ENVE2061

Basic Fluid Mechanics

Elif Soyer
Fall 2022, Marmara University
Flow Measurement
Flow Measurement

Flowmeter selection factors

Some instruments measure volume flow rate directly, others measure average velocity and convert to
volume flow rate by using Q = V A

Some instruments require calibration or the application of a discharge coefficient to the observed output
of the device

The output varies: indication can be pressure, a liquid level, a mechanical counter, the position of an
indicator in the fluid stream, a continuous electrical signal, or a series of electrical pulses.
Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

1. RANGE

For a particular meter installation, the general order of the magnitude of the flow rate must be known as well as
the range of expected variations.

mL/s
m3/s

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 =
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

Turndown is a measure of the meter’s ability to function under all flow conditions expected in the application.
Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

2. ACCURACY REQUIRED

If properly installed & operated, a device can produce an accuracy within 5% of the actual flow.

Most commercial meters are capable of 2%, several claiming better than 0.5%

Cost is an important factor when great accuracy is desired.

Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

3. PRESSURE LOSS

There will pressure loss or energy loss while fluid flows through flow measurement devices.

Most of the devices include a restriction in the flow stream thus causing an energy loss.
Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

4. TYPE of INDICATION

Is remote sensing or recording required?

Does the operator need to monitor the output?
Are there any severe environmental conditions?
Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

5. TYPE of FLUID

Some of the flow measuring devices is effected by the properties & condition of the fluid.

Basic question: Is the fuid a liquid or a gas?

Other factors: viscosity, temperature, corosiveness, electrical conductivity, optical clarity, lubricating properties, and
homogeneity.

Slurries & multiphase fluids require special meters.

Flow Measurement

The choice of the type of flow meter depends on several factors:

6. CALIBRATION

Some manufacturers provide charts or graphs showing actual flow versus indicator reading.

If calibration required, the operator may use another precision meter as a standard against which the reading of the
test device can be compared.
Flow Measurement
• VARIABLE HEAD METERS
1- Venturi Tube
2- Flow Nozzle
3- Orifice
4- Flow Tubes

• VARIABLE AREA METERS

• TURBINE FLOWMETER
• VORTEX FLOWMETER
• MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
• ULTRASONIC FLOWMETERS
• POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT METERS

• VELOCITY PROBES
Pitot Tube
Variable-Head Meters

Principle:
When a fluid stream is restricted, its pressure decreases by an amount that is dependent on the rate of flow
through the restriction.

Pressure difference between the points before and after the restriction can be used to indicate flow rate.
Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube Fluid accelerated at
throat (the narrow
section) & pressure is
decreased

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube

http://www.emcocontrols.com/353/venturi-tube-type-kvr

https://www.pipingengineer.org/ventury-flow-meter-piping/
Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃2 𝑣22
+ 𝑧1 + − ℎ𝐿 = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 These equations are valid only for
incompressible fluids (liquids).
For the flow of gases, variation of
the specific weight with pressure
𝑄 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2 must be considered.

𝑣22 = 𝑣12 𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2

𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 𝛾

hL must be determined experimentally. It is more convenient to use

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 C (or Cd) discharge coefficient in the equation
2𝑔 + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝒉𝑳 & if the venturi is installed in horizontal positiyon z1=z2
𝛾
𝑣1 =
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝛾 𝛾
𝑣1 = 𝑪 𝑄 = 𝑪𝐴1
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1 𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1
 Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube
C, discharge coefficient, represents the ratio of the actual velocity
𝑃 −𝑃
2𝑔 1 𝛾 2 through the venturi to the ideal velocity for a venturi with no
𝑄 = 𝑪𝐴1 energy loss at all.
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1 Therefore C < 1.0

C for a rough-cast venturi tube of the Herschell type.

Pipe diameter in the range of 4.0 in to 48.0 in (100 mm to
1200 mm).
The ratio, throat diameter to main pipe diameter (d/D) is
called β.
β should be between 0.30-0.75

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
 Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube

Pressure difference when a manometer is used:

𝑃1 + 𝛾𝑓 𝑦 + 𝛾𝑓 ℎ − 𝛾𝑚 ℎ − 𝛾𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑃2

𝑷 𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝛾𝑚 − 𝛾𝑓 𝜸𝒎
=ℎ =𝒉 −𝟏
𝜸𝒇 𝛾𝑓 𝜸𝒇

𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 𝜸𝒎
2𝑔 2𝑔𝒉 −𝟏
𝜸 𝜸𝒇
𝑣1 = 𝑪 𝑣1 = 𝑪
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1 𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 −1
 Variable-Head Meters – Venturi Tube
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Problem
A venturimeter has an inlet diameter of 300 mm and a throat diameter of 150 mm.
While it is carrying water at 90 oC, a pressure difference of 65 kPa is observed between sections 1 and 2. Calculate
the volume flowrate of water.
 Variable-Head Meters – Flow Nozzle
There is a gradual contraction
of the flow stream, followed by
a short, straight cylindrical
section

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣1 = 𝑪
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1

Venturi equation can be used.

There is very little energy loss between
points 1 & 2 because of the smooth,
gradual contraction.

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Variable-Head Meters – Flow Nozzle
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣1 = 𝑪
𝐴1 Τ𝐴2 2 − 1
At high Re numbers, C is above 0.99.
At lower Re numbers, the sudden expansion outside the nozzle throat causes
greater energy loss and a lower value for C.
 Variable-Head Meters – Flow Nozzle
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Problem
A flow nozzle is to be installed in a 5-in Type K copper tube carrying linseed oil at 77 oF. A mercury manometer is to
be used to measure the pressure difference across the nozzle when the expected range of the flowrate is from 700
gal/min to 1000 gal/min. The manometer scale ranges from 0 to 8.0 in of mercury.
Determine an appropriate diameter of the nozzle.
 Variable-Head Meters – Orifice

Orifice: A flat plate with an

accurately machined, sharp-
edged hole

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Variable-Head Meters – Orifice Typical installation with
pressure taps at distances D
and D/2 from the plate

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
 Variable-Head Meters – Orifice
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Problem
An orifice meter is to be installed in a 12-in ductile iron pipe carrying water at 60 oF. A mercury manometer is to be
used to measure the pressure difference across the orifice when the expected range of the flowrate is from 1500
gal/min to 4000 gal/min. The manometer scale ranges from 0 to 12.0 in of mercury.
Determine an appropriate diameter of the orifice.
Variable-Head Meters – Flow Tubes

Commercially available
variable head meters

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Variable-Head Meters – Overall Pressure Loss
P1-P3 = hL

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
 Pitot Tube
Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Moving fluid stops because there is the stationary object, the pitot tube:
A pressure is created that is greater than the pressure of the fluid stream

"The magnitude of this increased pressure is related to the velocity of the moving fluid."
Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃𝑠 𝑣𝑠2
+ 𝑧1 + − ℎ𝐿 = + 𝑧𝑠 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑣𝑠 = 0

𝑧1 = 𝑧2

ℎ𝐿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

𝑃1 𝑣12 𝑃𝑠 𝑃𝑠 − 𝑃1
+ = 𝑣1 = 2𝑔
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube
Ps

P1

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
 Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson

𝑃1 − 𝛾𝑥 + 𝛾𝑦 + 𝛾𝑔 ℎ − 𝛾ℎ − 𝛾𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠 see next page

𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝛾𝑔 ℎ − 𝛾ℎ = 𝒉 𝜸𝒈 − 𝜸

𝑷𝒔 − 𝑷𝟏 𝜸𝒈 − 𝜸
𝑣1 = 2𝑔 𝑣1 = 2𝑔𝒉
𝛾 𝛾
 There are
Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube inner &
(inner

outer tubes P6tube)

(inner tube) ● ●
●●
P2 P2 P6
(inner
(outer (outer tube) (outer
tube)
tube) tube)

(inner
tube)

P7 = Ps
●● P1 (outer
tube) P3 ● ●
P5

𝑷𝟏 − 𝛾𝑥 + 𝛾𝑦 + 𝛾𝑔 ℎ − 𝛾ℎ − 𝛾𝑦 + 𝛾𝑥 = 𝑷𝒔
P2 P4 ● ● P4
P3
P4
P5
P6 see next page

P7 = Ps
There are
Both tubes include
inner &
pipe liquid (γ) but
outer tubes
colored differently
to show that they
measure different
pressures
 Velocity Probes – Pitot Tube
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Problem
A pitot-static tube is inserted into a pipe carrying a fluid with a specific gravity of 9.625. A differential manometer
using mercury as the gage fluid is connected to the tube and shows a deflection of 1000 mm. Calculate the velocity
of flow of the fluid if the specific gravity of the gage fluid is 13.6.
Variable Area Meters

Rotameter is a
common type of
variable area meter.

The upward forces due

to the fluid dynamic
drag on the float and
buoyancy balance the
weight of the float.

https://instrumentationtools.com/va A different flowrate

riable-area-flow-meters-working/ causes the float to
move to a new
position.

https://www.controlselect.co.uk/gemu-variable- Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

area-flow-meter-for-water.html Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson
Turbine Flowmeter
Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid
Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson

https://www.drurylandetheatre.com/si-lwgy-
sanitary-flow-meter/

Fluid causes the turbine rotor to rotate at a speed dependent on the flowrate
 Magnetic (or Electromagnetic) Flowmeter

Mott, R.L., Untener, J.A. (2016) Applied Fluid

Mechanics, 7th Ed. Pearson

https://www.emerson.com/en-us/automation/measurement-
instrumentation/flow-measurement/about-magnetic

Principle: Faraday’s law of induction

The fluid must be at least slightly conducting,

because the flowmeter operates on the principle
that when a moving conductor cuts across a
magnetic field, a voltage is induced.
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Major advantage: It is not necessary to penetrate the

pipe in any way.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DD2bBLu6kLM
A high frequency signal is transmitted through the
wall of the pipe & across the flow stream, typically
with an angle with respect to the axis of the pipe.

The time for the signal to traverse the pipe depends

on the velocity of flow of the fluid in the pipe.