Amin, Adebayo, Chandra &Kageston, especially family, as discussed earlier.
2018). Masculine traits are demanded from boys

738 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions

Stages of Development of Masculinity conflict between men and women. In response to


Gelfer (2016) presented a model for a better feminist movements, male liberation assembled
understanding and thinking of masculinity called for men to liberate themselves from sex
the Five Stages of Masculinity (FSM). stereotypes; they claimed that women were not
the only gender who was subjugated through
Stage 1: Unconscious masculinity signifies that the constrained gender roles. Society expects men to
normative social construction of masculinity has behave accordingly to traditional male ideals,
been accepted by both genders without even too. Conformity to masculine ideals of perceived
thinking about it. The rationale of this stage is expectations and refusal can further lead to
prone to the practices through which it strains and conflict (Sawyer, 1970). This stance
negatively influences the world: aggression, instigated the men’s discourse, and literature
violence, dominance, power and control, started to propose that masculine roles were also
economics and mismanagement of the social troublesome to men as it is to women (Chodorow,
settings as a whole. 1978; O’Neil, 2008).

Numerous empirical kinds of research have


Stage 2: Conscious masculinity has variations of all
consensus that strong devotion to male gender
the stages. The general idea of these variations is
norms is associated with a wide range of negative
the understanding of masculinity. There is a level
psychological outcomes, including shame,
of adaptation of rules that takes place around
depression, anxiety, anger, substance use, lower
contemporary masculinity.
relational satisfaction, and domestic violence
(Blazina & Watkins, 1996; Burn & Ward, 2005;
Stage 3: Critical masculinities are highly associated
Schwartz, Waldo & Daniel, 2005). However,
with feminism. As society operates via
despite these negative effects, many men stick to
domination, which oppresses atypical men (such
the male gender role, saying that there is a strong
as gay men and straight men who resist
drive for them to do so. Social learning theories
patriarchy), masculinity is not natural but rather
on gender suggest that this motivation is the
socially constructed. Masculinity is not only
reward and punishment of the socialization
singular but plural too. In other words,
process (Busey & Bandura, 1999). So, if
changeable.
masculinity is the reason for various ills and if it
is not fixed, then we should think first and act
Stage 4: Multiple Masculinities are largely aligned
accordingly towards the way out of these
with queer theory. Five stages of masculinity
problems (Gelfer, 2016). Usually, in gender
interpret queer theory as wider than the
hierarchy, we are prone to “study down”, which
experiences of LGBTQ people.
means investigating the subordinate groups,
women and transgender peoples, and focusing on
Stage 5: Beyond Masculinities, stand by the bottom
their lives and experiences. But in the gender
line. That is, masculinity does not exist. As it
domain, studying up means studying the
doesn’t exist, there can be no crisis of
superordinate category “men”, and as men are at
masculinity. Of course, that is the reification of
the top of the gender hierarchy and get privileges
masculinity, and that is the problem (Gelfer,
from the subordination of women and other
2016).
genders, it still met with resistance (Peretz,
The key assumption of the FSM is that 2016). Because there is a general argument that
masculinity is not a fixed thing, and it is studying subordinated groups is needed to
changeable. Also, if we see it from a social achieve equality and human liberation, while
constructionist perspective, gender is not fixed. studying men re-centres men’s experiences,
The feminist movement in the 1970s created draws attention and resources away from

Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 739
Amna Khan and Raana Malik

women, and thereby supports the male two broader theoretical positions are used:
chauvinist status quo. However, scholars, essentialism and constructionism. This study
activists and feminists are now increasingly stresses the argument that the social
acknowledging the importance of including men constructionist approach is more suitable for
(Connell, 1995 & 2005; England, 2010; Esplen, understanding the complexity and diversity of
2006; Peretz, 2016). masculinity and exploring how masculine
identities are formed and facing strains in the
The work on gender-related issues has been
situation of changing gender roles and relations.
carried out in Pakistan, too. Being head of the
Connell (2005) states that in the popular ideology
family and being breadwinner, and being non-
of masculinity, it is often believed to be a natural
expressive were dominant roles of a Pakistani
consequence of male biology for the better
man. Family is the primary institution that
understanding of these problems, strains and
sustains these gender ideals. A Plethora of
challenges. Pleck (1981) first proposed the
research (Akhtar & Akbar, 2016; Ali & Gavino,
“gender role strain” paradigm of masculinity,
2008; Hussain, Habib & Akhter, 2014; Rehman &
and according to this paradigm, Strains arise when
Roomi, 2012; Rabbani, Qureshi, & Rizvi, 2008;
males’ gender role displays deviate from the
Raza, 2007; Tahir, 2017) were conducted on
dominant, or hegemonic, masculine ideology,
feminism, and transgender peoples, women
defined as a set of socially constructed norms that
rights, possibilities and limitations of women
dictate appropriate male behaviour (Thompson &
often presented men as problematic, but the
Pleck, 1995). Up to the present theories, Pleck’s
problem of other sex male is invisible in the
GRSP has been an extremely recognized and
Pakistani literature. So far, studying the down
endorsed theory in both psychological and
approach can be seen clearly in the domain of
sociological fields, and it proposes that when
gender research. Gender researches in Pakistan,
men are socialized in a traditionally masculine
mainly working on masculinity, only focus on
way, they suffer from the negative consequences
shifting tradition of masculinity, changing
of the social pressure to perform that traditional
gender patterns, representation of masculinity in
masculinity.
linguistics, masculinity & psychological well-
being of men, economic and breadwinner role of
men (Ali et al., 2011; Adil, Shahid & Arshad, 2017) Methodology
Qualitative methodology is mostly used to gather
Due to the absence of a study approach in a
an in-depth understanding of individuals,
gender research area unavailability of literature
phenomena, or events when quantitative
on male role attitudes and relatable strains, it has
methods are not suitable or limited (Patterson,
not yet been studied in a local context that draws
2002) as this study explores an in-depth
its importance for a researcher to explore it in
understanding of masculinity and gender role
Pakistan. Therefore, this study aims to include
strain, its propagation and its existence in
men in the “study up” approach of the gender
Pakistan. It is appropriate for a qualitative
research domain and include the male
approach to be taken. For the selection of the
perspective on contemporary masculine models
right sample size for a phenomenological
and possible threats by exploring their
research design study, it has been recommended
experiences in the conversation of gendered
that interviewing as few as five participants is
lobbying under patriarchal perceptions. The
sufficient, and twenty-five are acceptable until
present study may be a pioneering step in this
saturation is achieved. In this study, 25
particular area of masculinity and aims to explore
participants were interviewed, which is seen as
the severity of gender role strain related to men.
the ideal sample in phenomenological research
Moreover, to understand gender and masculinity,
design. In this qualitative study, two sampling

740 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions

techniques were used, i.e., Purposive and Masculine Normative Standards


Snowball sampling, as techniques can be used Several concepts have emerged from the data
alone or in conjunction with one another that mirror participants’ understandings of
(Creswell, 2018). The sample was selected by masculinity. These concepts included: tough
purpose with the help of pre-defined inclusion guy/ machoism, financially independent, and
criteria. But for the recruitment of participants, decision-making power. Some of the concepts,
snowball sampling was used. Participants were such as being gentle and having successful
recruited through acquaintances and colleagues. women, were seeming as the contemporary
The target population is Lahore, as it is one of the requirements of masculinity, while being a
main urban centres of Pakistan where gender breadwinner and having economic power were
roles are beginning to change through considered traditional and still persisting male
modernization, women empowerment and roles as professed by the participants.
awareness of rights, adopting western cultural
values through the influence of media as a Brave/ Tough man/ Machosim
supportive agent and increasing literacy level (Ali Having a muscular body and rough and tough
et al., 2011). To explore the research questions of appearance was a distinct feature of dominant
the study, in-depth interviews have been taken. masculinity for the participants, as they
After completing the interviews, data were associated it with the idea of power and
analyzed by listening to audio recordings and dominance.
transcribing each tape precisely, highlighting
and grouping the statements into themes, and The most important traits a man should have
sorting out those themes in addition to the final that he must be and he should be courage and brave.
narrative information and making the required He can do anything that he wants; he should have the
changes. In this whole process of interviewing quality to achieve something. As females are not so
and keen observation of the participants, brave and courageous, it’s a manly trait “ye Mardon
constructive information and themes that were ki shaan hai wo nidar hotay hain,” 34-years old
directly linked to their own perspectives, man.
challenges, and experiences emerged. “A man should be dominant, bossy, strong and tough,
The individual responses were then be authoritative and aggressive in times of need and
analyzed, compared and categorized with the whenever required. He is not supposed to be shy like
results of transcription of the in-depth a girl” 36-years old man.
interviews and afterwards triangulated and Different codes were slowly integrated
interpreted to illustrate results. The data from and connected with the conception of
interviews were transcribed and analyzed by masculinity, as far as interviews continued. They
using thematic analysis. associated the male muscular body with a
dominant form of masculinity as it is a plus for
them to be endorsed and expected by society and
Results
attract females also for heterosexual
Following themes have emerged from the
relationships.
findings of the study, which depict masculinity
beliefs and changing role ideas among the
Breadwinner/ Family man
participants. Quotations mentioned in this
Attributes associated with the male, for instance,
section are taken from the interviews, which are
the breadwinner: earner, dedicated and tough
discussed and support the finding of this
guy, and good father, all are compatible with this
research.
theme. Being a provider and family guy was one
of their insights into masculinity. Male

Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 741
Amna Khan and Raana Malik

participants’ point of view about masculinity society is not like before. His command and sub-
seems to be learned from their father’s role, and ordinances are not like before. So, by brainwashing
their opinions were influenced by their religion my wife, I kept telling her that her job was not so
too. The most male often referred to religious important and you are doing this because of her own
belief in their answers, specifically when they choice. There is no competition between us. The last
talk about their family responsibilities and decision will be mine in every matter. Always
breadwinning role: remember I’m the man of the house, so” 34-year guy

“A man carries the responsibilities of his


family on their shoulders, and his children and his Discussion
wife are simply sitting in the house and doing the Numerous key concepts evolve, which unfold the
domestic chores. I always thought and believed we participants’ viewpoints about traditional
are the man who will earn and run the family, not our meanings of masculinity. This study highlights
wives,” 34-year-old male. and endorses the reality that gender roles are in
transition in the urban centre, but still, we follow
“Our religion stresses that it’s a man's duty to
the stance of essentialism while dealing with
take complete responsibility for his family, he should
masculinity as Connell (2005) asserts that there
be a responsible man, and if we talk about man, he
is a popular belief about the ideology of
should be capable enough that he can look after his
masculinity that it is a natural product of male
family and fulfil the needs of his family in every
biology. Men accept and endorse an essentialist
possible way” 32-years old person.
stance of their masculinity, that masculinity is
So, when it comes to a man, you should not fixed. Similarly, the ideology of essentialism
be dependent on anybody and must stand on your limits the debate on gender as its stand of
own feet. You should be the breadwinner and biological determinism, which is regarded as
provider for your family. I understand a woman naturally given. Smiler and Gelman also suggest
might be the earner or provider for her family, but I that males are more essentialist than females
strongly believe that the breadwinner is more a (Smiler & Gelmen, 2008). However, the fluid
masculine role.” 36-year-old man. concept of gender is only permissible when we
deal with feminity. For instance, a participant
Decision-making power said that: Even today, the expectation of most people
The potential for decision-making power must from us is that males of the family should work and
belong to the male gender as it is vital for their earn money. Though if men choose to stay at home
insight into masculine identities. They will be devastating for their marking because they
considered it obligatory to develop harmonic might, even in our modern world, be looked at as
interaction and respectful connection with their weird, whereas women doing a job or staying at
spouses. In this regard, a participant said that; home get idealized.
“Even our spouses are our working partners, It also reveals that multiple masculinities
but the final decision is ours. We allowed them to exist in Pakistani men. Males construct their own
work. It’s our choice, not theirs. We will select which masculine hierarchy within their social spheres,
profession is best for them to work and when to like family and workplace, which places more
quit,”36-year-old male. worth on some males than others, e.g. males who
are stronger financially and have big
Admit new concepts as a compulsion for the sake achievements and authority are those who have
of society's acceptance and evade conflicts the tendency to feel extra special and respected
“Gender roles are changing, girls are also doing the by other males. Thus, they ensure to articulate
work that boys did, and the dominance of the man in their authoritative traits in social settings in such

742 Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 No. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428
Influence of Organizational Structure on Learners' Achievement at Public and Public-Private Partnership Model
Adopted institutions

a way that they can be distinguished and get In this research study, most of the
respect. The same participant claim that: It participants claim that they are not opting for
provides them with a feeling of acceptance and changing gender roles as they should be
excites/soothes their masculinity. considered for an egalitarian society, but they are
taking it as a compulsion because of economic
This study also pictures these two facts that
crisis, unemployment issues, status and evolving
normative standards of masculinity are
new society. It also demonstrates that being true
compromising, or we can say that it is in crisis.
to the expectations of society rather than to
As mentioned earlier, the term crisis in
oneself does not really lead to contentment but
masculinity discourse refers to the
causes stress and discrepancies to one who
transformation of roles instead of ruination.
expects wealth, fame, and social position to offer.
Hamber’s (2010) scholarly work asserts that male
Just as Levent et al. (2017) and Brannon (1976)
role strains are caused by the social transitions
also stressed that this transition of gender roles
through which traditional masculine roles have
could potentially result in role confusion and
become obsolete and dysfunctional. In order to
strains. The outcomes indicate that males have
deal with these challenges, it is necessary for
experienced conflicting and unclear criteria for
them to recognize their pain and suffering. The
masculinity. As be successful turns out to be more
effects caused by a certain type of masculinity
challenging as a product of a perplexing and
caused emotional, physical and psychological
changeable standard of masculinity that is
damage to their well-being. Shortly, they have to
shrinking and exalted. Among the more
be a “new man.
prominent findings has been the connection in
The contemporary composed masculinity men between low self-esteem and restrictive
develops to eliminate a few facets of traditional emotionality, restrictive affectionate behaviour,
normative masculinity and its practices but not and discrepancies between work/family
all aspects, for instance, occupational relationships and a strong element of religion
achievement, breadwinning and heterosexuality regarding the primary breadwinner
which cause strains and role confusion. In
accordance with another study in Pakistan, the Conclusions
supreme masculine roles caused extreme gender
This article illustrates that the Pakistani context
role strain among Pakistani men, and now the
owes to a specific culture which creates and
changing gender roles in urban spaces are adding
makes stronger the understanding and meanings
fuel to the fire (Adil, Shahed & Arshad, 2017).
of masculinity. Having an awareness of the
Similarly, a participant said:
existence of the crisis of masculinity and its
“One of his colleagues confronted him that His multiple meanings challenges prejudgments and
wife is BS-17 Officer and he is BS-15 (as the notions about the normative masculine ideals in
breadwinning and authoritative role is associated men. The findings reveal that the structured
with the Male gender). It gives him psychological patriarchal system has extreme effects on males’
stress, and as a consequence, he has become a chain early childhood and adolescent socialization.
smoker and can’t be much friendly to his wife. He is
Predominantly, it reveals that the persisting
more reluctant and reserved in front of her, even
culture of masculinity has been traumatizing and
though he understands the fact that there should be
damaging the emotional and socio-psychological
no scale or educational differences between them, but
development of men, their sexual orientation and
still, he is unable to cope with these feelings because
exaggerated gender patterns and difference.
of societal pressures within his family or public
Males are positioned in a cultural context in such
gathering.”
a way that they are propelled to live up to the

Journal of Social Sciences Review | Vol. 3 no. 1 (Winter 2023) | p-ISSN: 2789-441X | e-ISSN: 2789-4428 743
Amna Khan and Raana Malik

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