Solid Waste Management

SOLID WASTE(WHAT):
GENERATION(reuse),COLLECTION(segregation),TRANSFER(scavengers,salvanger,tot
ters),STORAGE(secregation),TRANSPORTATION(health
risks),DISPOSAL(recycling,composting-salvanging,inceneration-energy)
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
PREAMBLE
Waste management: This is the:
1. Collection,
2. Transportation,
3. Processing,
4. Recycling and/ or disposal of solid waste.
5. Salvaging.
Solid waste is the material arising from various human activities normally solids or semi-solids –
considered as useless or unwanted. Waste generation rates vary according to:
1. Geographical place,
2. Season of the year,
3. Collection frequency,
4. Characteristic of the population and extent of salvaging.
The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is generally
undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.
Waste management is a distinct practice from resource recovery which focuses on delaying the
rate of consumption of natural resources. All waste materials, whether they are solid, liquid,
gaseous or radioactive fall within the remit of waste management.
Waste management practices can differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas,
and for residential and industrial producers. Management of non-hazardous waste residential and
institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government authorities,
while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the
generator subject to local, national or international authorities
All wastes are divided into two main classes viz:
1. Solid wastes.
2. Liquid wastes.
NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

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Solid and Liquid wastes come under essential services for the community, and in the past have
been organized as conservancy and cleansing services.
No longer are these services despised and rejected as communal services.
There has been so much rapid progress in many countries that the past practices of handling
waste are becoming out-dated. This is mainly caused by the following factors:
1. Increased urbanization.
2. Changes in Environment.
3. Changes in building designs.
4. World inflation trends.
5. Industrial growth.
6. Advanced Technology.
7. Continuous changes in characteristics of waste of all classes.
Disposal of large volumes of wastes presents the difficulties of disposal sites, locations, and
adoptions of methods that will be economical and nuisance free.
Health problems may arise since some waste is attractive to insects, rodents, and always there is
possibility of such nuisance as odors and street litter.
UNIT 1
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Solid Waste: This is a sanitary term used to describe residues and end products of human
physical activities commonly referred to as refuse. They are the unwanted remains,
residues discarded by the initial user or producer.
2. Wastes: These are discarded by-products, residues, unwanted materials in the process of:
i. preparation,
ii. Packing,
iii. Manufacturing,
iv. Selling, or
v. Any other human activity either physical or physiological and such materials no
longer required by initial user.
3. Garbage: This is a term used to describe putriscible waste resulting from:

i. Growing,
ii. Handling,

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iii. Preparation,
iv. Cooking, and
v. Consumption of food.
It can also be defined as waste that can decompose.
Garbage requires careful handling with frequent removal and adequate disposal because it
attracts and breeds flies and other insects, supplies food for rats and rapidly ferments, resulting in
production of unpleasant odors.
Garbage is probably the most valuable component of refuse in that it yields fertilizer or soil
conditioner through composting process and is utilized as hog food.
4. Rubbish: This is a term used to describe non-putriscible waste [except ash] consisting of
combustible and non-combustible materials e.g. :
i. Cans,
ii. Glass,
iii. Paper,
iv. Brush,
v. Cardboard,
vi. Scrap metals,
vii. Beddings,
viii. Yard chippings,
ix. Crockery, and
x. Wood
Garbage and rubbish are difficult to separate entirely because those materials classed as rubbish
are often used to package food products, and therefore various amounts of garbage remain
attached to the package [paper, boxes, cans, bottles etc].
Rubbish is frequently responsible for the creation of nuisance when it becomes scattered by wind
and careless handling.
5. Refuse: These are putrescible and non-putrescible solid wastes with exception of body
wastes. Such wastes include:
i. Garbage.
ii. Rubbish.
iii. Ashes.
iv. Street sweepings
v. Dead animals.
vi. Market solid wastes, and

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vii. Industrial solid wastes.
In Kenya today, the responsibility of collecting refuse lies with the county authorities. This
responsibility is given in the Local (county) government regulation 1963. It is the responsibility
of the county government to raise all the revenue for the maintenance of these services.
In many developed countries, domestic refuse collection is provided free of charge while trade
refuse collection is chargeable. There is no proper and legal definition of refuse and therefore the
county authority may decide what constitute and what does not constitute refuse. For the
purposes of public health awareness, refuse can be described as:
a) Unwanted,
b) Remains,
c) Residues,
d) Discard materials,
e) All by products of human activities in the process of:
i. Preparation,
ii. Manufacture,
iii. Packing,
iv. Re-packing,
v. Unpacking,
vi. Construction,
vii. Alterations, and
viii. Agricultural that is no longer required for further use by the initial user.
6. Ashes: These are by-product of coal and other fuel [cock, or wood] used for industrial
purposes and in homes for heating. Ash production varies greatly with geographical location
and season.
7. Street sweeping: These consist principally of materials from street surfaces, dirt, and
other materials dropped or worn away from:
i. Vehicles,
ii. Leaves,
iii. Sweeping from sidewalks and
iv. Bits of paper.
Street sweepings are not usually putrescible enough to cause concern as a possible fly breeding,
odor source and may frequently be used as fill, although some dust nuisance may be created.
8. Industrial wastes: These are wastes resulting from manufacturing processes.

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9. Sanitary Residues: Night soil, mainly in developing countries where sewerage is no a
major means of managing human excreta and sullage.
10. Junk: this is whole metal waste.
11. Recyclable Materials: These are materials that can be re-cycled e.g. paper.
12. Debris: These are wastes from demolished buildings.
13. Dead Animals: These are all domestic and non-domestic animals [big and small]
14. Special Wastes: These are wastes which are hazardous e.g. hospital and radioactive
wastes.
15. Receptacle:
16. Litter:
17. Incineration:
18. Ash pit:
19. Composting:
20. Hazardous wastes:
21. Controlled tipping:
22. Toxic wastes:
23. Aesthetic:
24. Hazard:
25. Storage:
26. Disposal:
27. Salvage:
28. Salvage potential:
29. Cradle-to-grave:
30. Nimbly syndrome:
UNIT 2
OBJECTIVES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The central objective of waste policy is to reduce the harmful health and environmental impacts
of waste. In order to meet this objective, it is particularly important to:
1) Prevent the generation of waste
2) Promote reuse of waste
3) Promote biological recovery of waste and recycling of materials
4) Promote energy use of waste not suited for recycling ensures that the treatment and
disposal of waste does not cause any harmful impacts.
The main climate-related objective of waste policy is to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions
generated by waste, particularly by reducing the methane emissions resulting from treatment at
landfills. In order to reach the objective, the amount of land filled biodegradable waste will be
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substantially reduced, while at the same time measures will be taken to increase the recovery
rates of methane generated at landfills.
Waste reduction measures: These are:

• Waste recycling measures.
• burn the combustible solid waste remaining after reduction and recycling.
• Land filling is the preferred disposal method for ash, bypass waste, and non-processible waste
that cannot be recycled or reused.
UNIT 3
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLID WASTES
EARLY ORGANIZED WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES
We should look at the Middle Ages when towns and urban centers in form of villages had started
getting larger and larger and larger particularly in Europe. This called for organized solid waste
control and management and the services went into a period of great neglect.
This is the time when towns and urban centers in form of villages had stated getting larger and
larger particularly in countries in Europe. This called for solid waste control and management
because the services were in a period of great neglect. This is the period of crude disposal, where
natural agencies were left to do most of the jobs e.g.
1. Bacteria,
2. Animals,
3. Wind,
4. Rain, and
5. Varying temperatures.
Animals played an important role in the disposal of vegetable matter where:
1. Dogs
2. Pigs
3. Goats, and
4. Cows proved to be very effective scavengers.
These agencies alone could not contain the situation and this prompted the authorities to think of
haulage hence development of horse cats for removal of wastes.
In Britain, there were regulations on control of wastes as early as 1294, forbidding residents from
dumping wastes near their houses making it an offence which carried heavy fines.
Poor sanitation continued until the middle of 19th century when little was done to keep urban
centers and other common areas clean and tidy. It is during this period that the western countries

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laid a lot of regulations and measures were taken to control wastes. Cholera out-breaks due to
filthy states in many towns was very common. The beginning of services was not easy because it
is during this time that communities started realizing the agricultural value of decomposed
wastes. Many resisted the removal of their wastes.
In Kenya, Public Health Ordinance was enacted in 1921and it detailed the by-laws covering
conservancy services in the city of Nairobi, Mombasa municipalities. There is no doubt today in
the minds of all health officers and the community as a whole that the management of both solid
and liquid wastes forms the most essential service and a major branch of Environmental and
Public Health Services.
The Midden People: [Midden is defined as a mound of domestic refuse containing shells and
animal bones marking the site of a prehistoric settlement or a heap of dung or refuse].
The evidence available today shows that the early man had continued to to develop awareness
and the need to control wastes.
In East Africa, wastes were handled differently by different communities. There was greater
problem with animal wastes since families used to keep large herds of animals e.g. cattle, sheep
and goats. Cows used to be housed in large bomas at night for security reasons. Goats and sheep
used to to put up in huts sometimes with families. This necessitated removal regularly of wastes
either from the hut or boma. Some tribes used to move to new grounds to get away from
accumulated wastes.
Moving a house is always an expensive undertaking so it was in the early days. This resulted into
developing controlled dumps. These were managed differently by defferent tribes e.g. “Luos”
used to have “duol” or “pith”, Kambas used to have “otunda”, “Kikuyus” used to have “kiara”
In Europe, they used to have midden. In Denmark similar dumps to the ones we had in East
Africa measuring 100m long, 50 meter wide and 1 meter high have been discovered. in
Scandinavia they were known as middens and had been foud to measure 350 m long, 70m wide
and 3m high.
1) Early Man Communities in East Africa Religion and Traditional Rituals: In Mosaic
Law, elaborate directions are given as to the personal cleanliness and Public Hygiene.
Accumulation of wastes, either in camps or tents was strictly forbidden. During the
offerings, bulls, and goats were slaughtered and hides, skins and offals had to be disposed
of by burial or cremation. The refuse of Jerusalem was taken to the valley of Ghena
(Tophet) where it was cast on fires that were kept burning all the time in order to prevent
nuisance and dangerous health.

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Religious Approach to Solid Waste Management: The Romans organized cleansing
services existed among the Romans and their liquid and solid wastes used to be disposed
of in their spacious open sewers. This they could manage by using slaves and prisoners
2) Early Cremation, Early organization of services and agencies: From this very early
history, it is clear that the combustion of refuse as a principle has been recorganized by
the:
1. Moslems,
2. Jews,
3. Romans, and
4. Greeks as a means of:
i. Volume reduction,
ii. Purifying effect,
iii. Total destruction.
It is from this early disposal of wastes that the incineration of today has been developed.
3) Motivations to improve systems of management and effects:

4) Trends:
5) Principles of solid wastes:
REASONS FOR LEARNING PROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
There has been so much rapid progress in many countries that the past practices of handling
wastes are becoming outdated. This is mainly caused by the following factors: There has been so
much rapid progress in many countries that the past practices of handling waste is becoming
outdated. This is mainly caused by the following factors:
1. Increased urbanization.
2. Environmental changes.
3. Industrial growth.
4. Changes in building design.
5. World inflation trend.
6. Advanced technology.
7. Continuous changes in characteristics of waste of all classes.
All these factors are not without risks which those who handle waste should know. These are:
1. Potential risk to health and environment from improper handling of solid wastes.
2. Direct health risks to those handling wastes.
3. Specific risks in handling hospital wastes.
It is therefore important that solid wastes should be properly disposed of because of the
following reasons:

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1. Wastes carry potential hazards e.g. from flies etc.
2. Waste cause nuisance or annoyance by emitting objectionable smell.
3. Occupation of space they are sources of out-breaks of fire hazards.
4. They pollute underground water sources
5. They can cause injuries e.g. cuts.
6. They can kill both plants and animal life.
7. Solid wastes environment appear unattractive, eye sore, and unsightly.
PROBLEMS ARISING FROM POOR MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES
This results in unsightliness and offensive accumulation of wastes which in turn results in
emission of offensive odors, fly breeding and nuisance, rodent breeding and nuisance,
underground water source pollution, environmental pollution and littering.
SOLID WASTES PRODUCTION AREAS
These are:
1. Domestic premises
2. Catering premises
3. Offices.
4. Institutions.
5. Kitchens.
6. Commercial premises.
7. Hospitals.
8. Industrial areas.
9. Street sweepings.
10. Agricultural activities.
UNIT 4
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES
Solid wastes can be classified as follows according to their sources:
1. Domestic wastes.
2. Industrial wastes.
3. Trade wastes/commercial wastes.
4. Agricultural wastes.
5. Debris.
6. Junks.
7. Hospital wastes.
8. Dead animals.
9. Street sweepings.

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10. Toxic materials.
Need to Classify Waste: Classification of wastes will help public health personnel with the
following:
1. Planning of waste storage at source.

2. Planning of waste collection and transportation.
3. Planning for proper waste disposal.
4. Planning for the rate of chares where applicable.
5. It determines salvage potentiality.
6. It assists in measuring the variations for future trends of refuse production.
Due to lack of clear definition of refuse, there are problems where there are different types of
refuse. One would classify refuse as domestic since those using hotels are not producing
domestic refuse in their homes.
Different types of waste calls for different methods of storage and transportation e.g. in many
cases:
1. Garden waste is bulky and calls for a large bounded vehicle e.g. Lorries and tippers.
2. Domestic and commercial waste needs sophiscated- high- ratio- compaction vehicles.
3. Street waste is not bulky but is extremely heavy due to materials such as:
i. Dust.
ii. Metal.
iii. Bones, and other parts caused by rapid wear and tear of services due to the constant
usage by the road transport vehicles.
Classification may also be based on the type of waste e.g. garbage, ashes, etc or on the source of
wastes e.g. domestic, trade, street etc.
1. Municipal refuse (household, garbage, rubbish, residential, and domestic refuse):

results from household activities which include:
i. food wastes,
ii. sweepings,
iii. cleanings,
iv. fuel burnings and
v. garden wastes,
vi. old clothing,
vii. old appliances,
viii. packaging and
ix. reading materials
N/B: Areas where bucket latrines are used, fecal matter is included as a classification.

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2. Commercial refuse: These are wastes from:
i. Stores,
ii. Offices,
iii. Fuel service stations,
iv. Restaurants,
v. Ware houses, and
vi. Hotels.
3. Institutional Refuse: These are:
i. Schools,
ii. Government Offices
iii. Hospitals etc.
School and government offices wastes are composed of paper and food.
Hospital (special) wastes need private collection and disposal. The wastes should be separated
first,
4. Street Sweepings: dirt and litter [Rubbish carelessly dropped or left about (especially in
public places)]. They may also include house hold refuse, drain cleanings and animal
manure.
5. Construction and Demolition debris: These depend on resources for construction
purposes.
6. Sanitary Residues: These include:
i. Night soil: mainly in developing countries where sewerage is not a major means
of managing human excreta and sullage
7.Industrial Wastes: From processing and non-processing activities eg:
a) Packaging materials,
b) Food wastes,
c) Spoiled metals,
d) Plastics,
e) Textiles,
f) Fuel burnings and
g) Spilled processing chemicals.
COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTES
The composition of municipal waste varies greatly from country to country and changes
significantly with time.

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In countries which have a developed recycling culture, the waste stream consists mainly of
intractable wastes such as plastic film, and un-recyclable packaging. At the start of the 20th
century, the majority of domestic waste (53%) in the UK consisted of coal ash from open fires.
In developed countries without significant recycling it predominantly includes food wastes, yard
wastes, containers and product packaging, and other miscellaneous wastes from residential,
commercial, institutional, and industrial sources.] Most definitions of municipal solid waste do
not include industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, medical waste, radioactive waste or sludge.
Waste collection is performed by the municipality within a given area. The term residual waste
relates to waste left from household sources containing materials that have not been separated
out or sent for reprocessing. Waste can be classified in several ways but the following list
represents a typical classification:
1. Biodegradable waste: food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (can also be recycled).
2. Recyclable material: paper, glass, bottles, cans, metals, certain plastics, fabrics, clothes, batteries
etc.
3. Inert waste: construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris.
4. Electrical and electronic waste: - electrical appliances, TVs, computers, screens, etc.
5. Composite wastes: waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys.
6. Hazardous waste: including most paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans,
fertilizer and containers
7. Toxic waste : including pesticide, herbicides, fungicides
8. Medical waste.
9. Hazardous waste :including most paints, chemicals, light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, spray cans,
fertilizer and containers.
10. Medical waste.
Components of solid waste management: The municipal solid waste industry has four
components:
1. recycling,
2. composting,
3. land filling, and
4. Waste-to-energy via incineration.
The primary steps are generation, collection, sorting and separation, transfer, and disposal.
Activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown out
or gathered together for disposal.
UNIT 5
REFUSE YIELD AND ANALYSIS
Refuse Yield: The quantity and nature of refuse produced is significantly related to:
1. Geographical locations.
2. Class of the community, and

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3. Seasonal changes.
a) A cold area like Limuru, Timboroa, Nyeri, and Nanyuki will call for more use of fires
hence increased amount of dust and cinder (A fragment of incombustible matter left after
a wood or coal or charcoal fire) as well as having a bearing on the density of refuse.
b) As the standard of the community rises, families adopt more eating habits, use of
electricity, gas and oils thus much reducing ashes in refuse.
c) Seasonal changes such as warmer climates in the sea shores or lakes will attract holiday
goers to a particular area thus increasing and changing the normal characteristics of
refuse in such areas.
Quality of refuse is either determined by volume or weight.
In Nairobi, the average yield of refuse is approximately1kg per capita per day. This gives
Nairobi an approximate yield of which must be:
i. Collected,
ii. Stored,
iii. Removed,
iv. Transported, and disposed of in a sanitary manner.
For all practical purposes, one person produces 300kg or 1.5 cubic meters of refuse per day. The
output from a small a small house in urban center is approximately 0.083 per week. With the
increased standard of living as well as the changing trend of characteristics of wastes, these
figures are bound to change rapidly and should be reviewed from time to time by means of
refuse analysis.
Refuse analysis: The need for accurate analysis of solid wastes was appreciated many years ago
by the institute of Solid Waste Management. The institute formulated the first the first solid
wastes analysis in 1936. It was then possible to show:
1. The composition of solid wastes,

2. The yield of solid wastes, and
3. Seasonal changes.
The changes in wastes produced today calls for even more accurate analysis.
To determine accurate analysis, one has to take into consideration the seasonal variations.
In Kenya we have either a wet or a dry season. Samples taken during a wet season will contain
high percentage of ash, dust and cinder, while that of very dry season will contain a high
percentage of waste papers and plastic. A sample taken during an average cool weather e.g. the
months of May, June or July would represent a year’s sample. Experience however shows that
three good samples are essential in a year which would assist one to calculate averages. The

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recommended period for analysis in Kenya is between January and February. Average sample
may be taken in May and June. Wet samples are taken in October and November.
When taking samples, it is recommended that at least 1,000 kg of waste should be sampled. This
weight will represent a constituent of wastes.
A regular sample should cover the following:
1. A housing estate,
2. High class private houses,
3. Middle class residential area,
4. Multistory flats,
5. Shanties,
In cool climates the Institute of Solid Wastes Management recommends for major samples as
follows:
1. Spring wastes 3rd week of April,

2. Summer wastes 2nd week of July,
3. Autum wastes 3rd week of October,
4. Winter wastes 1st week of January.
TYPICAL SEASONAL ANALYSIS SOLID WASTES
This would provide the following results by weight and volume:
1. Fine Dust: These are particles under 1.27 cm which includes ash.
2. Cinder: These are particles between 1.27 cm and 4.4 cm
3. Vegetable and putriceable mater,
4. Paper and cardboards,
5. Metal, both ferrous and non-ferrous,
6. Textile (rags): These include bagging and trims,
7. Glass: These include bottles, jars and cullet plastics,
8. Unclassified mater: This includes wood, stones, leather e.t.c.
Note: The other information that must be recorded is:
1. Volume out-put per house per week in cubic meters.

2. Density of solid wastes or refuse in Kg per cubic meter.
The analysis of solid wastes in complete details is always not easy as it calls for separation into
nine classes. This is so because of a wide variety of waste materials.
REASONS FOR SOLID WASTES ANALYSIS:
1. Assist in deciding on suitable methods of disposal of solid wastes.

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2. To assist in choosing suitable storage receptacle/containers, collection vehicles and
systems of transportation.
3. To assist one in knowing seasonal variations in the production of solid wastes.
4. To enable one to decide or determine salvage potential solid wastes.
5. To determine the trends in the decomposition of domestic and industrial solid wastes.
COMPARISON OF PRODUCTION TRENDS OF SOLID WASTES
TYPE OF REFUSE HIGH CLASS LOW CLASS

1. Dust (0.0028mmØ) 10% 13%
2. Cinder (0.044mmØ) 9% 10%
3. Paper 20% 15%
4. Vegetable Matter 16% 30%
5. Metals and Tin 3% 2%
6. Rags and Textiles 3% 5%
7. Bottles 3% 1%
8. Rubber and Plastics 3% 2%
Average quantity of refuse produced by a community depends largely on the standards of living
of the people and the nature of the town; residential, commercial or industrial. It may also
depend on the season. It has been found out that high class families generate more wastes than
lower class families.
A lot of paper, tins, rubber, and plastics are generated from high class families. Low class
families generate more dust, cinder, vegetable matter and textiles.
STORAGE OF SOLID WASTES
Storage facilities are classified as primary or individual and secondary or communal storage
facilities. The storage volume required for house hold waste is a function of the:
1. Number of premises served,

2. Rate of waste generation,
3. Family size and frequency of collection.
Storage capacities required for commercial and institutional premises are determined by:
1. Premise size,
2. Nature of waste generated, and
3. Generation rate.
Solid Wastes should be stored in dry containers to avoid nuisances from smell and early
decomposition.
Quality of Good Storage Receptacle: These are:

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1. Non-absorbent and both air and water tight.
2. Rust resistant.
3. Tight fitting lid.
4. Structurally sound [resistant to certain to certain impact].
5. Easy to fill, empty, and clean.
6. Has adequate capacity.
7. Insect proof.
8. Low cost and locally available.
9. Kept in easily accessible areas.
Types of Storage receptacles: These are:
1. Dustbin.
2. Water-proof sacks.
3. Waste paper basket.
4. Drums [not widely recommended].
5. Standard containers [larger than dustbin]
6. Bag containers.
7. Trailer systems for refuse storage: This type of storage is used in markets, hotels, and
industries. It is used together with articulated vehicle. Trailers which are closed and
cylindrical are used. They have loaders with sliding doors. It is an interchangeable
system. They are kept at the back yard or in an enclosure for security.
8. On-site compaction system: this system is common in hotels and provision stores where
refuse is put in containers and compressed to maximize use of the container.
9. Deva systems for waste paper: This is a hydraulic compression with paper sacks. It was
originally a Swedish innovation which has now been developed to the today Deva system
which provides for refuse to be loaded in sacks and then compressed.
The first one is where refuse is refuse is brought to a central place and manually fed into
the machine and compressed in paper sacks.
This system is suitable for:
1. Factories.
2. Catering estabshments.
3. Large building s where there is no refuse chute.
4. Office wastes and other light refuse.

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The other type is Automatic Rotary Machine in which up to 10 sacks are suspended on one
turntable each being filled in turn automatically.
The Deva Rotary Machine is fitted beneath the chute in a large block of flats or offices. There
are several models in the market, some suitable for light refuse, such as office refuse and those
that are suitable for domestic refuse which is slightly heavier than the office refuse. It has been
possible to install a machine to handle refuse from 100 masionettes.
The ratio of compaction of these machines has been recorded to 3:1 which means great reduction
of volume of refuse at the source.
1. Where refuse is fed into the chute and falls to the bottom, it strikes a contact rod in the
refuse compressor and then drops into the paper sack beneath.
2. The movement of the contact rod actuates a plate which blocks off the chte for the period
of compressing cycle.
3. The cycle is repeated until the sack is filled to a predetermined level.
4. At this stage the turntable automatically moves until the adjoining empty sack is brought
under the chute and the process is continued until all sacks are filled.
The care taker is only needed to remove the filled sacks and replace them with empty ones.
The pressure applied on the room could be varied to suit the density of refuse for compression
and also to provide a suitable weight for the full sack depending on whether it is to be carried or
wheeled on a trolley.
A compressed sack weight varies between 18kg per sack and 27kg per sack.

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10. Garchey [[Water-borne Refuse disposal] system: This system was first installed in
1927 and introduced in Britain in 1934. So far we do not have this system in Kenya. It
has something in common with water carriage system of the sewage disposal, refuse is
more difficult to transport by water than sewage due to the presence of bulky materials.
i. Disposal of refuse starts in the kitchen.

ii. Refuse is placed in a specially designed tube leading to a refuse receiver which is
installed as an integral part of the kitchen unit.
iii. A gauge and instruction card id supplied to each householder using a Garchey
kitchen sink unit.
11. Refuse chutes: Building code 140,(1) says, unless alternative means of refuse disposal,
satisfactory to the council are provided, refuse chutes shall be installed in:
i. A block of dwellings exceeding three storeys in height.

ii. Any other building where an upper floor requires refuse disposal service is 50 feet
above the adjoining ground level
(2) Refuse chute may be required by the council if it is in the opinion of the council that
any other means of refuse disposal is impracticable.
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(3) Every chute to be fitted with an approved container.
UNIT 6
CONCEPT OF RESOURCE RECOVERY (SALVAGING) MANAGEMENT OF SOLID

WASTES
Resource recovery is a process of recovering energy and reusable materials from solid waste
before their decomposition or land-filling. Million tones of solid waste is generated everyday due
to industrial and domestic activities and this solid waste was land-filled or decomposed earlier
without being reused or extracting the materials that could have been reused.
Resource Recovery: This led to the rapid exploitation of mineral resources and put extra burden
on natural reserves to meet the demand of energy to sustain growth and maintaining lifestyle.
The consequences are the depleting natural reserves and resources of energy.
As the awareness about environmental issues spread across the borders, measures were taken to
utilize the resources to full extent. Principle of 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) were followed to
tap the hidden energy potential of the resources by reusing and recycling the materials to the
extent possible.
3R Principle in Resource Recovery:

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1. Reduce the usage of the materials to the extent possible. Go for the alternate
energy resources that can replenish themselves without affecting our environment.
2. Once the materials are used for their primary purpose, reuse them for some
secondary purpose. e.g if you have got your print outs on a plain white paper, you
can use the other side of the paper once the project is over and the papers are no
longer needed. In this manner you can save considerable amount of trees to been
cut down to meet the demand of papers.
3. Recycling is the next stage of reuse. Most of the materials can be recycled for use
and recycled again and again till their properties are useful and are not degraded
to an extent that can prevent their effective use.
How to Recover Usable Resources from Solid Waste?
Resource recovery is one of the processes to achieve this goal. The aim of this process is to make
the best use of these materials before they are permanently decomposed or land filled. The same
principle of 3R is followed here with the following hierarchy:
1. Reduce the material consumption

2. Reuse the materials
3. Recycle the materials
4. Incinerate with energy recovery
5. Landfill or Decompose
Resource recovery has helped governments to reduce the solid wastes and has efficiently cut
down the cost of their disposal.
Recycling: Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of
waste materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which the items are made
can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from
general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles are sorted directly from mixed waste
streams and are known as kerb-side recycling, it requires the owner of the waste to separate it
into various different bins (typically wheelie bins) prior to its collection.
The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans,
copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment,
polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines
and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are
usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new
products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is
more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

20
The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has
different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials.
However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is
reprocessed.
Sustainability
The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001

accreditation. Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year
by eliminating waste through resource recovery practices, which are sustainability-related
activities. One way to do this is by shifting away from waste management to resource recovery
practices like recycling materials such as glass, food scraps, paper and cardboard, plastic bottles
and metal.
polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines
and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are
usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new
products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is
more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.
The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has
different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials.
However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is
reprocessed.

21
Steel Re-cycling Bales

22
Scavenging:
Scavenging - Unauthorized salvaging of discarded items.
Scavenging for our purposes means removing any items from a recycling center or the landfill
once it has been place in or on county property to be discarded. Scavenging comes with a $25.00
fine for the first offense. Subsequent violations will incur higher penalties.
Potential scavenging: Many developing cities are overwhelmed with solid waste,
collecting only 50% of the wastes generated each day. There are approximately 68 million waste
scavengers worldwide. These informal workers can close the gap, helping cities develop
sustainable solutions that meet environmental, social and economic goals.

23
Scavenging in historical perspective: Scavenging has existed for many centuries and there is a
strong connection between scavenging and the mainstream (formal) economy. Rag pickers
played a key role in paper making for hundreds of years until paper moved from cotton- to pulp-
based production in the 20th century.
Waste is a valuable resource throughout history. Scavenging has been a response to resource
scarcity, which was the driving force of informal collection, recycling and disposal up through
the 19th Century (in the developed world). It has also been an adaptive response to poverty and
lack of economic opportunity, particularly for migrants in rapidly urbanizing cities, not just
recently (as seen in the developing world) but throughout American history (see p. 42).
Scavenging in this period of industrial and urban development is also a response to resource
shortages as industrial demand increased. Three factors drive the informal waste economy:
increased urban population leads to increased waste; increased population density means there
are fewer places to put the waste; lots of people are willing to do this work (scarcity of other
options and potential economic gain from scavenging).
5 types of activities:
1. Informal, unorganized unregulated collection from public areas and streets.
2. Scavengers as refuse collectors (cities lacked formalized collection). this has two
contexts, resource recovery/recycling and public service (maintaining public order)
3. Sorting plants (NYC - built plants between collection and disposal where people would
sort the waste - at first they did this for rights to the trash at no fee, eventually a fee was
charged for access to the waste).
4. Itinerant(Travelling from place to place to work) waste peddlers
5. at open dumps (scavengers paid to pick over the garbage, recovering up to 35%, saving
disposal costs and providing revenue through the fees).
Scavenging/informal sector participation in waste management fell out of favor in the early 20th
century in the developed world. In the argument between sanitation (public health) and resource
recovery, given the technology available at the end of the 19th century and scientific knowledge
of the time, sanitation won out. Cities banned or discouraged salvaging, particularly on open
dumps, and the strong ties between scavenging and resource dependent enterprise became

24
weaker, especially as it became cheaper to use primary (virgin) feed stocks, and uniformity of
inputs became more critical in mass production.
At the end of the 20th century the environmental impact of resource extraction and wasted
resources became more known. Recycling is now seen as a critical piece not only of resource
recovery, but cost savings as municipalities divert waste from filling expensive landfills, and
recover costs by selling valuable commodities such as paper and aluminum. Integrated waste
management (informal collection and scavenging along side techno-managerial approaches) is
now seen as a very effective means to resource recovery and waste reduction.
High market rates for recovered materials drives municipalities and scavengers to resource
recovery at the end of the 20th century. Aluminum and paper, in particular, have a high market
value. Municipalities in developed countries build up expensive capital (technology) in the form
of MRFs, collection vehicles, sanitary landfills, and look at recycling as a way to recover costs.
Scavenging increases during crisis such as war or economic crisis (see p 46-47 for specific
examples).
Given the technology that we now have available, scavenging has once again become a viable
option, particularly for low-income cities that may not have the municipal budget to set up costly
collection, recycling and disposal facilities. In these areas scavengers can facilitate collection,
can provide valuable feedstock to local industry and can help divert wastes from rapidly growing
landfills.
In modern cities, scavenging poses a threat to cost recovery. Cities invest large sums of money in
establishing the facilities for recycling, and scavenging renders these facilities useless, and
removes valuable materials from the cost recovery stream.
This sets up an adversarial (competitive) relationship between informal and formal sector actors
and those with power (the city) often win out. Cities enact laws to limit scavenging from public
and private bins. In many ways it is in the developing world's "best interests" (cost
recovery/profit) to advance and perpetuate the image of scavengers/dumpster divers as dirty,
scary, marginal people, and promote the use of low-labor high-capital approaches.
If the context for scavenging is as a response to lack of economic opportunity/poverty, then as

poverty decreases there is no reason to scavenge. For integrated systems, there has to be both
short term goals (poverty alleviation) and long term ones (resource recovery/environmental
protection) to drive policies that will have a long-term effect on waste reduction while also
meeting economic development goals.
Informal Scavenging: A Waste picker is a person who salvages reusable or recyclable

materials thrown away by others to sell or for personal consumption. There are millions of waste
pickers worldwide, predominantly in developing countries, but increasingly in post-industrial
countries as well.

25
Forms of waste picking have been practiced since antiquity, but modern traditions of waste
picking took root during industrialization in the nineteenth century. Over the past half-century,
waste picking has expanded vastly in the developing world due to urbanization.
In many cities, they provide the only solid waste collection service. A methodological tool is
available, offering a systematic approach to include / integrate initiatives.
Terminologies: Many terms are used to refer to people who salvage recyclables from the
waste stream for sale or personal consumption. In English, these terms include rag picker,
reclaimer, informal resource recoverer, binner, recycler, poacher, salvager, scavenger, and
waste picker; in Spanish cartonero, chatarrero, pepenador, clasificador, minador and
reciclador; and in Portuguese catador de materiais recicláveis.[ A more contemporary term,
focusing on the outcome of the professional activity, is "informal sector recycling". However, the
word 'informal' can be partly misleading, because in practice a continuum between total
informality and proper organization in taxed registered formal activities may be encountered.
In 2008, participants of the First World Conference of Waste Pickers chose to use the term
"waste picker" for English usage to facilitate global communication. The term “scavenger” is
also commonly used, but many waste pickers find it demeaning due to the implied comparison
with animals.
A waste picker is different from a waste collector because the waste collected by the latter may
be destined for a landfill or incinerator, not necessarily for a recycling facility.
"Dumpster diving" generally refers to the practice of anti-consumer and freegan activists who
reclaim items such as food and clothes from the waste stream as a form of protest against
consumer culture. “Waste picking” generally refers to activity motivated purely by economic
need.
Prevalence and demographics (A statistic characterizing human populations

(or segments of human populations broken down by age or sex or income etc.)
There is little reliable data about the number and demographics of waste pickers worldwide.
Most academic research on waste pickers is qualitative rather than quantitative. Systematic large
scale data collection is difficult due to the profession’s informal nature, porous borders,
seasonally fluctuating workforce, and widely dispersed and mobile worksites. Also, many
researchers are reluctant to produce quantitative data out of fear that it might be used to justify
crackdowns on waste picking by authorities. Thus, the large scale estimates that do exist are
mainly extrapolations based on very small original research samples. In his book, "The World's
Scavengers" (2007), Martin Medina provides a methodological guide to researching waste
picking.
In 1988, the World Bank estimated that 1–2% of the global population subsists by waste picking.
[
A more recent study from 2010 estimates that there are 1.5 million waste pickers in India alone.
Brazil, the country that collects the most robust official statistics on waste pickers, estimates that
nearly a quarter million of its citizens engage in waste picking.
26
Waste picker incomes vary vastly by location, form of work, and gender. Some waste pickers
live in extreme poverty, but many others earn multiple times their country’s minimum wage.
Recent studies indicate that waste pickers in Belgrade earn US $100 monthly, while waste
pickers in Cambodia typically earn $1 per day. Official statistics in Brazil indicate that men earn
more than women, regardless of age. Approximately two thirds of Brazil’s waste pickers are men
overall, but this proportion jumps to 98% in high income waste picker groups (those earning
between 3–4 times the minimum wage). No women were found in the highest income groups
(those earning over 10 times the minimum wage).
Conditions that fuel waste picking
In developing countries: Over the past half century, in-country migration and increased
fertility rates have caused the population of cities in the developing world to mushroom. The
global population of urban dwellers is expected to double between 1987 and 2015, with 90% of
this growth occurring in developing countries. Much of the new population has settled in urban
slums and squatter settlements, which have expanded rapidly with no central planning. The
United Nations Habitat Report found that nearly one billion people worldwide live in slums,
about a third of the world’s urban dwellers.
The rapid urbanization greatly increased the demand for informal waste collecting services, as
cities lacked the infrastructure and resources to collect the totality of wastes generated by their
inhabitants. Despite spending 30–50% of operation budgets on waste management, developing
world cities today collect only 50–80% of refuse generated by inhabitants. Residents and
businesses often resort to burning garbage or disposing of it streets, rivers, vacant lots, and open
municipal dumps. This is a source of air, land, and water pollution that threatens human health
and the environment. Informal waste collectors help mitigate this harm by collecting recyclable
materials by foot or in pushcarts, tricycles, donkey carts, horse carts, and pickup trucks.
On the supply side, urbanization has facilitated the expansion of waste picking by creating a
large pool of unemployed and underemployed residents with few alternative means of earning a
livelihood. Known as “the one industry that is always hiring,” waste picking provides a cushion
for many who lose their jobs during times of war, crisis, and economic downturn in countries
that do not have welfare systems. It is also one of the few work opportunities available to people
who lack formal education or job experience.

27
In post-industrial countries: Though documentation exists of rag pickers and scrap metal
collectors supplying goods to paper mills and foundries as early as the 17th century, modern
waste picking did not flourish in the US and Europe until 19th century.[3] Just as in the
developing world, the combination of industrialization and urbanization led to three trends which
favored the blossoming of the informal waste collecting industry: increased generation of urban
waste, increased demand for raw materials from industry, and increased numbers of urban
dwellers in need of livelihoods. In that era, waste pickers were known as wharf rats, tinkers, rag
and bone men, mudlarcks, and ragpickers. By the mid-20th century waste picking decreased, as
waste management industries were formalized, and welfare states decreased the poor’s reliance
on informal recycling.[2]
Beginning in the mid-1990s, however, informal recycling in parts of the US and Western Europe
once again began to mushroom. Two factors fueled the boom: First, the demand for recycling
surged due to the increased waste stream, declining room in landfills, new recycling
technologies, and the efforts of environmentalists.[18] In 1985 only one roadside recycling
program existed in the US. By 1998, there were 9,000 such programs and 12,000 recyclable
drop-off centers.[19] Laws were passed in some states making it illegal not to recycle. Second,
changes in the political economy including the loss of manufacturing jobs, cutbacks to
government employment, and the roll back of the welfare state increased the ranks of the poor,
working poor, and homeless—thus there were more people disposed to wastepick as a full-time
profession or supplemental job.[2]
American waste pickers predominantly collect cans, bottles, and cardboard.[8] Many immigrants
work as waste pickers because language and documentation barriers limit their opportunities to
work elsewhere. Many homeless also work as waste pickers—some describe it as their only
alternative to panhandling. Some recyclers use vans to increase their yield while others work on
foot with carts. Anecdotal evidence suggests that most American waste pickers are male, as
waste picking is widely considered too dirty and strenuous a job for women. During an
ethnography of homeless recyclers in San Francisco, sociologist Teresa Gowan claims to have
met hundreds of male waste pickers, but only four female waste pickers.
Costs and benefits
Social and ecological benefits: Waste picking offers significant ecological, economic,
and social benefits:
1. Job creation: Waste picking provides a source of livelihood to extremely poor

people with few other employment opportunities. Though many waste pickers
practice their trade as a full-time profession, its flexible hours make it accessible to
women with other care responsibilities and to people looking to supplement income
from other jobs. During times of need, waste picking serves as a safety net to street
children, orphans, the elderly, widows, migrants, the disabled, the unemployed, and
victims of armed conflicts. Waste picking also benefits the broader economy by

28
supplying raw materials to industry and creating many associated jobs for middlemen
who purchase, sort, process, and resell materials collected by waste pickers.
2. Public health and sanitation: Waste pickers collect garbage from neighborhoods
that lack public services. Without waste pickers, residents would be forced to burn
trash, or dispose of it in rivers, streets and empty lots. Waste pickers provide the only
solid waste removal service in many cities.
3. Municipal savings: Waste pickers provide between 50 and 100% of waste collecting
services in most cities of the developing world, according to a 2010 UN Habitat
report. This is effectively serves as a mass subsidy for city governments, who do not
pay for the labor. Moreover, recycling expands the lifespan of city dumps and
landfills.
4. Reducing pollution and mitigating climate change: By cutting the quantity of

virgin materials needed for production, waste pickers save room in landfills, lessen
water and energy consumption, reduce air and water pollution, and abate climate
change. Since 2009, international delegations of waste pickers have attended at least
five global climate change conferences to demand that climate funds invest in resource
recovery programs that will help ensure waste pickers’ livelihoods, rather than waste
disposal technologies that spread toxic byproducts such as incinerators.
Social costs: Waste pickers not only generate social benefits, but also potential costs as well.
These include:
1. Occupational hazards: See discussion below.
2. Child labor: Children commonly work as waste pickers. This may interfere with
their education, or harm their physical, emotional, and social well-being.
3. Litter: Waste pickers working on streets sometimes spread waste from trash bags,
sullying the sidewalk and creating more work for city street sweepers.
4. Public nuisance: Many people view waste pickers as a nuisance or source of shame
for their communities. Waste pickers' perceived poverty and lack of sanitation makes
some people uncomfortable or fearful. In developing countries especially, many argue
that modern services should replace waste pickers.

29
5. Pilfering of public property: In some cities, waste pickers have been known to steal,
meltdown, and resell public property such as telephone electrical copper wires, steel
fence, or manhole coverings.
Occupational hazards:
1. Health risks: There is a high prevalence of infectious disease among waste pickers
due to their exposure to hazardous materials[25] such as fecal matter, paper saturated
by toxic materials, bottles and containers with chemical residues, contaminated
needles, and heavy metals from batteries. A study in Mexico City found the average
lifespan of a dumpsite waste collector to be 39 years, compared to the national
average of 69 years,[26] though a later World Bank study estimated life span to be 53
years. In Port Said, Egypt, a 1981 study showed an infant mortality rate of 1/3 among
waste pickers (one out of three babies dies before reaching age one).[28]
2. Risks of injury: Among the most common types of job-related injuries for waste
pickers are back and hand injuries caused by lifting heavy objects with little
equipment. In a study of 48 waste pickers in Santo André, Brazil, almost all workers
reported pain in the back, legs, shoulder, arms, and hands. Waste pickers who work in
open dumps are exposed to large amounts of toxic fumes, and face other severe
threats including being run over by trucks and caught in surface subsidence, trash
slides, and fires. On 10 July 2000, several hundred waste pickers were killed by a
trash slide from a huge garbage mountain after monsoon rains at an open dump in
Payatas, Philippines.
3. Stigma, harassment, and violence: Most waste picking activity is illegal or

unpermitted, so waste pickers commonly face harassment by police and authorities.[25]
Also, there is widespread public scorn against waste pickers due to their poverty and
perceived lack of hygiene. One of the most extreme manifestations of such stigma
occurs in Colombia, where since the 1980s, “social cleansing” vigilante groups,
sometimes working with police complicity, have killed at least two thousand waste
collectors, beggars, and prostitutes—whom they refer to as "disposables”
(desechables). In 1992, around the peak of this activity, eleven corpses of murdered
waste collectors were discovered at a university in Barranquilla. Their organs had
been sold for transplants and bodies sold to the medical school for dissection (Medina
2009, 155).
Waste picker organizing: Traditionally, scholars assumed that informal workers such as waste
pickers could not collectively organize due to structural barriers such as lack of legal protection,
widely dispersed worksites, porous borders to their profession, a culture of independence and
individualism, lack of institutional experience, and lack of money and time to build

30
organizations. Nonetheless, in recent decades waste pickers across Latin America, Asia, and
Africa have begun collectively organizing to win a place within formal recycling systems .
Waste pickers use many organizational formats including cooperatives, associations, companies,
unions, and micro-enterprises. Despite the differences in format, most of these organizations
share three primary purposes. First, by pooling capital, establishing microenterprises, and
forming partnerships with business and government, waste collectors increase their selling
power. Second, by securing uniforms, safety equipment, and work permits, cooperatives increase
workplace dignity and safety. And third, by demanding recognition and compensation from the
state for their environmental and economic contributions, cooperatives increase members’
political might. These three functions—political influence, workplace dignity and safety, and
increased earnings—are mutually reinforcing, like legs on a stool.
Some waste pickers have created "women’s only" organizations, which seek to combat gender-
based discrimination at worksites and in communities. A study in Brazil indicates that women
are heavily overrepresented even in coed organizations, making up 56% of the membership
despite the fact that they represent only a third of the total waste picking population. [14]
Beginning in the 1990s, waste picker organizations in many parts of the world began uniting into
regional, national, and transnational coalitions to increase their political voice and economic
leverage. In March 2008, delegates from 30 countries gathered in Bogotá, Colombia for the first
World Conference (and Third Latin American Conference) of Waste Pickers (WIEGO 2008).
One of the key issues discussed was the global trend of privatization and concentration of waste
management systems. Normally, privatization is thought of as the handover of government
functions to the private sector, but in this case, privatization often means the transference of
services formerly provided by informal waste collectors to private firms. As waste streams have
expanded due to increased consumption, the waste management industry is becoming
increasingly lucrative. Governments around the world are granting private companies
monopolies on waste management systems, meaning that the cooperatives’ survival hinges on
building political and economic alliances needed to win contracts—often an uphill battle given
authorities’ distrust of waste collectors and the cooperatives’ lack of capital for modern
machinery.
Solid Waste Management in Kenya
The role of Waste Reclaimers : Solid waste management is a fundamental prerequisite in

ensuring sustainable environment. Urbanization has transformed solid waste into a major public
health and environmental concern in our urban areas. This is especially tough on the urban poor
who are left to deal with waste disposal on their own. The lack of support in waste management
has serious consequences on their health & on the urban environment.
To ensure sustainable environment and reduction of solid waste through source separation of the
valuable material and recycling them, these communities are often forced to come up with ways
of solving the waste problem.

31
Solid Waste Management in urban areas remain a big menace in Kenya
Most municipal councils and city councils who are trusted with waste disposal in Kenya
dispose their waste at a disposal site (usually former quarry pits). Waste is emptied into
the pit without compaction.
Solid waste reclaimers have come in as a blessing. In Kenya, a few years ago it was not
common to see waste reclaimers and waste pickers but today they are a big part of the
waste management sector both in the residential areas and the cities.
However, little has been done to find various groups of Solid waste reclaimers and find
the organizations working and supporting reclaimers & interviewing them on how they
offer their support to the group members. There are plenty of Solid waste reclaimer
organizations especially in the slums having the same goals of making the environment
clean and organizations that support the reclaimer groups in the town ready to offer as
much support as they can, but there is still a long way to go when it comes to Solid Waste
Management in large scale.
The reclaimer groups are mostly in need of knowledge & skills concerned with solid
waste, trainings, financially support, by-laws which will govern them, infrastructure, tool
& equipment.
In a recent study in four major cities in Kenya the Municipal councils are supporting the
32
reclaimer groups because they recognize that while they can only manage 20% of the
solid waste, the reclaimers are managing 15% of solid waste without half as resources as
the municipal councils. In Kisumu such as the relationship between the Municipal and the
reclaimer groups is good because they give recognition letters & work permit to these
groups and offer transportation of the waste from transfer point to the dumping site. They
also give tools & equipments e.g. brooms, rakes, spades etc.
The need for sustainable and ecologically practical solutions to solid waste management
cannot be overstated. This must be driven by local solutions such as would be found in a
business approach to solid waste management. Everywhere one looks; we see models of
local sanitation businesses. These efforts however do not seem to have managed to bridge
the gap for financial services to these sector. As observed, local businesses are there but
faced with many challenges ranging from poor infrastructure for waste disposal, negative
public perception and little or minimal linkages with the major financiers mainly because
these venture are either too localized or not commercially viable for large-scale
financiers. Sustainable local solutions must not only positive attitude and supporting
legislations but also local financing.
As viewed from the waste management research done recently by Ecotact and WIEGO,
the waste reclaimers are often looked down upon as engaging in loathsome and dirty
work, in business term this shunning away has not only been at community level but also
by the financing institutions who perhaps do not see the profitable implication of a
partnership with these waste collectors. Opening space for the entrepreneur to interact is
therefore critical to opening up the local businesses to opportunities for financing.
Visibility of the local small and micro entrepreneur is compounded by the problem of
lack of representation of this critical sector in the larger sanitation provision forum.
Secondly, due to the often negative perception of the business, the entrepreneurs are not
sufficiently empowered to discuss their business.
The high demand for the services of the waste managers is clear as seen in interviews of
local waste pickers and organizations supporting them in Nairobi, Kisumu, Nakuru and
Mombasa. From a livelihood perspective it is seen as a means of profitable employment
that is able to sustain the needs of the entrepreneur, his employee(s) and families by
extension.
1) Recycling: Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and
reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which
the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be
collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles are
sorted directly from mixed waste streams and are known as kerb-side recycling, it
requires the owner of the waste to separate it into various different bins (typically wheelie
bins) prior to its collection.

33
Waste management concepts
Diagram of the waste hierarchy.
There are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between
countries or regions. Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:
1. Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle,
which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of
waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste
minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum
practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste
2. Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting
party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste management,
this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate
disposal of the unrecoverable material.
UNIT 7
KEY STEPS IN MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES
Components of solid waste management: The municipal solid waste industry has four
components:

34
1. Recycling,
2. Composting,
3. Land filling, and
4. Waste-to-energy via incineration.
Key steps: The primary steps are:
1. Generation,
2. Collection,
3. Sorting and
4. Separation,
5. Transfer, and
6. Disposal.
Activities in which materials are identified as no longer being of value and are either thrown out
or gathered together for disposal.
Collection: The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste
and recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a materials processing facility, a
transfer station or a landfill disposal site.
Waste handling and separation, storage and processing at the source
Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste management until the
waste is placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses the movement of
loaded containers to the point of collection. Separating different types of waste components is an
important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the source.

35
Separation and processing and transformation of solid wastes: The types of
means and facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials that have been
separated at the source include curbside collection, drop off and buy back centers. The separation
and processing of wastes that have been separated at the source and the separation of
commingled wastes usually occur at a materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion
facilities and disposal sites.
Transfer and transport: This element involves two main steps. First, the waste is
transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to larger transport equipment. The waste is then
transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.
Disposal
Mixed municipal waste
Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid
wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site,
residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of
solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A
modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid
wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the
breeding of insects and the contamination of ground water.

36
Energy generation: Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several
technologies have been developed that make the processing of MSW for energy generation
cleaner and more economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture, combustion,
pyrolysis, gasification, and plasma arc gasification. While older waste incineration plants emitted
high levels of pollutants, recent regulatory changes and new technologies have significantly
reduced this concern. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations in 1995
and 2000 under the Clean Air Act have succeeded in reducing emissions of dioxins from waste-
to-energy facilities by more than 99 percent below 1990 levels, while mercury emissions have
been by over 90 percent. The EPA noted these improvements in 2003, citing waste-to-energy as
a power source “with less environmental impact than almost any other source of electricity.” [
UNIT 8
DEVELOPMENT OF RECEPTACLES
There are various receptacles developed for collection and storage for various types of solid
wastes.
These are:
1. Dustbins.
2. Standard containers. These are larger than dustbins.
3. Bulk containers.
4. Sacks [water proof].
5. Baskets [waste paper baskets].
6. Drums [not widely recommended].
7. Bag containers.
8. Trailer system of waste storage.
9. Deva system.
10. Garchey system.
DUSTBINS: These are of the following types:
1. Standard dustbins.
2. Dustless loading dustbins.
3. Plastic dustbins.
1. STANDARD DUSTBIN: The Kenya Bureau of Standards has the national standard and
specifications for manufacturing dustbins. Today, dustbins ara manufactured under Kenya
National Standards number Ks 06-75. In the past however, locally distributed dustbins were
manufactured under British Standards of specifications number 792. specifications for the four
common sizes of dustbins are:

37
i. 0.028m3
ii. 0.056m3
iii. 0.070m3
iv. 0.090m3
All sizes are manufactured from:
i. Mild steel sheets,

ii. Have bottom hoops,
iii. Plain bodies, lid, and are
iv. Galvanized after manufacture.
Plastic Dustbins
Wheeled Refuse Container

38
39
Manufacturing methods are strictly laid down and includes the following features:
1. Re-enforced bar,
2. Defined diameters,
3. Tapering sides,
4. Suitable handles,
5. Bottom hoop,
6. Galvanized,
7. Weight tolerance of 5%,
8. Marking,
9. Various dimensions,
40
10. Metal gauges,
11. Effective volumes.
History: In the United Kingdom, the Public Health Act 1875 authorized municipal authorities
to remove and dispose of waste. The act also made it compulsory for household owners to take
out their household waste once a week for collection in a 'moveable receptacle' - the first known
mention of the modern day dustbin. They received their names due to the fact that one of the
most prominent forms of household waste at the time was coal fire ash.
Curbside waste containers: Curbside waste containers usually consist of three types:
1. Trash cans (receptacles often made of tin, steel or plastic),

2. Dumpsters (large receptacles similar to skips) and
3. Wheelie bins (light, usually plastic bins that are mobile).
All of these are emptied by collectors who will load the contents into a garbage truck and drive it
to a landfill, incinerator or crusher facility for disposal. The standard-sized UK wheelie bin
household collection is 240 litres or more.
In certain areas there is also a recycling service, often with one or more dedicated bins intended
to receive items that can be recycled into new products. These bins are sometimes separated into
different categories (usually represented by colours) which determine what materials can be
inserted into the bin. The contents of the bins are taken to a recycling plant to be processed, and
there are various systems for recycling-bin collection: single-bin-combined stream systems,
multiple-bin systems, and cyclic collections with different materials collected on different days.
In some countries there are large (500 cubic meters and more) waste containers serving several
buildings. Special garbage trucks have been developed for raising these heavy containers and
emptying them. Another option is a truck that replaces the container with a clean one, and takes
the whole container to the garbage depot where it is placed into a consuming crush and
destroyed.
Wheelie bins: The wheelie bin is a waste container on wheels designed to make it easier for
users to transport heavy loads of refuse to the curb or other pick-up point. More recently it has
application for transporting stolen goods on bin day in residential suburbs. The term dumpster is
frequently used as a generic term for a large MGB or the non-mobile variety (known as a skip in
the UK or Australia) in the United States. In the US residential wheelie bins are also generically
called "Herbie Curbies. The smaller wheelie bins, for domestic or light commercial use, typically
hold 120 to 360 litres (26 to 79 imp gal; 32 to 95 US gal), with 240 litres (53 imp gal; 63 US gal)
being the most common. They have a hinged flap lid and two wheels on the bottom on the same
side as the lid hinge. There is a bar behind the hinge on the top of the bin which is used to move
it, or to hoist it up onto a garbage truck for emptying. The 240 litre bin is usually considered to
have the same capacity as three traditional waste containers. In the UK, "wheelie bins" for non-
recyclable domestic waste are currently collected either weekly or once a fortnight, depending on
the local Council's waste management policies.

41
Design: The design objectives behind the bin were efficient use of space and safety: to provide
at least as much space as the older round bins, whilst reducing the risk of injury caused by
moving it. This is important for both the householder and the waste collector, who risked injury
through lifting the traditional bin or from sharp, or possibly contaminated objects in garbage
bags. Standardisation of dimensions is important because the bins must be lifted by a standard
sized hoist on the dustcart. The bins are lifted by the lip at the front which must be designed for
maximum stiffness and mechanical strength. The underside of the lip is therefore reinforced by
numerous ribs in the case of the thermoplastic bins. Steel bins have a much simpler lip owing to
the properties of steel.
Industrial bins: The larger bins, intended for commercial use, are mounted on four wheels
and usually have a folding lid and are covered by Part 2 of EN 840. They have capacities of 500
to 1,280 litres (110 to 280 imp gal; 130 to 340 US gal), with 1,100 litres (240 imp gal;
290 US gal) being the most common. Galvanized steel is often used for their construction in
place of high density polyethylene, where resistance to vandalism is important. In the
Bins in public areas: Certain public areas such as parks have litter bins which are placed
alongside paths frequently walked by visitors. This encourages people to avoid littering, as
littering creates an unhealthy and aesthetically unpleasant social environment.
Bins in outdoor locations or other busy public areas are usually mounted to the ground or floor.
This discourages theft, and also reduces vandalism by making it harder for the bins to be
physically moved, maneuvered, or tipped over.
In the past terrorists have left bombs in bins. The bomb is much less likely to be spotted than an
unattended bag and the metal bins provide extra shrapnel that injures people nearby when it
detonates. For this reason there are no bins in most railway stations, most airports and many
shopping centres in the United Kingdom, or if they are provided they are just a see through bin
bag hanging from a metal hoop. An alternative 'bomb-resistant' design, features a plastic inner
barrel surrounded by a thick steel outer barrel and a heavy hinged steel lid with a small hole for
waste, intended to direct any explosion upwards and contain shrapnel. Apartment buildings often
have dust flumes in which residents can dispose of their waste in stainless steel waste containers.
These chutes usually lead to some large receptacle or waste-disposal complex in the basement.
which is then emptied by a waste collection vehicle
The following table gives some dimensions and standard weights of dustbins.
CAPACITY OFDUSTBINS
CAPACITY INTERNAL INTERNAL INTERNAL DEPTH OF

HEIGHT DIAMETER BOTTOM FLANGE
DIAMETER
42
0.023m3 35.56 cm 35.56 cm 30.48 cm 3.83 cm
0.056m3 50.80 cm 40.64 cm 35.56 cm 5.08 cm
0.070m3 55.88 cm 43.18 cm 38.10 cm 5.08 cm
0.09m3 60.96 cm 45.64 cm 40. 64 cm 6.35 cm
To keep the dust bins to the above specifications, metal gauges must be regulated relatively to
the size of the dustbin being manufactured.
Where standards for the manufacture of the dustbins are established, necessary authority should
be obtained before one embarks on a special dustbin manufacture.
2. DUSTLESS LOADING DUSTBINS: The main features of a dustless loading dustbin are
that there should be no spillage or dissemination of dust or litter when the dustbin is:
1. Standing on stance,
2. While being collected,
3. While being emptied
4. While being returned to the stance.
To achieve all the above, dustless dustbin should be provided with hoppers or shutters designed
to accommodate the dustbin.
Both the dustbin and the lid should have reasonable noise tolerance as the dustbin is emptied
mechanically.
The frequency of emptying process is so arranged that the hinged lid does not open until the top
of the dustbin has been sealed against the shutter to prevent the escape of dust.
Such dustbins are normally heavy and more expensive than the standard dustbins.
The dustless loading dustbins are manufactured under BSS 365/63.
These are two sizes i.e. 0.070m3 and 0.090m3. The 0.090m3 is a more common dustbin in this
range.
The 0.07m3 weighs 16 kg while empty. The weight of loaded dustbin is therefore more than a
loader can lift. It is therefore necessary to provide trolleys on every vehicle to enable dustbins to
be wheeled to the vehicle for emptying.

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UNIT 9
REFUSE COLLECTION ORGANIZATION
The functional element of collection includes not only the gathering of solid waste and
recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials, after collection, to the location
where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be materials processing facility, a
transfer station or a landfill disposal site. Waste handling and separation, storage and processing
at the source: Waste handling and separation involves activities associated with waste
management until the waste is placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the point of collection. Separating different
types of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at the
source. Separation and processing and transformation of solid wastes: The types of means and
facilities that are now used for the recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the
source include curbside collection, drop off and buy back centers. The separation and processing
of wastes that have been separated at the source and the separation of commingled wastes
usually occur at a materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities and disposal
sites.
Waste collection: Waste collection is a part of the process of waste management. It is the
transfer of solid waste from the point of use and disposal to the point of treatment or landfill.
Waste collection also includes the curbside collection of recyclable materials that technically are
not waste, as part of a municipal landfill diversion program
Household waste in economically developed countries will generally be left in waste containers
or recycling bins prior to collection by a waste collector using a waste collection vehicle.

44
Waste on a sidewalk for collection, bagged and stickered

45
Waste collection vehicle

46
UNIT 10
TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT
This element involves two main steps. First, the waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to
larger transport equipment. The waste is then transported, usually over long distances, to a processing or
disposal site.

47
Solid Waste transportation

48
49
6x4 11.3ton Hydraulic Garbage Dump Truck , Garbage Collection
Vehicles

50
Hydraulic System Garbage Compactor / Refuse / Collection Truck
Hydraulic System Garbage Compactor / Refuse / Collection Truck
Land Fill: Disposal of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a
common practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused
quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a
hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly
designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts
such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another
common product of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is
produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill
surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or
plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and
stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also
have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the
landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity.

51
Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid
wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site,
residual materials from materials recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of
solid waste, compost, or other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A
modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing of solid
wastes on land without creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as the
breeding of insects and the contamination of ground water.
Energy generation: Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy. Several technologies
have been developed that make the processing of MSW for energy generation cleaner and more
economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture, combustion, pyrolysis, gasification,
and plasma arc gasification. While older waste incineration plants emitted high levels of
pollutants, recent regulatory changes and new technologies have significantly reduced this
concern. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations in 1995 and 2000
under the Clean Air Act have succeeded in reducing emissions of dioxins from waste-to-energy
facilities by more than 99 percent below 1990 levels, while mercury emissions have been by over
90 percent. The EPA noted these improvements in 2003, citing waste-to-energy as a power
source “with less environmental impact than almost any other source of electricity

52
Land fill Compaction

53
Incineration: Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to
combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for
disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original
volume. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes
described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and
ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It
is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of
disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is
a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is scarcer, as these facilities
generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste
(EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam
or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns
about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on
some very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs which may be created which may
have serious environmental consequences.

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Incinerator

55
Composting [Biological reprocessing]: Recoverable materials that are organic in nature,
such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting
and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then
recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas
from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat
(CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. The intention of biological processing in waste
management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter.
Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste
materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which the items are made can
be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from
general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles are sorted directly from mixed waste
streams and are known as kerb-side recycling, it requires the owner of the waste to separate it
into various different bins (typically wheelie bins) prior to its collection.

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Compost Heap [An active compost heap.]

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UNIT 11
LABOUR, PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
UNIT 12
STREET CLEANSING
A street sweeper or street cleaner may refer to either a person's occupation, or a machine that
cleans streets. A street sweeper cleans the streets, usually in an urban area.
Street sweepers have been employed in cities since sanitation and waste removal became a
priority. A street-sweeping person would use a broom and shovel to clean off litter, animal waste
and filth that accumulated on streets. Later, water hoses were used to wash the streets.
Machines were created in the 19th century to do the job more efficiently. Today, modern street
sweepers are mounted on truck bodies and can vacuum debris that accumulates in streets.
Modern sweepers: Newer street sweepers are capable of collecting small particles of debris.
Many street sweepers produced today are PM10 certified, meaning that they are capable of
collecting and holding particulate matter sized less than 10μm. Despite advancements in street
sweeping technology, the mechanical broom type street sweeper accounts for approximately 90
percent of all street sweepers used in the United States today.
Newer mechanical street sweeper
Modern street sweepers are equipped with water tanks and sprayers used to loosen particles and
reduce dust. The brooms gather debris into a main collection area from which it is vacuumed and
pumped into a collection bin or hopper.
A regenerative air street sweeper uses forced air to create a swirling effect inside a contained
sweeping head and then uses the negative pressure on the suction side to place the road debris
inside a hopper. Debris is removed from the air by centrifugal separation and reused, keeping
particulate matter inside the hopper. Many regenerative air sweepers are AQMD certified by the
58
company who manufactures them and can pick up particles as small as 10 micrometres or less
(PM-10), a leading cause of storm water pollution.
However a modern regenerative air street sweeper faces the challenge of noise level due to the
fact that regenerative air street sweeper requires an extra engine to power the vacuum pump
required to create the negative pressure for placing debris into a hoppe
Street sweeper

59
Unit 13
MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the
environment.In the United States, the treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous waste is
regulated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Hazardous wastes are
defined under RCRA in 40 CFR 261 where they are divided into two major categories:
1. Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more
of the following four hazardous traits:
i. Ignitability (i.e., flammable)

ii. Reactivity
iii. corrosivity
iv. toxicity
2. Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as a hazardous
waste which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products.[3]
The requirements of RCRA apply to all the companies that generate hazardous waste as well as
those companies that store or dispose of hazardous waste in the United States. Many types of
businesses generate hazardous waste. For example, dry cleaners, automobile repair shops,
hospitals, exterminators, and photo processing centers may all generate hazardous waste. Some
hazardous waste generators are larger companies such as chemical manufacturers, electroplating
companies, and oil refineries.
These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A
hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means
like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste,
treatment and solidification processes might be required.
Worldwide, The United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP) estimated that more than
400 million tons of hazardous wastes are produced universally each year, mostly by
industrialized countries (schmit, 1999). About 1- percent of this total is shipped across
international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the
Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) (Krueger, 1999).[4] Some
of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the hazardous waste to industrializing countries
for disposal are the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country.
Household Hazardous Waste: Household Hazardous Waste (HHW) (also referred to as

domestic hazardous waste or home generated special materials) is waste that is generated from
residential households. HHW only applies to wastes that are the result of the use of materials that
are labeled for and sold for "home use". Wastes generated by a company or at an industrial
setting are not HHW.

60
The following list includes categories often applied to HHW. It is important to note that many of
these categories overlap and that many household wastes can fall into multiple categories:
1. Paints and solvents

2. Automotive wastes (used motor oil, antifreeze, etc.)
3. Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.)
4. Mercury-containing wastes (thermometers, switches, fluorescent lighting, etc.)
5. Electronics (computers, televisions, cell phones)
6. Aerosols / Propane cylinders
7. Caustics / Cleaning agents
8. Refrigerant-containing appliances
9. Some specialty Batteries (e.g. lithium, nickel cadmium, or button cell batteries)
10. Ammunition
11. Radioactive waste (some home smoke detectors are classified as radioactive waste
because they contain very small amounts of a radioactive isotope of americium - see:
Disposing of Smoke Detectors).
Final disposal of hazardous waste: Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of
in regular landfills. This resulted in unfavorable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the
ground. These chemicals eventually entered natural hydrologic systems. Many landfills now
require countermeasures against groundwater contamination, an example being installing a
barrier along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous substances that may remain
in the disposed waste.[5] Currently, hazardous wastes must often be stabilized and solidified in
order to enter a landfill and many hazardous wastes undergo different treatments in order to
stabilize and dispose of them. Most flammable materials can be recycled, used as industrial fuel.
Some materials with hazardous constituents can be recycled, lead acid batteries are one example.

61
Recycling: Many hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples might
include lead-acid batteries or electronic circuit boards where the heavy metals these types of
ashes go though the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and convert them into
easier-to- dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement filling. Such treatments reduce the
level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly and bottom ash[citation needed], while also recycling the
safe product.
Portland cement: Another commonly used treatment is cement based solidification and
stabilization. Cement is used because it can treat a range of hazardous wastes by improving
physical characteristics and decreasing the toxicity and transmission of contaminants. The
cement produced is categorized into 5 different divisions, depending on its strength and
components. This process of converting sludge into cement might include the addition of pH
adjustment agents, phosphates, or sulfur reagents to reduce the settling or curing time, increase
the compressive strength, or reduce the leach ability of contaminants.
Incineration, destruction and waste-to-energy: A HW may be "destroyed" for

example by incinerating it at a high temperature. Flammable wastes can sometimes be burned as
energy sources. For example many cement kilns burn HWs like used oils or solvents. Today
incineration treatments not only reduce the amount of hazardous waste, but also they also
generate energy throughout the gases released in the process. It is known that this particular
waste treatment releases toxic gases produced by the combustion of byproduct or other materials
and this can affect the environment. However, current technology has developed more efficient
incinerator units that control these emissions to a point that this treatment is considered a more
beneficial option. There are different types of incinerators and they vary depending on the
characteristics of the waste. Starved air incineration is another method used to treat hazardous
wastes. Just like in common incineration, burning occurs, however controlling the amount of
oxygen allowed proves to be significant to reduce the amount of harmful byproducts produced.
Starved Air Incineration is an improvement of the traditional incinerators in terms of air
pollution. Using this technology it is possible to control the combustion rate of the waste and
therefore reduce the air pollutants produced in the process.
Hazardous waste landfill (sequestering, isolation, etc.)
A HW may be sequestered in a HW landfill or permanent disposal facility. "In terms of

hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal facility or part of a facility where hazardous
waste is placed or on land and which is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface
impoundment, an underground injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an
underground mine, a cave, or a corrective action management unit.

62
Pyrolysis: Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in an ultra high
temperature electrical arc, in inert conditions to avoid combustion. This treatment method may
be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances such as in the destruction
of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs, pesticides and other persistent organic
pollutants.
The Importance of Hazardous Waste Management: A variety of human activities,

including manufacturing, medical practice and transportation, generate hazardous wastes.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and state environmental agencies govern the
disposal of hazardous waste. The improper management of hazardous waste has resulted
in tragedies.
Types of Hazardous Waste: The EPA defines and regulates several types of hazardous
waste. These include materials that have come into contact with certain chemical agents, certain
pesticides and pharmaceutical products, and the byproducts of common industrial products, such
as cleaning solvents, wastewater and sludge.
Workplace Regulations: All employees who may come into contact with hazardous
materials must be fully trained in proper handling of these materials and equipped with all
necessary protective gear such as gloves, goggles and coveralls. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration regulations require these protections. Failure to comply may result in serious
health issues for individuals as well as fines and possible civil suits against noncompliant
businesses. The EPA estimates that hundreds of hazardous waste sites remain from the days
before industries realized the dangers of unregulated disposal.
Environmental Consequences: Improper handling of hazardous waste may result in

serious health problems for those who consume contaminated water, air or food. Problems can
include cancer, nerve damage and birth defects. Hazardous waste that makes its way into the
water table may be nearly impossible to remedy. Cleanup and remediation costs to the
responsible parties and the public may run into the millions and even billions of dollars.

63
It takes a lot of valuable energy and materials to create and manufacture products and the
resulting industrial waste can be difficult to manage. Many cities and countries have put new
laws into place to heavily tax companies that produce excess amounts of waste or create
potentially harmful effects on the air and ecosystem. The extra taxes help to offset the
environment damage by going toward environmental restoration, protection and spreading
information to increase knowledge on these issues. People and companies need to educate
themselves about the environment. Smog alerts in many cases result from not only harmful
transportation emissions but also from the output of factories into the air we breathe.
Companies need to be responsible with their industrial waste management and specifically their
hazardous waste. Many local governments provide counseling, consulting and recommendations
to organizations on what they can do to better manage their waste and plan for a more
environmentally friendly production processes. More than ever, there need to be consequences to
companies that do not take waste management seriously. Part of this includes reducing harmful
emissions into the environment over a period of time and correctly disposing of waste materials.

64
Countries have terms and conditions about what is acceptable in terms of waste management.
Today, more than ever, industries know their impact of manufacturing on smog levels and the
escalating cost of managing their waste. More industrial leaders are showing their accountability
for the environment. Citizens need to support companies whose business practices include
environmentally conscious and responsible conditions. Using energy more efficiently, reducing
the hazardous waste they output into the air and to the landfills and practicing composting and
recycling are key factors in improving the way waste is managed.
Companies who have no choice but to continue creating hazardous industrial waste due to the

65
nature of their business need to ensure that they properly dispose of that material and are upfront
an honest about the contents of their vehicles, their facilities and management of the waste.
Environmental protection acts encourage and reward companies who do their part to more
effectively manage waste and work with environmental agencies to maximize efforts to
minimize the impact on the environment. Industrial waste producers need to pay for the disposal
of their materials and in particular, need to take caution in the way they dispose of hazardous
materials. There have been cases documented of companies mislabeling goods and of
irresponsible practices leading to contamination of local watersheds. The more that citizens and
government push for reform, the more companies will realize that they are accountable for their
industrial waste.
Classes of Hazardous Waste: Dangerous goods are
1. solids,
2. liquids, or
3. gases that can harm:
i. people,
ii. other living organisms,
iii. property, or
iv. the environment.
They are often subject to chemical regulations. In the United States and sometimes in Canada
dangerous goods are more commonly known as hazardous materials, (abbreviated as
HAZMAT or HazMat).. Dangerous goods include materials that are:
1. radioactive,
2. flammable,
3. explosive,
4. corrosive,
5. oxidizing,
6. asphyxiating,
7. biohazardous,
8. toxic, pathogenic, or
9. allergenic.
Also included are physical conditions such as compressed gases and liquids or hot materials,
including all goods containing such materials or chemicals, or may have other characteristics that
render them hazardous in specific circumstances.
In the United States, dangerous goods are often indicated by diamond-shaped signage on the
item, its container, and/or the building where it is stored. The colours of each diamond in a way
has reference to its hazard i.e.:
1. Flammable = red because fire and heat are generally of red colour,
66
2. Explosive = orange, because mixing red (flammable) with yellow (oxidising agent)
creates orange.
3. Non-flammable Non-toxic Gas = green, due to all compressed air vessels being this
colour in France after World War II. France is where the diamond system of HazMat
identification originated.
UNIT 14
HEALTH CARE WASTE MANAEMENT PLANS
people involved in health care waste management at any level should be aware of;
1. definitions,
2. characterization and
3. classification of health care waste,
4. associated risks and
5. basic protective measures for employees,
6. minimum observance that any health care facilities should comply with,
7. key management principles,
8. sound treatment and
9. Disposal technologies applicable to each category of waste.
There are actions that should be taken as a first step to assess the current situation before
developing a national health care waste management plan. The relevance of such a plan and the
implementation of realistic, practical and sustainable solutions, tuned to the needs of countries,
depends on the accuracy of the initial assessment.
The plan should be developed according to specific objectives to be used by the planning
officers of the central, regional and county Governments to improve all aspects of health care
waste management. Complementary to the development of health care waste management
through sets of specific objectives, a holistic approach is necessary to address efficiently all the
specific aspects of such a plan.
Finally develop a strategy to implement a health care waste management plan at national and
regional levels. It is important and necessary, during the implementation phases, to reinforce the
collaboration between the central, the regional and municipal authorities to improve the health
care waste management practices and to find out pragmatic solutions for their sound disposal.
UNIT 15
MANAGEMENT OF E- OR ELECTRONIC WASTE
Electronic waste, e-waste, e-scrap, or Electronic-disposal, waste electrical and electronic

equipment (WEEE) describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. There is a lack of
67
consensus as to whether the term should apply to resale, reuse, and refurbishing industries, or
only to a product that cannot be used for its intended purpose. Informal processing of electronic
waste in developing countries may cause serious health and pollution problems, though these
countries are also most likely to reuse and repair electronics.
All electronic scrap components, such as CRTs, may contain contaminants such as lead,
cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Even in developed countries recycling and
disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to workers and communities and great care must
be taken to avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as heavy
metals from landfills and incinerator ashes. Scrap industry and USA EPA officials agree that
materials should be managed with caution
Defective and obsolete electronic equipment.

68
69
Hoarding (left), disassembling (center) and collecting (right) electronic waste in Bengaluru, India
Definitions: "Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic

equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators.
This definition includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling,
or disposal. Others define the re-usables (working and repairable electronics) and secondary
scrap (copper, steel, plastic, etc.) to be "commodities", and reserve the term "waste" for residue
or material which is dumped by the buyer rather than recycled, including residue from reuse and
recycling operations. Because loads of surplus electronics are frequently commingled (good,
recyclable, and non-recyclable), several public policy advocates apply the term "e-waste"
broadly to all surplus electronics. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) are considered one of the hardest
types to recycle.
CRTs have relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors (not to be confused with
phosphorus), both of which are necessary for the display. The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) includes discarded CRT monitors in its category of "hazardous
household waste" but considers CRTs that have been set aside for testing to be commodities if
they are not discarded, speculatively accumulated, or left unprotected from weather and other
damage.
The EU and its member states operate a system via the European Waste Catalogue (EWC)- a
European Council Directive, which is interepreted into "Member state law". In the UK (EU
member state), this is in the form of the List of Wastes Directive. However, the list (and EWC)
gives broad definition (EWC Code 16 02 13*) of Hazardous Electronic wastes, requiring "waste
operators" to employ the Hazardous Waste Regulations (Annex 1A, Annex 1B) for refined
definition. Constituent materials in the waste also require assessment via the combination of
Annex II and Annex III, again allowing operators to further determine whether a waste is
hazardous.
Debate continues over the distinction between "commodity" and "waste" electronics definitions.
Some exporters are accused of deliberately leaving difficult-to-recycle, obsolete, or non-
70
repairable equipment mixed in loads of working equipment (though this may also come through
ignorance, or to avoid more costly treatment processes). Protectionists may broaden the
definition of "waste" electronics in order to protect domestic markets from working secondary
equipment.
The high value of the computer recycling subset of electronic waste (working and reusable
laptops, desktops, and components like RAM) can help pay the cost of transportation for a larger
number of worthless pieces than can be achieved with display devices, which have less (or
negative) scrap value. In A 2011 report, "Ghana E-Waste Country Assessment",[5] found that of
215,000 tons of electronics imported to Ghana, 30% were brand new and 70% were used. Of the
used product, the study concluded that 15% was not reused and was scrapped or discarded. This
contrasts with published but uncredited claims that 80% of the imports into Ghana were being
burned in primitive conditions.
Amount of Electronic waste world-wide
A fragment of discarded circuit board.
Rapid changes in technology, changes in media (tapes, software, MP3), falling prices, and
planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the
globe. Dave Kruch, CEO of Cash For Laptops, regards electronic waste as a "rapidly expanding"
issue.[6] Technical solutions are available, but in most cases a legal framework, a collection,
logistics, and other services need to be implemented before a technical solution can be applied.
Display units (CRT, LCD, LED monitors), Processors (CPU, GPU, or APU chips), memory
(DRAM or SRAM), and audio components have different useful lives. Processors are most
71
frequently out-dated (by software no longer being optimized) and are more likely to become "e-
waste", while display units are most often replaced while working without repair attempts, due to
changes in wealthy nation appetites for new display technology.
An estimated 50 million tons of E-waste are produced each year. The USA discards 30 million
computers each year and 100 million phones are disposed of in Europe each year. The
Environmental Protection Agency estimates that only 15-20% of e-waste is recycled, the rest of
these electronics go directly into landfills and incinerators
According to a report by UNEP titled, "Recycling - from E-Waste to Resources," the amount of
e-waste being produced - including mobile phones and computers - could rise by as much as 500
percent over the next decade in some countries, such as India.[8] The United States is the world
leader in producing electronic waste, tossing away about 3 million tons each year. China already
produces about 2.3 million tons (2010 estimate) domestically, second only to the United States.
And, despite having banned e-waste imports, China remains a major e-waste dumping ground for
developed countries.
Electrical waste contains hazardous but also valuable and scarce materials. Up to 60 elements
can be found in complex electronics.
In the United States, an estimated 70% of heavy metals in landfills comes from discarded
electronics.
While there is agreement that the number of discarded electronic devices is increasing, there is
considerable disagreement about the relative risk (compared to automobile scrap, for example),
and strong disagreement whether curtailing trade in used electronics will improve conditions, or
make them worse. According to an article in Motherboard, attempts to restrict the trade have
driven reputable companies out of the supply chain, with unintended consequences.<mithun>

72
Global trade issues
Electronic waste is often exported to developing countries.

73
4.5-volt, D, C, AA, BBB, AAAA, A23, 9-volt, CR2032 and LR44 cells are all recyclable in most
countries.
One theory is that increased regulation of electronic waste and concern over the environmental
harm in mature economies creates an economic disincentive to remove residues prior to export.
Critics of trade in used electronics maintain that it is still too easy for brokers calling themselves
recyclers to export unscreened electronic waste to developing countries, such as China,[13] India
and parts of Africa, thus avoiding the expense of removing items like bad cathode ray tubes (the
processing of which is expensive and difficult). The developing countries have become toxic
dump yards of e-waste. Proponents of international trade point to the success of fair trade
programs in other industries, where cooperation has led to creation of sustainable jobs, and can
bring affordable technology in countries where repair and reuse rates are higher.
Defenders of the trade in used electronics say that extraction of metals from virgin mining has
been shifted to developing countries. Recycling of copper, silver, gold, and other materials from
discarded electronic devices is considered better for the environment than mining. They also
state that repair and reuse of computers and televisions has become a "lost art" in wealthier
nations, and that refurbishing has traditionally been a path to development.
South Korea, Taiwan, and southern China all excelled in finding "retained value" in used goods,
and in some cases have set up billion-dollar industries in refurbishing used ink cartridges, single-
use cameras, and working CRTs. Refurbishing has traditionally been a threat to established
manufacturing, and simple protectionism explains some criticism of the trade. Works like "The
Waste Makers" by Vance Packard explain some of the criticism of exports of working product,
for example the ban on import of tested working Pentium 4 laptops to China, or the bans on
74
export of used surplus working electronics by Japan.
Opponents of surplus electronics exports argue that lower environmental and labor standards,
cheap labor, and the relatively high value of recovered raw materials leads to a transfer of
pollution-generating activities, such as smelting of copper wire. In China, Malaysia, India,
Kenya, and various African countries, electronic waste is being sent to these countries for
processing, sometimes illegally. Many surplus laptops are routed to developing nations as
"dumping grounds for e-waste".
Because the United States has not ratified the Basel Convention or its Ban Amendment, and has
few domestic federal laws forbidding the export of toxic waste, the Basel Action Network
estimates that about 80% of the electronic waste directed to recycling in the U.S. does not get
recycled there at all, but is put on container ships and sent to countries such as China.[14][15][16][17]
This figure is disputed as an exaggeration by the EPA, the Institute of Scrap Recycling
Industries, and the World Reuse, Repair and Recycling Association.
The environmental impact of the processing of different electronic waste

components
E-Waste Component Process Used Potential Environmental Hazard

Cathode ray tubes (used
Lead, barium and other heavy metals
in TVs, computer Breaking and removal of
leaching into the ground water and release
monitors, ATM, video yoke, then dumping
of toxic phosphor
cameras, and more)
Printed circuit board De-soldering and removal
(image behind table - a of computer chips; open Air emissions as well as discharge into
thin plate on which chips burning and acid baths to rivers of glass dust, tin, lead, brominated
and other electronic remove final metals after dioxin, beryllium cadmium, and mercury
components are placed) chips are removed.
Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, brominated
substances discharged directly into rives
Chemical stripping using
Chips and other gold acidifying fish and flora. Tin and lead
nitric and hydrochloric
plated components contamination of surface and groundwater.
acid and burning of chips
Air emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy
metals and hydrocarbons
Plastics from printers, Shredding and low temp Emissions of brominated dioxins, heavy
keyboards, monitors, etc. melting to be reused metals and hydrocarbons
75
Open burning and
Hydrocarbon ashes released into air, water
Computer wires stripping to remove
and soil.
copper
Electronic waste substances
Several sizes of button and coin cell with 2 9v batteries as a size comparison. They are all recycled in
many countries since they contain lead, mercury and cadmium.
Some computer components can be reused in assembling new computer products, while others
are reduced to metals that can be reused in applications as varied as construction, flatware, and
jewelry.
Substances found in large quantities include epoxy resins, fiberglass, PCBs, PVC (polyvinyl
chlorides), thermosetting plastics, lead, tin, copper, silicon, beryllium, carbon, iron and
aluminium.
Elements found in small amounts include cadmium, mercury, and thallium.[64]
Elements found in trace amounts include americium, antimony, arsenic, barium, bismuth, boron,
cobalt, europium, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, lithium, manganese, nickel, niobium,
palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, selenium, silver, tantalum, terbium, thorium, titanium,
vanadium, and yttrium.
Almost all electronics contain lead and tin (as solder) and copper (as wire and printed circuit
board tracks), though the use of lead-free solder is now spreading rapidly. The following are
ordinary applications:
Hazardous
76
Recyclers in the street in São Paulo, Brazil with old computers
1. Americium: The radioactive source in smoke alarms. It is known to be carcinogenic.
2. Mercury: Found in fluorescent tubes (numerous applications), tilt switches (mechanical

doorbells, thermostats),[65] and flat screen monitors. Health effects include sensory
impairment, dermatitis, memory loss, and muscle weakness. Exposure in-utero causes
fetal deficits in motor function, attention and verbal domains Environmental effects in
animals include death, reduced fertility, and slower growth and development.
3. Sulphur: Found in lead-acid batteries. Health effects include liver damage, kidney
damage, heart damage, eye and throat irritation. When released into the environment, it
can create sulphuric acid.
4. BFRs: Used as flame retardants in plastics in most electronics. Includes PBBs, PBDE,
DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE. Health effects include impaired development of the
nervous system, thyroid problems, liver problems. Environmental effects: similar effects
as in animals as humans. PBBs were banned from 1973 to 1977 on. PCBs were banned
during the 1980s.
5. Cadmium: Found in light-sensitive resistors, corrosion-resistant alloys for marine and

aviation environments, and nickel-cadmium batteries. The most common form of
cadmium is found in Nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries. These batteries tend to
contain between 6 and 18% cadmium. The sale of Nickel-Cadmium batteries has been
banned in the European Union except for medical use. When not properly recycled it can
leach into the soil, harming microorganisms and disrupting the soil ecosystem. Exposure

77
is caused by proximity to hazardous waste sites and factories and workers in the metal
refining industry. The inhalation of cadmium can cause severe damage to the lungs and is
also known to cause kidney damage.Cadmium is also associated with deficits in
cognition, learning, behavior, and neuromotor skills in children.
6. Lead: Solder, CRT monitor glass, lead-acid batteries, some formulations of PVC.A
typical 15-inch cathode ray tube may contain 1.5 pounds of lead, but other CRTs have
been estimated as having up to 8 pounds of lead. Adverse effects of lead exposure include
impaired cognitive function, behavioral disturbances, attention deficits, hyperactivity,
conduct problems and lower IQ
7. Beryllium oxide: Filler in some thermal interface materials such as thermal grease used
on heat sinks for CPUs and power transistors magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic
windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum tubes, and gas lasers.
8. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): Found in Non-stick cookware (PTFE), used as an

antistatic additive in industrial applications, and found in electronics. PFOAs are formed
synthetically through environmental degradation and, in mice, after oral uptake. Studies
in mice have found the following health effects: Hepatotoxicity, developmental toxicity,
immunotoxicity, hormonal effects and carcinogenic effects. Studies have found increased
maternal PFOA levels to be associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion
(miscarriage) and stillbirth. Increased maternal levels of PFOA are also associated with
decreases in mean gestational age (preterm birth), mean birth weight (low birth weight),
mean birth length (small for gestational age), and mean APGAR score.
9. Hexavalent chromium: A known carcinogen after occupational inhalation exposure.[66]
There is also evidence of cytotixic and genotoxic effects of some chemicals, which have been
shown to inhibit cell proliferation, cause cell membrane lesion, cause DNA single-strand breaks,
and elevate Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels.
1. DNA breaks can increase the likelihood of developing cancer (if the damage is to a tumor
suppressor gene)
2. DNA damages are a special problem in non-dividing or slowly dividing cells, where
78
unrepaired damages will tend to accumulate over time. On the other hand, in rapidly
dividing cells, unrepaired DNA damages that do not kill the cell by blocking replication
will tend to cause replication errors and thus mutation
3. Elevated Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels can cause damage to cell structures
(oxidative stress)[71]
Generally non-hazardous
An iMac G4 that has been repurposed into a lamp
Aluminium: nearly all electronic goods using more than a few watts of power (heatsinks),
electrolytic capacitors.
1. Copper: copper wire, printed circuit board tracks, component leads.

2. Germanium: 1950s–1960s transistorized electronics (bipolar junction transistors).
3. Gold: connector plating, primarily in computer equipment.
4. Iron: steel chassis, cases, and fixings.
5. Lithium: lithium-ion batteries.
6. Nickel: nickel-cadmium batteries.
7. Silicon: glass, transistors, ICs, printed circuit boards.
8. Tin: solder, coatings on component leads.
9. Zinc: plating for steel parts.
UNIT 16
HEALTH EDUCATION AND COMMUNITYPARTICIPATION

79
UNIT 17
ENFORCMENT OF LEGISLATION
1. Public Health Act Cap 242.

2. Factories Act Cap 514.
3. Employment Act Cap 226.
4. Building Code.
5. Local Authority by laws.
6. EMCA (1999)
7. Pharmacy and poison Act 243.

80

Solid Waste Management

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SOLID WASTE(WHAT):

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste management: This is the:

All wastes are divided into two main classes viz:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

No longer are these services despised and rejected as communal services.

3. Garbage: This is a term used to describe putriscible waste resulting from:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

It can also be defined as waste that can decompose.

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

8. Industrial wastes: These are wastes resulting from manufacturing processes.

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

10. Junk: this is whole metal waste.

12. Debris: These are wastes from demolished buildings.

OBJECTIVES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Waste reduction measures: These are:

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOLID WASTES

EARLY ORGANIZED WASTE MANAGEMENT SERVICES

Animals played an important role in the disposal of vegetable matter where:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

3) Motivations to improve systems of management and effects:

REASONS FOR LEARNING PROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

PROBLEMS ARISING FROM POOR MANAGEMENT OF SOLID WASTES

SOLID WASTES PRODUCTION AREAS

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID WASTES

Solid wastes can be classified as follows according to their sources:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

1. Planning of waste storage at source.

1. Municipal refuse (household, garbage, rubbish, residential, and domestic refuse):

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

3. Institutional Refuse: These are:

7.Industrial Wastes: From processing and non-processing activities eg:

COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTES

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

REFUSE YIELD AND ANALYSIS

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

Quality of refuse is either determined by volume or weight.

1. The composition of solid wastes,

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

A regular sample should cover the following:

1. Spring wastes 3rd week of April,

TYPICAL SEASONAL ANALYSIS SOLID WASTES

This would provide the following results by weight and volume:

Note: The other information that must be recorded is:

1. Volume out-put per house per week in cubic meters.

REASONS FOR SOLID WASTES ANALYSIS:

1. Assist in deciding on suitable methods of disposal of solid wastes.

COMPARISON OF PRODUCTION TRENDS OF SOLID WASTES

TYPE OF REFUSE HIGH CLASS LOW CLASS

STORAGE OF SOLID WASTES

1. Number of premises served,

Quality of Good Storage Receptacle: These are:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

Types of Storage receptacles: These are:

This system is suitable for:

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

NOTES FOR P.H.O STUDENTS BY O.E.AKOTH

i. Disposal of refuse starts in the kitchen.