CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT (PYC2602)

QUESTIONS FROM THE STUDY GUIDE

Question 2
Which statement is correct with regard to critical periods?

(1) Critical periods occur mainly during prenatal development in the physical
domain when environmental influences have the greatest impact.
(2) A critical period is the specific time when the physical and language
development of children and adolescents show the greatest changes.
(3) Critical periods are the specific times when the development of certain
characteristics is very sensitive to the interaction between physical and
environmental influences.

Feedback on question 2
The correct answer is alternative 3. Here it is important to keep the interactive
nature of physical development and environmental influences in mind. Read the
examples in your prescribed book (p. 18).

After studying the discussion of critical or sensitive periods and plasticity, you will
realise that the statement in alternative 1 is not correct because critical periods
also occur after birth in the physical domain. Alternative 2 is also incorrect
because recent research has shown that language development can occur even
after the parts of the brain which are associated with language processing have
been damaged.

Question 2
Complete the following two sentences:

(a) Piaget defined cognitive development as ......................................................

..........................................................................................................................

(b) Piaget studied children by means of the .......................... method. This

method is a combination of ............................... and ....................................

Feedback on question 2
The sentences should be completed as follows:
(a) Piaget defined cognitive development as ,,the product of children’s efforts to
understand and act on their world’’ (Papalia et al., 2008, p. 33).
(b) Piaget studied children by means of the clinical method. This method is a
combination of observation and flexible questioning.

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Question 3
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, which of the following are
characteristic of a scheme? A scheme is ...

(a) a system of knowledge that develops as a result of interaction with the

environment.
(b) a cognitive structure in which images of reality are incorporated.
(c) an organised pattern of behaviour that a person uses to think about or act in a
situation.
(d) a mental representation of a behavioural pattern.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (c)
(2) (b) & (d)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 3
The correct answer is alternative (3). All the statements are correct because a
scheme is a “system of knowledge’’ (a), a “cognitive structure’’ (b) and a
“mental representation of organised patterns of behaviour’’ (c and d). By
interacting with the environment, children acquire more and more information and
knowledge which are organised in structures called schemes. Study the
discussion in your prescribed book on page 34.

Question 4
A little girl is visiting the zoo with her father. She knows a horse and a cow, but
not a kudu. Seeing a kudu for the first time, she says to her father: “Look,
Daddy”, there is a cow.’’ According to Piaget’s theory this is an example of ...

(1) organisation
(2) assimilation
(3) accommodation

Question 5
A little boy from Soweto is visiting his grandparents who live in a rural area in
Lesotho. He knows dogs, cats and cows. Seeing a Basuto pony for the first time,
he tells his grandfather that it is a big dog. After his grandfather has corrected
him and explained to him that it is a certain kind of horse, he calls his sister,
shows her the pony and explains to her that it is a Basuto pony. According to
Piaget’s theory this is an example of ...

(a) organisation
(b) assimilation
(c) accommodation
(d) equilibration

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The correct answer is:

(1) (b) & (c)

(2) (a), (b) & (c)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on questions 4 and 5

The correct answer to question 4 is assimilation and all the alternatives in
question 5 are correct.

In question 4 the little girl visiting the zoo incorporated (assimilation) the new
information (the kudu) into her existing knowledge or scheme of a cow without
changing the scheme.

In question 5 the little boy firstly incorporated the new information (the pony) into
his existing knowledge of a dog (assimilation). After hearing his grandfather’s
explanation, he changed his existing cognitive structure or scheme to
accommodate the new information about the pony. He therefore incorporated
more accurate information in his existing system of knowledge — organisation
has taken place. In striving for balance in his knowledge he shifted from the
assimilation to the accommodation of information — equilibration has taken
place.

Question 6
Which of the following statements are correct according to Lev Vygotsky’s
theory?

(a) The level of cognitive development that will be reached during a certain
period is determined by the child’s cognitive schemes.
(b) Adults should bear the zone of proximal development in mind when helping
children to perform certain tasks.
(c) The level of cognitive development that will be reached is determined by the
sociocultural histories of children.
(d) Storing and retrieving processes determine the level of cognitive development
that children will reach.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (b)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)

Feedback on question 6

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The correct answer is (2). The zone of proximal development mentioned in (b)
refers to the gap between what children can already do on their own and what
they are not quite able to do on their own. According to Vygotsky adults or more
advanced peers could help children to cross this gap. The statement in (c) is also
correct. It is well known that the essence of Vygotsky’s theory is his view that
children’s development is imbedded in the social, cultural and historical complex.

The statement in (a) relates to Piaget’s concept of schemes and the statement in
(d) is the view of the information-processing theorists. Both these statements do
not relate to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and are therefore incorrect.

Question 7
A developmental psychologist wanted to investigate children’s use of memory
strategies as they grow older. To determine which memory strategies they used
and how they applied them, she gave them a number of memory tasks when
they were four, six, eight and 10 years old. This research is an example of a ...

(1) sequential design

(2) cross-sectional design
(3) longitudinal design

Feedback on question 7
Since the researcher investigated the use of memory strategies of the same
group of children over a period of time, a longitudinal research design (3) was
used.

Question 8
To determine the effect of age on language development, a developmental
psychologist investigated the language development of two-, four-, six- and eight-
year-old children. This research is an example of a ...

(1) sequential design

(2) cross-sectional design
(3) exploratory study

Feedback on question 8
Since the researcher investigated children of different ages at the same time, a
cross-sectional research design (2) was used.

Question 9
The advantage of microgenetic studies is that ...

(1) only one infant or child is studied by a developmental psychologist.

(2) children are observed or tested only once and data can therefore be gathered
quickly.

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(3) they enable developmentalists to observe processes of change over a short
period of time.

Feedback on question 9
The correct answer is (3). The statements in (1) and (2) are incorrect since a
group of children may be studied repeatedly in a microgenetic research design.

Question 1
Both Michael’s adoptive parents are rather short. However, he is growing to be
quite tall like his biological mother. What can we conclude about Michael’s
height?

(1) Michael’s height is mainly influenced by the positive environment of his

adoptive family.
(2) Michael’s height is largely influenced by heredity.
(3) Nutrition has not influenced Michael’s height.

Feedback on question 1
The key word in this question is “mainly’’. Although height may be influenced by
a positive environment to a certain extent, it is a characteristic that is determined
mainly by genetic composition. Nutrition also plays a role in height determination
so that severe malnutrition may influence a person’s height. Therefore,
alternatives (1) and (3) are incorrect and alternative (2) is correct.

Question 2
Which one of the following most clearly demonstrates the influence of the
environment on development?

(1) Bobby and Jimmy, identical twins who were separated at birth, are both
overweight.
(2) Jenny and Joanie are fraternal twins who were reared apart. Jenny has high
blood pressure and Joanie does not.
(3) Lindiwe, who was adopted at the age of two, walks like her adoptive mother.

Feedback on question 2
Alternatives (1) and (2) refer to characteristics which are to a large degree
determined by heredity. Alternative (3), however, describes a characteristic,
which indicates a certain kind of behaviour, which is usually learned through
imitation (usually unknowingly). Therefore, alternative (3) is the correct answer.

Question 3
Name and define the concepts, which describe ways in which heredity and
environment work together. Also give a brief example of each of these.

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Feedback on question 3
The two concepts which describe ways in which heredity and the environment
work together are reaction range and canalisation.

Reaction range refers to the range of potential expressions of a heredity trait. An

example of reaction range is body size, which depends largely on biological
processes which are genetically determined.

Canalisation, by contrast, refers to how heredity restricts the range of

development of certain traits. An example of canalisation is eye colour, the
genetically programming of which is so strong that it allows for little or no
variation in the colour of a person’s eyes.

Question 4
According to Papalia et al. (2008), differences in siblings are mostly produced by
...................., and similarities between siblings are due to .................... .

(1) nonshared genetic factors; shared genetic factors

(2) heredity; shared environmental factors
(3) nonshared environmental factors; heredity

Feedback on question 4
Alternative (3) is the correct answer as differences between siblings are mostly
caused by their own unique experience of the environment in which they are
raised and which consists of specific influences which affect each child
differently, parents’ handling of each child in the family and the experiences
children have outside their family. By contrast, similarities between siblings, such
as specific physical similarities, are mostly determined by heredity.

Question 1
Which of the following statements regarding physical activity of the mother during
pregnancy is false?
(1) Regular, moderate exercise may improve respiration, circulation, muscle tone
and skin elasticity.
(2) Long working hours and excessive fatigue increase the risk of premature
birth.
(3) Exercising to the point of exhaustion may produce permanent heart damage
in the fetus.

Feedback on question 1
Regular and moderate exercise during pregnancy may contribute to a more
comfortable pregnancy and an easier, safer delivery, while exhaustion and many
demands on the pregnant woman may cause premature birth. Alternatives (1)
and (2) are therefore true. There is, however, no real proof that exercise — even
excessive exercise — may produce heart damage in the unborn baby although it
may cause other complications.

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Question 2
Women with the HI-virus ...
(1) always pass the disease on to their unborn children.
(2) do not pass the disease on to their unborn children because the placenta acts
as a barrier.
(3) should not breastfeed.

Feedback on question 2
Children of women with the HI-virus will not necessarily get the virus from their
mothers although there is a good chance that it will happen. The placenta does
not give the unborn baby sufficient protection against the HI-virus. Proof exists
that the HI-virus can be passed on through breastmilk and it is therefore
preferable that mothers with the HI-virus or Aids do not breastfeed their babies.
Alternative (3) is therefore the correct answer.

Question 3
Complete the following statements regarding the father’s role in environmentally
caused defects in the fetus using the following words or phrases:

Fields
• Cancer Increase
• Vitamin C certain types of Cancer
• Harmful substances abdnormal
• Diagnostic X-ray sudden infant death
• Low birth rate infant respiratory infectious
• Advanced age smoking in the presence of
the pregnant woman
• Exposed to electromagnet

field

• A father who smokes cigarettes ......................... the risk of

......................... in his children.
• Paternal smoking also increases the risk of
................................................... and........................, whether or not the
mother also smokes.
• ........................of the father at conception, his exposure to .........................
before conception, and his ......................... may all be associated with
fetal defects.

• Studies suggest that the likelihood of genetic defects caused by

......................... sperm increases when, before conception, the father is
employed in an occupation in which he is ......................... or other
environmental hazards.

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 • Babies of fathers who had ......................... within a year before conception
tend to have slowed fetal growth and .........................

• Fathers whose diet is low in ......................... are more likely to have

children with birth defects and .........................

Feedback on question 3
• Fathers who smoke cigarettes increases the risk of cancer in his children.
• Paternal smoking also increases the risk of infant respiratory infectious and
sudden infant death, whether or not the mother also smokes.
• Advanced age of the father at conception, his exposure to his exposure to
harmful environment substances before conception, and his smoking in the
presence of the pregnant woman, may all be associated with fetal defects.
• Studies suggest that the likelihood of genetic defects caused by abnormal
sperm increases when, before conception, the father is employed in an
occupation in which he is exposed to electromagnetic fields or other
environmental hazards.
• Babies of fathers who had diagnostic X-ray a within a year before conception
tend to have slowed fetal growth and low birth weight.
• Fathers whose diet is low in Vitamin C are more likely to have children with
birth defects and certain types of cancer.

Question 1
The mother-infant bond is a very strong emotional bond, which causes a mother
to develop feelings of caring and tenderness for her newborn baby. Is there a
critical period for the formation of such a bond between mother and child? What
does this mean for adoptive parents and fathers who are not present at the birth
of their children?

Feedback on question 1
Although Lorenz’s study showed that newborn ducklings will follow the first
moving object they encounter after birth and form an attachment bond (a
phenomenon which he calls imprinting), the same does not happen with newborn
human babies. A critical period for forming an attachment bond does not seem to
exist for humans.

This finding is a relief to adoptive parents and fathers who are not present at the
birth of their children as it implies that babies can form an emotional bond with
and get attached to people to whom they are exposed later on (see page 135 of
the prescribed book).

Question 2
Philip and Sue are exhausted because their four-week-old baby wakes three to
four times each night. What is the most probable explanation for the baby’s
behaviour?

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(1) The baby is not eating enough and wakes when he is hungry.
(2) The baby is not getting enough attention from his parents when he is awake.
(3) This sleep pattern is typical of newborn babies.

Feedback on question 2
Newborn babies sleep up to 18 hours a day but the periods of uninterrupted
sleep differ from baby to baby. Newborn babies, however, do have a sleep
pattern where they wake every three to four hours — day and night. Alternative
(3) is therefore the correct answer (see page 126of the prescribed book).

Question 3
Complete the following statements about parenting:

• Experiments about mothering done with monkeys by (a) ....................

showed that apart from feeding, babies need (b) .................... .
• Fathers’ involvement in their children has (c) .................... in recent years.
• Research cited in Papalia et al. (2008) has shown that fathers’ positive
involvement with their children is related to (d) .................... .

Feedback on question 3
(a) Harlow and colleagues
(b) comfort and close bodily contact
(c) changed or increased
(d) their children’s well-being (their physical, cognitive and social development)

Question 1
Through the research done by Rovee-Collier and her coworkers in which infants
were conditioned to kick to activate a mobile (attached to the ankle of the infant
by a ribbon) or to press a lever to activate a miniature train, it was found that ...

(1) through operant conditioning techniques, infants as young as two months

remembered that their kicking activated the mobile and that they would start
kicking when they saw the mobile again after a few days.
(2) through classical conditioning techniques, infants as young as two months,
when shown a mobile again after a few days, remembered to kick the mobile to
make it swing.
(3) the original mobile or train has to be presented to older infants (between 9
and 12 months), otherwise they will not remember what to do to activate the
mobile or train.

Feedback on question 1
The correct answer is (1). Through the research by Rovee-Collier and others
(discussed on p. 181 of the prescribed book) it was found that from two months,
infants can be operantly conditioned to kick to activate a mobile (attached to one

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ankle) and that they started kicking when seeing the mobile again after a few
days or weeks.

The other alternatives are incorrect for the following reasons:

• Alternative (2) — the researchers did not use classical conditioning and the
infants did not kick the mobile itself.
• Alternative (3) — it is not necessary to present older infants with the original
object. They found that older infants (of 9 to 12 months) would try their
behaviour on a different train within two weeks after the conditioning took
place.

Question 2
According to research findings by Bradley and others, access to stimulating play
materials and parental responsiveness are associated with children’s cognitive
development.

What do these researchers regard as “parental responsiveness’’? Parents who ..

.................................................................................................................................

Feedback on question 2
After you have studied page 183 of the prescribed book, you will realise that
these researchers used Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment
(HOME) to rate parental behaviour. On this scale parents are credited for
responsiveness if they act in the ways described below:

Parents who ...

— make physical contact with their children (eg kissing, caressing, etc).
— praise their children spontaneously.
— answer children’s questions.
— are involved in their children’s play.

Question 3
(a) In what way is Piaget’s view of the development of object permanence
different from that of recent research findings?
(b) In what way is Piaget’s view of the development of deferred imitation different
from that of recent research findings?

Feedback on question 3
(a) Piaget believed that the ability of object permanence develops during the
sensorimotor period over the course of six sub stages and that object concept is
fully developed when the infant is between 18 to 24 months. In contrast to this
view, recent research findings indicate that object concept in infancy develops at
a much earlier stage.

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(b) Piaget believed that toddlers from about the age of 18 months and older can
engage in deferred imitation. However, according to research done by Meltzoff
and Moore (cited in Papalia et al., 2008), infants begin showing deferred imitation
as early as six to nine months.

Question 4
Complete the following statements about research on babies’ information
processing:

• The method researchers used to determine whether babies pay attention

to stimuli was to monitor the following responses of babies: (a)
...................., ...................., and .................... .
• When there are changes in babies’ responses, an increased response to a
new stimulus is called (b) .................... and when their responses
decrease or stop, (c) .................... has occurred.
• When babies show novelty preference it means that they can distinguish
(d) .................... . This shows that they have (e) .................... .

Feedback on question 4
After you have studied the information on pages 193 to 194 of the prescribed
book, you should complete the statements as follows:

(a) heart rate, eye movements, brain activity and sucking (in any order)
(b) dishabituation
(c) habituation
(d) the new from the familiar
(e) visual recognition memory

Question 5
Zandile (about 3 years old) and her mother are building a jigsaw puzzle of a
picture of birds together. Her mother shows Zandile to first look for the corner
and border pieces and build the picture’s frame before building the inside. While
they are busy building the puzzle, the mother answers Zandile’s questions about
the birds in the picture and about birds in general. Her mother also encourages
Zandile to be patient when she cannot fit the pieces quickly into their right places
and she praises her daughter when she succeeds in fitting a piece correctly.
The mother’s behaviour illustrate ...
(a) parental responsiveness.
(b) cross-modal transfer.
(c) child-directed speech.
(d) guided participation.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (a), (c) & (d)

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Feedback on question 5
Zandile’s mother shows responsiveness towards her by being involved in
Zandile’s activity, answering her questions and praising her (see p. 183 of the
prescribed book). Alternative (a) is therefore correct. The mother also shows
guided participation by participating in her daughter’s activity, teaching her how
to build a jigsaw puzzle and educating her on birds, while also teaching her the
value of being patient (see p. 201 of the prescribed book). Therefore, (d) is also
correct.

Alternative (b) is not applicable to the mother’s behaviour because cross-modal

transfer refers to the transfer of information from one sense to another (see the
information on the information-processing approach on p. 195 of the prescribed
book). Alternative (c) is also not correct — child-directed speech ( “baby talk’’ —
see p. 209 of the prescribed book) cannot be identified in the above example
because the mother’s way of talking is not described.

Therefore, alternative (1) is the correct answer.

Question 6
You have studied two interesting theories about the process by which language
development occurs. Although neither of these theories offers a comprehensive
explanation for this process, each theory deals with different aspects of it and as
a result both contribute to our understanding of language development. For this
reason a synthesis of these theories probably offers the best explanation of the
highly complex process of language development.

Answer the following multiple-choice question.

Which one of the following statements corresponds most closely to a synthesis of

the theories of language development?

(1) Environmental and genetic factors should be investigated in isolation in order

to understand language acquisition.
(2) Learning and experience are the most important factors in language
acquisition.
(3) Children are born with an innate ability to learn language, but the environment
is necessary for its onset and optimal development.

Feedback on question 6
When you are answering a multiple-choice question always remember to read
the question very carefully. There are usually key words in the question, which
will direct your thinking. In this question the key words are “most closely’’ and
“synthesis.’’ This means that all the alternatives are related to one or other theory
of language development, but you need to find the one alternative that relates

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most closely to an integrated explanation of language development of the
theories.

Alternative 3 is the correct statement because the basic assumptions of both

theories, that is the role of inheritance (according to Chomsky) and the role of the
environment (according to Skinner), are included in the statement. Alternatives 1
and 2 are incorrect as they both stress the importance of a single factor or factors
in isolation which is not what a synthesis of the theories of language
development is.

Question 7
Answer the following multiple-choice question on the influence of parents on their
children’s language development:

Which of the following actions of parents will promote the language development
of their babies and toddlers?

(a) Repeating the child’s words and pronouncing them correctly. (b) Reading
books aloud with their children.
(c) Asking challenging questions and expanding on their children’s answers.
(d) Asking open-ended questions rather than those that can be answered just by
yes or no.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 7
Study “Social interaction: The role of parents and caregivers’’ and “Preparing for
literacy’’ on pages 208 and 210 of the prescribed book. You will realise that all
the statements are correct because research showed that these actions of
parents promote their children’s language development. Alternative 3 is therefore
the correct answer.

Question 1
Complete the following statements about Erikson’s first developmental stage:

• During the first stage of development babies have to develop a (a)

.................... between trust and mistrust. A certain amount of mistrust
enables babies to (b) .................... .
• The setting for the development of trust versus mistrust is the (c)
.................... situation and the “virtue’’ of trust is (d) .................... .

Feedback on question 1
According to Erikson’s theory, the statements should be completed as follows:

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 (a) balance
(b) protect themselves
(c) feeding
(d) hope

Question 2
Recent research indicated that the experience of stranger anxiety and separation
anxiety is influenced by various factors. Make a list of these factors.

Feedback on question 2
You will find the factors in the discussion of stranger and separation anxiety on
page 228 of the prescribed book. The factors mentioned in the prescribed book
which can influence stranger and separation anxiety in babies are the following:

the

• baby’s temperament
• baby’s life circumstances
• baby’s cognitive development
• familiarity of the setting
• baby getting used to the stranger gradually
• quality of substitute care
• stability of care in general

Question 3
Which of the following statements is true with regard to the stages of the
development of self-awareness?

(1) A realisation that they can contral external events (personal agency) develops
in babies only after 12 months.
(2) By 20 to 24 months, toddlers show self-awareness by using words like “I’’ or
“me’’.
(3) Physical self-recognition (eg recognising themselves in a mirror) is reached
by six to 12 months.

Feedback on question 3
The development of the self-concept is discussed on pages 232—233 of the
prescribed book. There you will see that alternatives (1) and (3) are incorrect
because the ages given in the alternatives are incorrect. The information in
alternative (2) is correct because to “toddlers begin to use first-person pronouns
( “I’’, “me’’, etc) at about 20 to 24 months.

Question 4
Little Karin is starting to follow her own will. For example, she is capable of
holding in or letting go when it comes to her excretory functions. According to
Erikson’s theory, Karin is probably in the stage of ...

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(1) initiative versus guilt.
(2) basic trust versus mistrust.
(3) autonomy versus shame and doubt.

Feedback on question 4
After you have studied Erikson’s first two stages of development in the
prescribed book (pp. 224 & 233), you will realise that the key to the answer is
that the little girl wants to follow her own will, which is the “virtue’’ of the second
stage, namely autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this stage (± 18
months to 3 years) the child is usually toilet-trained, a situation in which children
can also exercise their own will. Alternative (3) is therefore the correct answer.

Question 5
Which one of the following statements is true with regard to the socialisation of
children?

(1) The norm for successful socialisation is whether children obey rules and
comply with parents’ standards in order to get rewards.
(2) How easy or difficult it is to socialise a child depends among other things on
the child’s temperament and the parent-child relationship.
(3) One goal of socialisation is to foster situational compliance whereby children
willingly obey parents without reminders and internalise their standards.

Feedback on question 5
According to the information on pages 233 to 237 of the prescribed book,
alternative (1) is incorrect, because the goal of socialisation is for children to
internalise parental standards and later society’s standards and comply with
these of their own accord, without being threatened or rewarded. Alternative (3)
is also incorrect because situational compliance is defined incorrectly. Situational
compliance refers to obedience with the prompting and control of parents, and
not of one’s own accord (see p. 236of the prescribed book). Alternative (2) is
correct, because the factors mentioned here influence the progress of the
socialisation process.

Question 6
Complete the following statements about the shaping of gender differences in
children:

The process by which children learn the approved behaviour for their sex is
called (a) .................... . During this process (b) .................... treat boys and girls
more differently than (c) .................... .

Feedback on question 6
The statements should be completed as follows:
(a) gender-typing

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(b) fathers
(c) mothers

Question 7
Anne is three years old and her mother has just arrived home with her new baby
brother. According to research, Anne or her mother will probably do the following:

(a) Anne will now interact more with her father and other family members than
before.
(b) Anne will probably want to get rid of the new baby, by asking her mother to
take the new baby back to the hospital, for example.
(c) Anne’s mother will give more attention to her than to the new baby.
(d) Anne’s mother will act exactly the same towards her as she did before the
baby’s birth.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (b)
(2) (c) & (d)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 7
After you have studied pages 238—239 of the prescribed book you will realise
that the mother’s behaviour will most probably change after the arrival of a new
baby and that she will probably also give less attention to the older child —
alternatives (c) and (d) are therefore incorrect.

The older child is now more dependent on the company of the father and other
family members than before because the mother is very busy with the new baby
— alternative (a) is therefore correct. Alternative (b) is also correct, because
some older children do wish that the new baby would vanish.

The correct answer is therefore (1).

Question 1.1
Peter uses his hair brush as a motor car and makes it “drive’’ on the table while
he is making sounds like a car. This shows Peter’s ability to use ...

(1) deferred imitation.

(2) imaginary play.
(3) his theory of mind.

Feedback on question 1.1

After you have studied the symbolic function on page 269 of the prescribed book,
you will realise that children’s using an object to stand for something else is one
of the aspects of the symbolic function, namely imaginary play (also called

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pretend play, fantasy play or dramatic play). The correct answer therefore is
alternative (2).

Question 1.2
A little girl is unpacking her mother’s handbag although her mother has told her
not to do so. When her mother sees what she is doing, she tells her to put the
contents back into the handbag because it is almost bedtime. The little girl does
what her mother says and tells the handbag and its contents that they must sleep
tight and have nice dreams. According to Piaget’s theory, the little girl’s
reasoning is characterised by ...

(1) egocentrism.
(2) conservation.
(3) animism.

Feedback on question 1.2

Piaget came to the conclusion that preschool children are confused about what is
alive and what not, and called this tendency to attribute life to objects that are not
alive animism (see Papalia et al., 2008, p. 271). The correct answer therefore is
(3).

Question 1.3
Just after Sara was naughty (she hit her younger brother) she was told that her
parents were getting a divorce. She thinks that her bad behaviour caused the
divorce. According to Piaget, Sara’s way of reasoning is a form of ...

(1) animism.
(2) transduction.
(3) categorisation.

Feedback on question 1.3

According to Piaget preoperational children have the tendency to link specific
experiences occurring at the same time, whether or not there really is a causal
relationship. He called it reasoning by transduction (p. 271). Alternative (2) is
therefore the correct answer.

Question 2
Which of the following statements are true with regard to the theory of mind of
preschoolers?

Three year old preschoolers are able to realise that ...

(a) if a friend is looking for a lost toy, he or she will be sad if he or she cannot find
it.
(b) people keep on thinking, even while doing something or talking.

17
(c) if they watch television with a friend, the friend may understand the story
differently.
(d) a boy who has a dog can touch it, but a boy who only thinks about a dog
cannot touch it.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) (b), (c) & (d)

Feedback on question 2
The development of theory of mind is discussed on pages 274 to 275 of the
prescribed book. When studying this part, you will realise that children who are
three years old do not have the same abilities with regard to theory of mind as
children of six years and older. For example, three year olds do not yet realise
that the mind is continuously active or that people who see the same thing may
interpret it differently. Alternatives (b) and (c) are therefore incorrect. However,
three year olds do already have certain abilities, namely those mentioned in
alternatives (a) and (d). The correct answer therefore is (1).

Question 3
Complete the following statements about memory during the preschool years:

• The ability to reproduce information from memory is called (a)

.................... .
• The ability to identify an object that has been seen before is called (b) ......
• Preschool children are better with (c) .................... memory than with
• (d) .................... memory.

Feedback on question 3
After studying the information on recognition and recall memory on page 279 of
the prescribed book, you should have filled in the following words in the spaces:

(a) recall memory

(b) recognition memory
(c) recognition
(d) recall

Question 4
Mary has been assessed by means of an intelligence test and obtained a score
of 115. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

Mary’s score indicates ...

(1) how well Mary compares with other children of the same age on the specific
tasks in the test.

18
(2) her fixed measure of intelligence that she was born with. (3) the standardised
norm for her specific age group.

Feedback on question 4
After you have studied the part under the heading “Influences on measured
intelligence’’ in the prescribed book (p. 282), you will realise that the first
statement is correct, while the other three statements are incorrect.

Question 5
Complete the following statements about language development during the
preschool years:

• According to Piaget, private speech is a sign of (a)......................................

• According to Vygotsky, private speech is a sign of (b) .................... and is
stimulated by (c) .................... .
• Both Piaget and Vygotsky said that private speech (d) ................................
• Research has shown that the children who use the most private speech
also (e) .................... .
• The development of the skills and knowledge that are necessary for
reading and writing is called (f) .................... .
• Factors that promote emergent literacy are(g) ......................................

Feedback on question 5
After you have studied the sections on language development in the prescribed
book (pp. 283—288), you should have completed the statements with the
following phrases:

(a) cognitive immaturity and egocentrism

(b) communication with the self and the beginning of social communication
(c) social experience
(d) serves the function of integrating language with thought
(e) use the most social speech
(f) emergent literacy
(g) - social interaction with parents or the quality of the parent-child interaction
- reading aloud to children
- moderate exposure to educational television and parents talking to children
about what they see on television

Question 1
In the following part on the self-concept and self-esteem during early childhood,
certain words are omitted. Use the list below to fill in the spaces at (a),(b),(c),(d)
and (e). observable abilities ideal low self-esteem or self-esteem contingent on
success high. Preschool children’s real self and (a) .................... self cannot be
distinguished and they usually describe themselves in terms of (b) ......................
characteristics.

19
Preschoolers’ self-esteem is usually based on an over-estimation of their (c)
.................... . Children with (d) .................... self-esteem are usually motivated to
achieve while children with (e) .................... may feel helpless and worthless.

Feedback on question 1
The self-concept and self-esteem are discussed on pages 297 to 299 of the
prescribed book. According to this information, you should have filled in the
words as follows:

(a) ideal
(b) observable
(c) abilities
(d) high
(e) low self-esteem or self-esteem contingent on success

Question 2
According to Erikson the successful solution of each crisis leads to the
development of a certain characteristic. Complete the following table on the
characteristics that develop in each stage:

Feedback on question 2
The question is about Erikson’s first three stages. You studied the first two
stages in Part 3 (p. 224 and p. 233 of the prescribed book) and the third stage in
this chapter (p. 300).

The correct characteristics for the three stages are:

Question 3
Decide whether the following statements are true or false with regard to the role
of socialisation in gender role development:

(a) Firstborn children are more influenced by their younger siblings than by their
parents in their gender role development.
(b) Girls are more strongly socialised than boys to acquire the desired gender
role behaviour.
(c) It is more acceptable for girls to wear any clothes or play any games than for
boys.
(d) Peer group influences on gender-typing tend to decrease from age three
because parents’ influence increase.
(e) Television programmes and children’s books usually portray stereotyped
gender roles.

Feedback on question 3
After studying the relevant sections op pages 306to 308 of the prescribed book,
you should have given the following answers:

20
(a) false
(b) false
(c) true
(d) false
(e) true

Question 4
Sometimes it becomes necessary to punish children in order to discipline them.
Which of the following are effective and desirable ways of punishment?

(a) Punishment should be harsh enough to make children feel guilty.

(b) Punish children in the presence of their peers so that the peers can also be
socialised.
(c) Give a suitable punishment four hours after the undesirable behaviour has
occurred.
(d) Punishment should be accompanied by an explanation to the child of why his/
her behaviour is undesirable.

The correct answer is:

(1) (d)
(2) (a) & (b)
(3) (b), (c) & (d)

Feedback on question 4
After you have studied page 313 of the prescribed book, you will know that
punishment should not be so harsh that it causes guilt feelings, but should be
administered in private and immediately after the transgression. Alternatives (a),
(b) and (c) are therefore incorrect. However, punishment accompanied by a
relevant explanation to the child is the most desirable form of discipline.
Therefore, (d) is correct and the answer to the question is (1).

Question 5
According to research cited in Papalia et al. (2008) the best way for parents to
foster prosocial behaviour in their children is to ...

(a) be nurturant caregivers and to be models of helpfulness and empathy

towards others.
(b) make sure that their children hear stories and see films and television
programmes that convey the message that altruistic behaviour, cooperation and
helpfulness are desirable.
(c) use inductive disciplining methods.
(d) use power-assertive techniques so that they will respect them as parents and
consequently learn to be helpful.

The correct answer is:

(1) (c)

21
(2) (a) & (b)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 5
According to research cited in the prescribed book on page 318, it is clear that
warm parents who are models for prosocial behaviour will foster this kind of
behaviour in their children. They also use inductive disciplinary methods and see
to it that their children hear stories and watch television programmes that foster
prosocial development. Therefore, (a), (b) and (c) are correct. The correct
answer is therefore (3).

Question 6
Name the possible advantages that preschool children’s interactions with friends
and casual playmates may have for them.

Feedback on question 6
Study the information on page 324 of the prescribed book. Possible advantages
of children’s interactions with friends and casual playmates are the following:

They learn ...

• how to get along with others.

• that they should be a friend to have a friend.
• how to solve relationship problems.
• how to imagine themselves in another person’s place (perspective taking).
• moral values.
• gender role norms.
• about various kinds of roles and behaviour.

Question 1
Name two motor activities children participate in during mi “le childhood in
particular.

Give reasons for this participation and indicate the advantages and
disadvantages (if any) of each.

Feedback on question 1
During the mi “le childhood years children are particularly keen to participate in
recess-time play and organised sport. Reasons for their keen participation in
these activities are mainly their improved motor skills; they are now stronger and
faster, their coordination has improved and they get pleasure from testing their
bodies.

The advantage of recess-time play is that children get physical exercise and boys
especially get to jockey for physical dominance in the group.

22
The advantage of participating in organised sport is that it provides children with
the opportunity to develop and refine their motor abilities and it encourages
socialisation and identification with a group. A possible disadvantage is that
coaches and often also parents put pressure on children to perform well too
early, making them exercise for long hours and criticising them excessively.

Question 1
Brian, 11 years old, says the following: “All dogs bark. Spotty is a dog. Spotty
barks.’’ This type of reasoning is an example of ...

(1) transitive inference.

(2) inductive reasoning.
(3) deductive reasoning.

Feedback on question 1
The correct answer is alternative (3). Deductive reasoning refers to the type of
logical reasoning that moves from a general premise about a group to a
conclusion about a particular member of the group. You will find an explanation
of the other alternatives given in this question in the prescribed book.

Question 2
In his theory of development of conservation, Piaget stressed the role of ...
(1) experience.
(2) intelligence.
(3) cognitive maturation.

Feedback on question 2
After you have studied the relevant sections in the prescribed book, you will
realise that alternative (3) is the correct answer.

A child in the concrete operational stage of development knows the principles of

identity (knows that the same clay can change form) and reversibility (knows that
the clay sausage can be changed back into a clay ball). The child is also able to
decentre — can concentrate simultaneously on two characteristics of an object
(eg length and width). A child in the pre-operational stage of development has
not yet mastered these cognitive abilities and therefore does not understand
conservation. From this we can deduce that cognitive maturation is necessary
before knowledge of conservation can develop. In Piaget’s theory experience
and intelligence have nothing to do with the development of conservation.

Question 3
Complete the following statements regarding the three stages of moral
development distinguished by Piaget:

According to Piaget moral development depends on (a) .................... . Moral

development takes place in three stages, namely (b) .................... , (c)

23
.................... and (d) .................... . During the first stage children cannot put
themselves in the place of others, while children in stage two (e) .................... .
The intention of the doer is taken into consideration during the (f) ....................
stage of moral development. Children who are in the first stage of moral
development regard rules as (g) .................... . In contrast to unilateral respect for
rules during the first stage of moral development, children in the second stage of
moral development develop (h) .................... .

Feedback on question 3
The correct words or phrases which you should have used are:
(a) cognitive growth
(b) rigid obedience to authority
(c) increasing flexibility
(d) equity
(e) know that more than one point of view is possible and they can put
themselves in the place of others
(f) second
(g) unalterable
(h) a sense of justice based on fairness or equal treatment for all

Question 4
School-age children have the ability to deliberately direct their attention on
information they need and to shut out distractions. This ability develops because
of ....................

(1) the greater efficiency of working memory in mi “le childhood.

(2) the growth in selective attention and inhibitory control.
(3) improved metamemory.

Feedback on question 4
The correct answer is alternative (2). During mi “le childhood children acquire the
ability to focus on information they need through the voluntary suppression of
unwanted information and the screening out of irrelevant information.

Question 5
Name the four most common mnemonic strategies, indicate how they develop
during mi “le childhood and give an example of each.

Feedback on question 5
The four most common mnemonic strategies are:

1) External memory aids. This mnemonic refers to prompting by something

outside the person, for example making a list of things one has to remember
or writing down a telephone number. Children of five or six make use of these
aids but older children of eight or nine are more likely to simply try to
remember.

24
2) Rehearsal. This is a mnemonic strategy to keep information in working
memory through conscious repetition. An example is repeating a telephone
number a few times in order not to forget it or spelling words over and over
again. Children of five or six years can be taught to do this while six or seven
year olds do it spontaneously.
3) Organisation. This entails categorising the material to be remembered, for
example by colour, size or appearance. Children younger than 10 years do
not do this spontaneously but can be taught to do it.
4) Elaboration. This refers to making mental associations involving the items to
be remembered. For example by making up a little rhyme using the first letter
of each planet ( “My Very Eager Mother Jumped Straight Under Nine Planets’’
— Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) one
can remember them all in sequence. Younger children can use this aid if
someone else makes the association for them while older children will do it
spontaneously.

Question 6
According to Sternberg’s triachic theory of intelligence, which of the following is
an example of the componential element?

(1) Sam, who thinks in highly original ways.

(2) Edna, who performs well on intelligence tests and in school.
(3) Peter, who is able to size up a situation and decide what to do.

Feedback on question 6
The correct answer is alternative (2). According to Sternberg, the componential
element of intelligence is the analytic aspect, which determines how efficiently a
person processes information. Conventional IQ tests measure mainly the
componential element of intelligence and these tests are fairly good predictors of
school performance as most school tasks require this ability. The experiential
aspect of intelligence has to do with insightfulness and creativity [see alternative
(1)], while the contextual aspect refers to the practical aspect of intelligence [see
alternative (3)].

Question 7
In middle childhood the major area of linguistic growth is in ...
(1) vocabulary.
(2) grammar.
(3) pragmatics.

Feedback on question 7
After you have studied the sections in the prescribed book on pages 363 to 365
on language development during mi “le childhood, you will know that children are
now better equipped to understand and interpret verbal and written
communications. Their ability to make themselves understood also improves
considerably. The main area of linguistic development during the mi “le childhood

25
years lies in the practical use of language to communicate. This is known as
pragmatics. Thus, the correct answer is alternative (3).

Question 8
Which one of the following statements will the advocates of the whole-language
approach to reading most unlikely make?

(1) Children learn to read and write naturally, through their own discoveries. (2)
Phonetic instruction hampers the natural process of learning language. (3) A
child should learn to sound and “decode’’ unfamiliar words.

Feedback on question 8
The whole-language approach to reading is based on the principle that children
can learn to read and write naturally. According to this view children learn to read
and write through discovery in much the same way as they learn to understand
and use speech. Advocates of this approach believe that phonetic instruction
hampers this natural process and produces readers who can decode but cannot
comprehend. For these reasons it should be clear to you that the correct answer
to this question is alternative (3).

Question 9
Children who do well in school often have parents who are ....................... and
who stress ....................... rewards for doing good work.

Complete this statement by identifying the correct words in the following

alternatives:

(1) authoritative; extrinsic

(2) permissive; intrinsic
(3) authoritative; intrinsic

Feedback on question 9
Authoritative parents are parents who are able to guide their children but also
respect children’s independent decisions, interests, opinions and personalities.
They are loving and accepting but also demand good behaviour from their
children and are firm in maintaining standards. When necessary, relevant
punishment is imposed in the context of a warm, supportive relationship. These
parents also explain the reasoning behind their views and encourage verbal give-
and-take.

Parents who offer intrinsic rewards, namely praising their children for hard work
and ability, seem to be more successful in motivating their children to achieve.

Children of authoritative parents who use intrinsic rewards therefore generally

achieve the best at school. Alternative (3) is the correct answer.

26
Question 1
Complete the following statements regarding the developing self during the mi “le
childhood years:

• Cognitive growth that takes place during middle, toddler childhood enables
children to ............... of themselves and to grow in (b) ...............................
• In the early part of middle childhood children reach the (c)
............................ stage in the neo-Piagetian stages of self-concept
development and they have the cognitive ability to form (d) ...............which
means that they now have broad, inclusive (e) .......................................
that integrate different aspects of the self.
• According to Erikson a major determinant of children’s self-concept is their
(f) ..................... . The developmental crisis which has to be resolved is (g)
............................... versus ............................... . The successful resolution
of this crisis leads to the feeling of (h) ........................................................
• As children grow older, they are more aware of (i) .....................................
They become more (j) ........................................ and more inclined to reveal
(k) ........................ behaviour.
• Emotional growth during mi “le childhood is marked by control of
(l) ................................. .

Feedback on question 1
(a) develop more complex concepts
(b) emotional understanding and control
(c) third
(d) representational systems
(e) self-concepts
(f) view of their capacity for productive work
(g) industry; inferiority
(h) competence
(i) their own and other people’s feelings
(j) empathic
(k) prosocial
(l) negative emotions

Question 2
Nine-year-old Susan is beginning to investigate and internalise the behavioural
norms of her parents and society. Although her parents supervise her, she can
exercise moment-to-moment self-supervision. This phenomenon is called ...

(1) coregulation.
(2) self-regulation.
(3) self-control.

27
Feedback on question 2
As middle childhood is a transitional stage when parents and children share
power, children will from time to time exercise self-regulation although the
parents still fulfill the primary function of supervising the child. Shared supervision
is therefore present in this situation; the term used for this phenomenon is
coregulation. The correct answer is therefore alternative (1).

Question 3
Which of the following are important for the success of coregulation during mi “le
childhood?

(a) Authoritative parenting

(b) Postconventional reasoning
(c) Successful resolution of Erikson’s crisis of industry versus inferiority
(d) Productive communication style between parents and children

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (c)
(2) (b) & (d)
(3) all of the above

Feedback on question 3
If coregulation is to be successful, the child must feel competent to exercise self-
supervision from time to time. This feeling of competence is promoted by an
authoritative parenting style. In a “ition, if Erikson’s crisis has not been resolved
successfully, the child will reveal feelings of inferiority which will make
coregulation impossible. Alternative (1) is therefore the correct answer.

Question 4
Which of the following statements is the most accurate according to research on
how outside employment of mothers affects children?

(1) No evidence of problems or negative effects has been found.

(2) There seem to be few overall negative effects, and there is evidence of
several positive effects.
(3) So far, there is no evidence of positive effects; rather, research tends to show
an overall negative effect.

Feedback on question 4
After you have studied the section on pages 388 and 389 in the prescribed book,
you will realise that although there are some negative effects on children when
the mother is employed outside the home, it seems that there are in general
more positive effects. Alternative (2) is therefore the correct answer.

Question 5
Complete the following statements on the child in the peer group.

28
 • The peer group which comes into being during mi “le childhood, usually
consists of children who (a) ............................................................, and
• The peer group helps children develop (b) ............................................. ,
offers them the opportunity to test (c) ............................. and accept
independence from parents, offers them a (d) ............................. and
helps them develop their (e) ........................... .
• Children who are popular in the peer group usually have (f) .......................
• ....................... Popularity in the peer group has an influence on children’s
(g) ................................ and ....................................... .
• Intimacy and stability of friendships are prone to (h) ............... during mi “le
childhood. Boys usually have (i) .................... friends while girls have more (j)
........................ friends.

Feedback on question 5
(a) live near one another or go to school together, often consists of children of
the same ethnic origin and similar socioeconomic status, are close in age and of
the same sex
(b) social skills
(c) values
(d) feeling of belonging
(e) self-concept
(f) good cognitive abilities and social skills
(g) self-esteem; adjustment in future
(h) increase
(i) more
(j) close

Question 6
Briefly discuss David Elkind’s concept of the “hurried child’’.

Feedback on question 6
According to Elkind, children today are under a lot of pressure from society,
which leads to their experiencing their childhood years as stressful and also
forces them to grow up too soon. Children are expected to succeed in school, to
participate in sport, and to meet their parents’ emotional needs. Children are also
exposed to many adult problems too early. They often have to face such
problems even before they have mastered the challenges of childhood.
Television programmes expose children to violence and sex much too early.
Often children have to shoulder adult responsibilities, for example Aids orphans
who have to care for their younger siblings. Elkind used the term “hurried child’’
to describe this phenomenon.

Children are not miniature adults. They think and feel differently from adults.
They do not yet have the competencies to handle stress efficiently. They need a

29
carefree childhood in order to develop optimally and to be able to lead a rich and
meaningful life as adults.

Question 1
With regard to hormonal changes in puberty, which of the following statements
are correct?

(a) Besides hormonal changes, the degree of emotionality and moodiness

experienced in early adolescence is also determined by sex, age and
temperament.
(b) Hormones appear to be more strongly related to negative emotions in
adolescent girls.
(c) The exact time when hormonal activity starts to bring about pubertal changes
depends on the accumulation of leptin in the bloodstream.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 1
All the statements are correct (3). You will find the information in your prescribed
book on pages 421—422 and 426.

Question 2
On the basis of research findings, compare the psychological effects of early and
late physical maturation in adolescent boys and girls.

Feedback on question 2
Study the discussion under the heading “Psychological effects of early and late
maturation’’ on page 426in your prescribed book. Since your answer should be a
comparison, you should first make notes on the various positive and negative
psychological effects of early and late physical maturation in adolescent boys
and girls before answering the question.

It is important not to generalise the effects of early and late maturation in

adolescent boys and girls. Sociocultural interpretations of pubertal changes,
stressful historical events and individual differences may all determine
adolescents’ experience of physical changes during puberty.

The answer to this question could be in the form of a comparative discussion or a

table. In the following example a table will be used to compare research findings
on the effects of early and late physical maturation in adolescent boys and girls.
Note that the table is structured in such a way that early and late maturation in
boys and in girls is compared separately and that the differences and similarities

30
between boys and girls with regard to the effect of early and late maturation can
also be seen.

Question 1
Which of the following statements describe the cognitive ability of adolescents?
The ability to ...

(a) solve scientific problems by randomly testing different solutions, thereby

finding a solution.
(b) think about concrete or visible aspects as well as abstract concepts such as
symbols, metaphors and various possibilities.
(c) reason from the possible to the real, which enables adolescents to construct
theories about ideal families, societies and ideologies.
(d) formulate hypotheses about the reasons why history as a school subject is
regarded as important and test only those hypotheses which seem likely to be
the best reasons.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (b) & (c)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 1
The statements which are correct are (b) and (c). Alternative 2 is therefore the
correct answer. Statement (b) refers to concrete and abstract thought. This is
correct because one must keep in mind that although concrete thought develops
in childhood, adolescents do not lose this ability and will still apply concrete
thought in certain sitations. However, they also develop a higher level of thought,
that is, formal operations, which enables them to think scientifically and about
abstract concepts. (Study pp. 445—447 with regard to the answer in (b) and in
(c) in Papalia et al.).

The statement in (a) is not correct. Unlike children under the age of 10 who test
possible solutions randomly, adolescents test possible solutions systematically.
In doing so they eliminate incorrect solutions systematically until the correct
solution is found. The statement in (d) relates to the statement in (a) and is also
incorrect. Hypotheses with regard to reasons that seem not to be the best
reasons are excluded even before testing. Scientific thought, which is
characteristic of formal operations, implies that all possible reasons the
adolescent can imagine are tested.

Question 2
Evaluate Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Refer to recent research
findings, where applicable.

31
Feedback on question 2
Study the discussion in Papalia et al. on page 447. Pay attention to the following
in your evaluation of Piaget’s theory:

• His distinction between definite stages of cognitive development.

• The importance of individual, social and cultural differences.

• The flexible and variable nature of thought processes.

• Cognitive advances in, for example information processing, knowledge and

expertise and the role of metacognition

Question 3
Structural changes in information processing include

(a) expansion of the capacity of the working memory.

(b) structural changes in the frontal lobes of the brain.
(c) an increase in the speed of information processing.
(d) an increase in the amount of information stored in long-term memory.

(1) (b) & (c)

(2) (a) & (d)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 3
The correct answer is (2). Structural changes in information processing include
the expansion of the capacity of the working memory and an increase in the
amount of information stored in long-term memory. With regard to the answer in
(b) it is important to note that it is not structural changes in the frontal lobes of the
brain that lead to advances in information processing but the maturation of the
frontal lobes. An increase in information processing speed (c) is the most
important functional change — it is not a structural change in information
processing.

Question 4
Complete the following sentence:

The information stored in long-term memory is known as declarative knowledge

which consists of ....................., procedural knowledge which consists of
...................... and conceptual knowledge which consists of ............................. .

(1) the facts and information a person has acquired a person’s understanding or
insight the skills a person has acquired

32
(2) the skills a person has acquired the facts and information a person has
acquired a person’s understanding or insight.

(3) the facts and information a person has acquired the skills a person has
acquired a person’s understanding or insight.

Feedback on question 4
Declarative knowledge consists of the facts and information a person has
acquired, procedural knowledge consists of the skills a person has acquired and
conceptual knowledge consists of a person’s insight or understanding of various
concepts. The correct answer is therefore (3). Study the information on page 450
(Papalia et al., 2008).

Question 5
Which of the following factors contribute to moral development?
(a) Emotional development and increasing life experience.
(b) A certain level of cognitive development.
(c) Social and interpersonal interaction which promote perspective-taking.
(d) A higher level of thinking which leads to a decrease in egocentrism because
of decentration.

(1) (a) & (c)

(2) (b) & (d)
(3) All of the above

Feedback on question 5
All the factors promote moral development. If you have tried to answer the
question on the basis of your knowledge that Kohlberg’s theory of moral
reasoning, just like Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, is based on a
cognitive developmental approach you would have probably thought that only the
factors in (b) and (d) are correct since these two answers refer specifically to
cognitive aspects. However, if you have carefully studied the information on
pages 451 to 453 in your prescribed book you will understand why all the factors
given in the alternative answers are correct.

Question 6
Which one of the following statements is correct with regard to the second level
of moral reasoning which, according to Kohlberg, is usually reached during
adolescence?

(1) Adolescents’ cognitive ability enables them to think about abstract moral
issues and to conform to existing rules, which could guide their behaviour.
(2) Because of adolescents’ idealism they try to change society and regard it as
their duty to live according to principles of justice at the expence of the social
order.

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(3) If the act of individuals violates the social order or disregards the welfare of
people, they regard the act as wrong regardless of the circumstances or motive
for the act.

Feedback on question 6
The correct statement is (3). Study the characteristics of stage 4 in Table 16—1.
The statement in (1) is incorrect because children under the age of 10 conform to
rules for their own interest (see stage 2 of moral reasoning). Adolescents
internalise standards or rules of authority figures they regard as positive role
models. Note particularly the difference between the concepts of, conforming
(complying with or adhering to rules) and internalising (making rules an intrinsic
part of yourself or value system).

Statement (2) is incorrect because adolescents rather see it as their duty to

maintain the social order (stage 4).

Question 1
According to Erikson adolescents form their identity by ...

(a) identifying with positive role models to avoid role confusion.

(b) determining their abilities, needs and interests to be able to express them in a
social context.
(c) making an occupational choice and forming a personal value system.
(d) forming a satisfying sexual identity.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (d)
(2) (a), (b) & (c)
(3) (b), (c) & (d)

Feedback on question 1
The correct answer is (3). Study the discussion on pages 469 to 470 in your
prescribed book. You will notice that the statement in (a) is incorrect because it is
younger children who form their identity by identifying with role models. During
adolescence, however, adolescents become aware of their personal qualities or
characteristics because of extensive physical development, their ability to think in
terms of formal operations and the social expectations to fulfil certain roles as
unique individuals. They modify and synthesise childhood identifications to form
their own view of themselves, that is, an identity.

Question 2
Explain Erikson’s views on the following aspects that relate to his theory of
identity development during adolescence:

• identity crisis
• psychosocial moratorium

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 • idelity
• identity confusion
• male and female identity development

Feedback on question 2
Study pages 469 to 470 in your prescribed book for an explanation of Erikson’s
views on identity crisis, psychosocial moratorium, fidelity and identity confusion.
Also study the feedback on question 1 in Chapter 2 where identity development
during adolescence is discussed as an example of Erikson’s description of a
crisis.

With regard to identity confusion, you should note that most adolescents
experience a degree of identity confusion and that it accounts for adolescents’
self-consciousness and characteristic behaviour.

When studying Erikson’s description of male and female identity development,

you should consider your view of the issue critically and come to a conclusion. In
view of your personal experience, do you agree with or differ from Erikson?

Question 3
Complete the following sentence:

According to James Marcia the identity status of adolescents is determined by

the following criteria:
............................................................................................................................

Feedback on question 3
According to James Marcia the identity status of adolescents is determined by
the following criteria:

The conscious decisions they have already made or the choices they have made
between, say, different values, ideologies or careers, in other words the crises
they have already worked through.

The degree of commitment to these decisions or choices with regard to an

occupation or ideology (system of beliefs).

Question 4
Name the factors, which may contribute to early sexual activity in adolescence.

Feedback on question 4
The factors discussed in the prescribed book are the following:

• early puberty
• poverty

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• poor school performance
• no academic and career goals
• a history of sexual abuse
• parental neglect
• cultural norms
• a family pattern of early sexual experiences
• absence of a father figure
• peer pressure and peer group norms (an important factor)

Question 5
Critically discuss the following question posed in Papalia et al. (p. 482): “Is
adolescent rebellion a myth?’’

Feedback on question 5
In your discussion of the question, pay attention to the following aspects, which
are discussed on pages 482 to 483:

• The origin of the theoretical view of adolescence as a period of rebellion and

“storm and stress’’. Refer to the theories of Stanley Hall and Sigmund and Anna
Freud.
• Discuss later research that supports a more balanced view of the nature of
adolescent development. Refer to the research findings of Margaret Mead and
the research in Western societies.
• Come to a conclusion about the real nature of the parent-adolescent
relationship and the characteristics of adolescent development, experiences,
emotions and behaviour.

Question 6
With regard to the relationship between adolescents and parents, research cited
in Papalia et al. (2008) has shown that ...

(1) arguments between adolescents and parents about mundane personal

matters are caused by a hostile family atmosphere.
(2) parents are inclined to expect their adolescent children to disclose more
information about their behaviour and personal issues than what adolescents
want to disclose.
(3) conflict between adolescents and parents is the most frequent and intense
during early adolescence.

Feedback on question 6
The correct answer is (2). Study the research findings discussed on page 485 in
Papalia et al. (2008).

The statement in (1) is incorrect since a hostile family atmosphere does not
cause the arguments, but increases the intensity or level of conflict between
adolescents and parents (study Papalia et al., p. 484, 486).

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The statement in (3) is also incorrect since conflict between adolescents and
parents is for various reasons the most frequent in early adolescence but not the
most intense. Conflict is the most intense in mid adolescence (study Papalia et
al., p. 484).

Question 7
Which of the following statements are correct with regard to friendship during
adolescence?

(a) The ability of adolescents to express their private thoughts and feelings is
reflected in the increasing intimacy in their friendships.
(b) The increasing intimacy in adolescents’ friendships can be attributed to
cognitive development, which enables them to understand other people’s
viewpoints and feelings.
(c) Because adolescents are sure of their identity, they can reach out to friends to
a greater extent and form intimate relationships.
(d) Adolescents who have intimate and supportive friends are well adjusted and
sociable and have a positive self-image.

The correct answer is:

(1) (a) & (c)
(2) (a), (b) & (d)
(3) (b), (c) & (d)

Feedback on question 7
The statements about intimate friendships in adolescence in (a), (b) and (d) are
correct. Alternative 2 is therefore correct. The statement in (c) is incorrect
because adolescents are not sure of their identity and by exploring their feelings,
sharing their thoughts, discussing sensitive and personal issues within an
intimate and reliable friendship, they form an identity.

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