LECTURE 9

KINDS OF TESTS TO BE CONSTRUCTED

Introduction

All the kinds of tests on can be grouped into three major parts. The first
part is objective or multiple-choice test. The second is subjective
or essay type of test. And lastly, are short-answer tests. The multiple
choice tests are stated in form of questions, which are put in the
stem. You are expected to choose answers called options usually from
A, B, C, D and sometimes E that is correct or can fill the gap(s) underlined
or omitted in the stem. The essay type asks questions and sub-questions
(i.e. questions within a larger unit of questions) and requires you to
respond to these by writing full answers in full sentences and
paragraphs. Short-answer questions can take various forms. They can be
in form of fill-in-gaps, completion, matching, re-ordering, etc. in this kind
of test, you do not need to write full sentences for an answer.

Classification of Tests

They can be classified according to:

1. how they are administered(individual or group)

2. Scoring of the test(subjective or objective)
3. How leaner responds (power mastery +speed test)
4. Response subjects make – these could be performance and paper pencil
tests-
Performance - practical subjects

Paper pencil - writing.

5. What the test attempt to measure.

 (Sample and sign).=>sample – shows how much one knows and sign
=>signifying.

6. Teacher test and standardized tests.

Teacher test is flexible and variable while standardized test is not flexible.

Classification by Purpose

- Achievement test –assigned to measure accomplishment as a term that

determine what individual knows or can do to measure.
- Aptitude.
- Diagnostic
- Formative evaluation test.
- Summative evaluation test.
- Pre test.
- norm reference tests.
- Criterion reference test.

Format of the Test

What format would the test take?

We may have:

- Oral, written, or practical tests.

Written includes:

a) Objective.
b) Essay.

Factors which help in selecting a Test format

1. Consider the purpose of that particular test.

 Is it changing opinion or attitude? Essay tests satisfy this. If the test is for
guidance and counseling, then essay test is convenient.

2. Consider the time available to prepare. Essay questions are easy to prepare.
Objective questions take some time.
3. Consider the skill of writing. If one is skilled in writing objective questions,
then giving object is the best.
4. Consider the time available for marking.
Essays take more time.

5. Consider the number of students in the class.

Essay questions become very difficult to mark for a large number of students.

6. Consider the physical facilities available.

This is important especially for practical tests.

Classification by format/type of items

- Objective –includes multiple choice, matching, and true and false

- Essay/subjective- includes restricted response and extended
responses
Classification by mode of production

- Teacher-made tests
- Commercially produced tests
- Standardized tests
A test which has which has a fixed set of test/time, specific directions for
administration and scoring and has been given to a representative
sample/groups of individuals for the purpose of offsetting norms.

The process of administering a test to representative sample of test

taken for the purpose of offsetting norms is referred to as
Standardization of a test.

Essay type items

-Is an item/test which requires a response which has to be composed by the
examinee. The response can be as short as a couple of sentences or several
pages long. No single response or pattern of responses would be considered as
the correct answer. The question allows freedom of response and requires a
creative type of response. The degree of creativity required depends on the
structure of the question.

NB: There is no conflict between these two item types. For some instructional
purposes, the objective item may be most efficient, whereas for others the essay
question prove most satisfactory. Each type should be used where most
appropriate, with the appropriateness determined by the advantages and
limitations of each item/type.

Essay test requires on individual to organize and express ideas in your own
words. There is no freedom in object.

a) Essay tests consist of fewer questions. Fewer questions call for those
lengthy answers. Object are many but take less time to answer advantage
of object.
b) Different skills are applied in each type. In essay, thinking and writing is
applied. In objective, reading and thinking.
c) The quality of essay test is dependent on the skill of the marker/scorers.
Objective test quality depends on the person who constructs the
questions.
d) Essay tests are relatively easier to prepare but difficult to grade/mark
accurately and reliably. Object harder in preparation but early to mark –
accurately.

Objective Type Items

 In an objective test the question is asked in such a way that the answer will follow
a defined form. In consequence, the marker does not have to pass an opinion
on whether the answer is right or wrong.

Objective tests/items

-Are highly structured and requires the students to supply a word or two or to
select the correct answer from, a number of alternatives. Examples are;

i. Multiple choice questions.

ii. True/False questions
iii. Matching items
iv. Short answer.

There are two general types of objective questions or items.

(i) The supply type (short answer) or recall questions

(ii) The select type – where the student is required to select the right
answer. Also called recognition type

Example of select type:

- True /false type

- Matching
- Multiple choice

ACTIVITY 1

Explain using examples general types of objective questions :

(i) The supply type questions

(ii) The select type
Basic Principles for Constructing Multiple-Choice Questions

Multiple-choice questions are said to be objective in two ways. First is

that each student has an equal chance. He/she merely chooses
the correct options from the list of alternatives. The candidates have no
opportunity to express a different attitude or special opinion. Secondly,
the judgment and personality of the marker cannot influence the
correction in any way. Indeed, many objective tests are scored by
machines. This kind of test may be graded more quickly and objectively
than the subjective or the easy type. In constructing objective tests, the
following basic principles must be borne in mind.

1. The instruction of what the candidate should do must be clear, unambi

guous andprecise. Do not confuse the candidates. Let them know
whether they are to choose by ticking (√ ), by circling ( o ) or shading
the box in the answer sheet. Underlined or bold-faced to show the
most important part of the instruction or callattention to areas of
the instruction that must not be overlooked or forgotten.

2. The options (or alternatives) must be discriminating: some may be obv

iously wrongbut there must be options that are closely competing with
the correct option in terms of characteristics, related concept or
component parts.

Example: choose the option opposite in meaning to the underlined

word

i. Albert thinks Mary is antagonistic because of her angry tone.

a. noble
b. hostile.
c. friendly.
d. Harsh
ii. Answer the question above. State the options that are
competing with each other. State the options that are obviously
 wrong. Compare your answer with the discussion below. If you
have done Activity III very well, you will agree with me that option
C is the correct answer and that options A and B are competing. A
if the candidate remembers that the answer should be in the
Opposite and B, if he/she has forgotten this fact.

iii. The correct option should not be loner or shorter than the rest, i.e.
the incorrect options. Differences in length of options may call
the attention of the candidate. The stem of an item must clearly
state the problem. The options should be brief.
a. As much as possible, you should make alternatives difficult to
guess.Guessing reduces the validity of the test and makes
undeserved candidates pass with no academic effort. The
distractions must be plausible, adequate and attractive. They
should be related to the stem.
iv. Only one option must be correct. Do not set objective tests where
two or moreoptions are correct. You confuse a brilliant student and
cause undeserved failure.
v. The objective tests should be based on the syllabus, what is taught,
or expected to be taught. It must provoke deep reasoning, critical
thinking, and value judgments.
vi. Avoid the use of negative statements in the stem of an item. When
used, you should underline the negative word.
vii. Every item should be independent of other items.
viii. Avoid the use of phrases like “all of the above, all of these, none
of these or none of the above”

i. The reading difficulty and vocabulary level must be as simple as p

ossible.

Basic Principles for Constructing Short-Answer Tests

Some of the principles for constructing multiple choice tests are relevant
to constructing short-answer tests.

i. The instructions must be clear and unambiguous. Candida

tes should know what todo.
ii. Enough space must be provided for filing in gaps or writin
g short answers.
iii. As much as possible the questions must be set to elicit onl
y short answers. Do notconstruct long answer-question in
a short answer test.
iv. The test format must be consistent. Do not require fill in g
aps and matching in thesame question.
v. The questions should be related to what is taught, what is
to be taught or what to be examined. Candidates must
know beforehand the requirements and demands of the
test.

Advantages

- Sampling of content is broader as one test can have a variety of questions

because they can be answered quickly
- Useful when the group to be tested is large.
- Encourages pupils to develop a wide background of facts and abilities.
- Measures knowledge of facts well.
- Random influences, such as untidiness are not tested by the examiner
- A test of this nature will have a higher reliability than an essay type test.
- Consistent and simple to score.
Disadvantages

- The examinee can guess i.e. susceptible to guessing.

- The following correction-for-guessing formula can be applied during the
scoring.
Score = Right – Wrong

n- 1
In this formula, n = number of alternatives in each item.

Thus for a multiple-choice test whose items contained four alternatives, the
formula would be as follows. If a student answered 40 items correctly and 6
items incorrectly on a 50 item multiple choice test using four alternatives would
receive a corrected score that is computed as

40 – 6 = 40 - 6 = 40- 2 = 38

4-1 3

NB. Omitted items are not counted.

- It measures simple knowledge outcomes

- It is restricted to the measurement of factual information on rate learning
that is highly susceptible to the presence of irrelevant clues.

Suggestions for Constructing Good Objective Questions

- Construct questions to fit the answers, age and ability levels as well as the
purpose of the test.
- Write the questions as clearly as possible and choose appropriate words
- Avoid lifting statements verbatim from text books for the test.
- Avoid using unrelated items.
- There should only be one correct or best answer
- Avoid negative questions whenever possible
- Do not give answers away through irrelevant clues

Types of objective questions

1.-Multiple choice questions

- Have two parts

(i)Stem – statement or the actual question.

 (ii)Options – (answers) or the responses

In options which may be a, b, c, and d, we have two types;

- Destructors – options that are not correct also called soils.

- Key – correct answers
2. Matching items

3. True /False

NB. After a test has been administered and scored it is usually desirable to
evaluate the effectiveness of the items. This is done by studying the student’s
responses to each item. When formalized the procedure is called item analysis
and it produces information concerning how well each item of the test
functioned.

ESSAY TESTS/QUESTIONS.

Essay test can be classified into two general categories:

1. Extended response essay.

Here, the students are allowed to select any factual information that they
think is pertinent, to organize the answer in accordance with their best
judgment, and to integrate and evaluate ideas as they seem appropriate.
Limits can be given in terms of the page numbers, scores and points.

This type of essay test has advantages because they permit the students to
demonstrate their ability to;

i. Call up on the facts

ii. Evaluate his/her ideas
iii. Organize his/her ideas
iv. Present his/her ideas in a logical coherent manner
2. Restricted response/specific response essays.
Usually limits better the content and the response. The content is usually
restricted by the scope of the topic to be discussed. Therefore limitation is
given in terms of points, papers scope etc.
NB. Although results restricting students to essay questions makes it possible to
measure more specific learning outcomes (SLOs) these restrictions make them
less valuable as a measure of those learning outcomes emphasizing integration,
organization and originality.

Basic Principles for Constructing Essay Tests

Essay or subjective type of test is considered to be subjective because

you are able to express your own opinions freely and interpret
information in any way you like, provided it is logical, relevant, and
crucial to the topic. In the same way, your teacher is able to evaluate the
quality and quantity of your opinions and interpretations as well as your
organization and logic of your presentation. The following are the
basic principles guiding the setting of essay question:

i. Instructions of what to do should be clear, unambiguous and pr

ecise.
ii. Your essay questions should be in layers. The first layer tests th
e concept, fact, its definition and characteristics. The second
layer tests the interpretation of and inferences from the
concept, fact or topic, concept, structure, etc to real life
situation. In the third layer, you may be required to construct,
consolidate, design, or produce your own structure, concept,
fact, scenario or issue
iii. Essays should not merely require registration of facts learnt in th
e class. They shouldnot also be satisfied with only the examples
given in class.
iv. Some of the words that can be used in an essay type of test are:
compare and contrast,criticize, critically examine, discuss,
describe, outline, enumerate, define, state, relate ,illustrate,
explain, summarize, construct, produce, design, etc. Remember,
some of the words are mere words that require regurgitation of
facts, while others require application of facts.
Suggestions for Constructing Essay Questions

(i) Restrict the use of essay questions to those learning outcomes that cannot
be satisfactorily measured by objective items.
Certain persons will always favour objective measurements over subjective
measurements. When objective items are inadequate for measuring the
learning outcomes, the use of essay questions can be defended, despite their
limitations.

(ii) Formulate questions that will call forth the behaviour specified in the
learning outcomes.
Essay questions should measure the achievement of clearly defined
instructional objectives.

(iii) Phrase each question so that the pupils’ task is clearly indicated.
Ambiguous questions should be highly discouraged.

(iv) Indicate an appropriate time limit for each question.

When constructing essay questions, the teacher should estimate the
approximate time needed for a satisfactory response. It is better to use fewer
questions and more generous time limits than to put some pupils at a
disadvantage.

The adequacy of the time limits might very well be emphasized in the
introductory remarks, so as to arrest any anxiety that might arise.

(v) Avoid the use of optional questions

A fairly common practice in the use of essay questions is to give pupils more
questions than they are expected to answer and permit them to choose a
given number.

The teacher may include six essay questions in a test and direct the pupils to
write on any three of them. This practice is generally favoured by pupils
because they can select those questions they know most about.
Reasons for not giving options

It is difficult to construct questions of equal difficulty. Students do not have the

ability to select the questions upon which they will be able to do the best.

Advantages of essay questions/tests

1. It is relatively easier to prepare them

2. It is the only means we can be able to assess students ability to compare an
answer in a logical manner.
3. It can be able to measure attitude, opinions and values of students/learners.
4. It tests the student’s ability to supply rather than to select the correct answer.

5. It helps induce good learning experiences.

Disadvantages of essay tests

(i) The sampling of content is poor because the essay questions are fewer.
This means that some areas are measured thoroughly but many others are
neglected. This inadequate sampling makes essay questions especially
inefficient for measuring knowledge of factual information.

(ii) There is low scorer reliability

Answers to essay questions are scored differently by different teachers and that
even the same teachers score the answers differently at different times.

(iii) Marking is time consuming and laborious

If the classes are large and several essay questions are used, good scoring
becomes practically impossible. Therefore essay questions should be
reserved for those learning outcomes that cannot be measured objectively.
 (iv) The student does not always understand the question, thus not sure about
what to write.

Qualitative and Quantitative Selection of Test Items

(a) Qualitative.

The qualitative selection of test items is determined by the levels of objectives

to be attained. Higher cognitive objectives – little application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation – call for application, analysis synthesis and evaluative quest
ional items. Knowledge objectives require an individual to recall or recognize an
appropriate content of material whether is should be specific facts,
generalization, methods, universal principle etc.

(b) Quantitative

The number of test items to be included will depend on:

- The specified duration.

- The form of the item chosen (whether objective or essay)
- The complexity of the thought processes included in answering the test
items.

NB. Each test constructor should ponder over each of these issues when
considering the number of items to include in a test.

Classification of Test and Measurements

Tests can also be classified in terms of their functional role in classroom

instruction. Therefore test use can be classified are as follows:

1. Tests for Placement evaluation.

-This concerns itself with the pupils entry performance and typical focus on
questions such as the following:
-Does the pupil process the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned
instruction?

-To what extent do the pupils interests, work habits and personality
characteristics indicate that one mode of instructions might be better than
another.

These questions can be answered by using a variety of techniques: readiness

tests, aptitude tests, pretests on course objectives, observational techniques and
so on.

The goal of placement evaluation is to determine the position in the

instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most beneficial for
each pupil.

2. Tests for Formative evaluation.

-It is to monitor learning progress during instruction. Its purpose is to provide
continuous feedback to both pupil and teacher concerning learning success and
failures. Feedback to pupils provides reinforcement of successful learning and
identifies the specific learning errors that are in need of correction. Feedback to
the teacher provides information for modifying instructional and for prescribing
group and individual remedial work. Formative evaluation depends heavily on
specially prepared tests for each segment of instruction e.g. topic, unit, chapter
etc) teacher made tests are needed for this purpose.

3. Tests for Diagnostic evaluation.

-It is concerned with the present or recurring learning difficulties that are left
unsolved by the intended corrective prescription of formative evaluation. If a
pupil continues to experience failure in reading, mathematics or other subjects,
despite the use of prescribed alternative methods of instruction – e.g. visual aids,
then a more detailed diagnosis is needed.
-Formative evaluation provides first aid for simple learning problems and
diagnostic evaluation searches for the underlying cause of the problems that do
not respond to their aid treatment.

-The main goal of diagnostic evaluation is to determine the cause of persistent

learning problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action.

4. Tests for Summative evaluation.

-This typically comes at the end of the course or unit if instruction. It is designed
to determine the extend to which the instructional objectives have been
achieved and is used primarily for after giving course grades or for certifying
pupils mastery of the intended learning outcomes. The techniques used in
summative evaluation are determined by the instructional objectives. The main
purpose of summative evaluation is grading or the certification of pupils’
achievement, however, it also provides information for judging the
appropriateness of the course/program objectives and the effectiveness of the
instruction. K.C.S.E, and K.C.P.E are examples of summative evaluations.

Ways of Interpreting Tests

There are 3 basic ways of interpreting test performance:

2. To describe the performance in terms of relative position held in some

known group e.g. John typed better than 90% of the class members – norm
referenced measurement.
3. To describe the specific performance that was demonstrated – e.g. Mercy
typed 40% words per minute without error – criterion referenced
measurement.
4. To confine each description to the attainment of a specific objective e.g.
capitalized all proper nouns. This is a criterion referenced type of
interpretation but does not cover as broad as a domain of tasks as that used
 in criterion referencing – therefore, this is an objective – referenced
measurement.

Role of Tests and Measurement

Help in making educational decisions e.g.

Instructional decisions

-Teacher will be helped to have knowledge about the student entering

behaviour.

-Teacher will be helped in setting, refining and classifying goals.

-Help the teacher to evaluate i.e. to what extent have the objective been mate.

-Enable teacher refine instructional technique.

For Students

- Student will be helped in terms of knowing the teachers goals.

- Helps in motivating the student.
- Over/learning on the part of the student.
- Encourage good study habit.
- It provides feedback to the students on his weaknesses and strengths.

Guidance decisions

-There is vocational guidance

-Personal guidance

-Educational guidance.
Help in administrative decision

Tests given in schools enable one to place a student in a given position, i.e.
selecting and classifying a student.

Also certifying the student e.g. the leaving certificate.

Helps in doing research and theory development.

Helps in educational/programmes and curriculum e.g. exam results helps the

ministry of education to review education curriculum.

Common errors made by teachers in testing

1. Teachers often prepare tests at the last minute. Test preparation/planning

is therefore often unreliable and poor in most respects. It often fails to
motivate and direct the students’ future learning when that may be the
main purpose. Tests written at the last minute are often too short and
inadequately sample the whole area of understanding and abilities and
yet the results are often quoted as if they are a magical guide to the future
of a particular child.
2. Trivial details are tested and understanding reasoning, creativity and
practical application and abilities are neglected.
3. Ambiguities in questions are not discovered until the marking stage. A
teacher should produce a “bank” of questions which he has tried out.
When writing a test, he can draw from his bank with confidence, or write
parallel forms.
4. Teacher rarely make use of simple statistical techniques which can be used
to check the effectiveness of their testing.