READING AND WRITING Function Words

TEXT AS CONNECTED DISCOURSE ex: like a, of, on, like,

TEXT

-the original words and form of a written SPEAKING VS. WRITING

or printed work.
- the main body of printed or written
matter on a page.

DISCOURSE

-verbal interchange of ideas especially:

conversation
-connected to speech or writing
Writing Skills are the ones most often used by
TEXT AS CONNECTED DISCOURSE
teachers to gauge the learner's language
When certain symbols such as letters of the proficiency level.
alphabet combine in a certain way to make
Speech is public and more often an issue of
certain words, and such words combine into
confidence, whereas, writing, because it is in
phrases, into sentences, into paragraphs, into
black and white, reflects the learner's level
compositions, the text becomes a connected
more accurately.
discourse.
Reading Strategies
Certain combinations of words create certain
kinds of discourse, and therefore certain kinds In 2019, the Programme for International
of meaning Student Assessment (PISA) results created
quite a stir when it announced the 2018 results
EXAMPLE SENTENCES:
that the Philippines ranked second to the last
1. The lyrics of the song sounded like among 79 countries in terms of reading,
fingernails on a chalkboard. mathematics, and science literacy. We had
2. The fingernails of the chalkboard the lowest score in reading.
sounded like the lyrics of a song.
SKIMMING
3. The sound of the fingernails sang the
lyrics on a chalkboard. An IELTS Guide defines skimming as quickly
reading a text to get only its main idea. And
EXAMPLE:
because it is one of the strategies in speed-
Content Words- (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives) reading, you only need to read a part of the
material, and not the whole of it. (Attentively
+
read the first and the last paragraphs. Read
Function Words - (e.g. articles, conjunctions, only the first sentence “Drop down to the end,
prepositions) looking for key details).

Content Words
ex: chalkboard, fingernails, lyrics, song, sound
SCANNING 3. Antonym

IELTS guide defines scanning as searching for Words like “although”, “however”, and “but”
specific phrases in the text to answer some may signal contrast or antonym clues.
questions. The keyword is keyword. You have
Example: When the light brightens, the pupils
to look for those keywords in the text, underline
of the eyes contract; however, when it grows
them when you can, and when you get to the
darker, they dilate.
questions after this, scan the text quickly to
find the answers. “Dilate” means the opposite of “contract.”

CONTEXT CLUES 4. Explanation

Clues that help you understand the meaning of In some cases, this may also be in the form of
a word based on its context (the words an example. Words like “including”, “such as”,
surrounding it, its placement in the sentence, and “for example”, point these out.
etc.). A dictionary may not always be available
Example: Celestial bodies, including the sun,
and so we resort to these clues to help us out in
moon, and stars, have fascinated man through
decoding the mystery of the unknown words.
the centuries.
CONTEXT CLUES EXAMPLES
“Celestial” objects are those in the sky or
1. Synonyms heavens.

A material from Miami Dade College tells us 5. Word parts (Affixes )

that this includes a repetition of an idea
This is one of the reasons learning about
expressed in familiar words nearby.
prefixes and suffixes is so crucial in your grade
Example: This situation is a conundrum, a school days. Seeing those affixes in a word and
puzzle that's difficult to solve. knowing what they mean is like seeing a huge
red truck with blinkers on.
Another word for “conundrum” is “puzzle”.
Follow it, and you’ll know where the fire is, or in
2. Definition
this case, the meaning of the word. last letters, ex.
Again, Miami Dade College lists these clues: ed, ie, ly, ial
Kathy Glass tells us to break down the word
use of “that is” or “i.e.”, commas, dashes, and
into its component parts: the base word, and
parentheses.
the affixes (prefix, suffix) to get what it means.
Example: His emaciation, that is, his skeleton-
Example: Piscatorial creatures live in the
like appearance, was frightening to see.
coldest parts of the ocean.
“Skeleton-like appearance” is the definition of
The base word may look familiar to you as it is a
“emaciation.”
cousin of the zodiac sign Pisces, which is Latin
for “fish”.

The suffix -ial is usually attached to an

adjective and means “of,relating to, or
characterized by”. Clearly, “piscatorial” means
fish related.
 throw in clusters of ideas and select only what are needed
CLOSE READING SELECTING AND ORGANIZING
INFORMATION
Close reading is a thoughtful, critical analysis
of a text that focuses on significant details or Brainstorming List- Originally used by the
patterns to develop a deep, precise American businessman Alex Osborn in 1953 as
understanding of the text’s form, craft, a strategy for his advertising agents to pitch in
meanings, etc. It is the opposite of speed- highly innovative marketing plans.
reading in the sense that it requires you to stay
PARTS
with the text repeatedly to get its meaning as
accurately as possible. PROBLEM- supposed to brainstorm about.
SUGGESTIONS- things/concepts/ideas that
Close Reading Includes
you wish to contribute to alleviate the problem,
1. Focusing on the text itself and using the if not solve it.
text to answer questions based on it.
BRAINSTORMING LIST strategies
2. Making marginal annotations (notes on
the text). CUBING (examining viewpoints)
3. Repeated reading FREEWRITING (writing unlimited, uninhibited
ideas about the topic)
STEPS FOR CLOSE READING
LISTING (listing things associated with the
1. First read: Key ideas and details topic)
MAPPING (also called webbing or clustering
a. Set your purpose in reading. where you write down all ideas and map their
b. Read to get a general idea of the text. connections to each other)
c. Underline keywords that you can go RESEARCHING (discovering fact by
back to. investigation) FrMaLiCuRe

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER- structurally arranged

2. Second read: Craft and structure
set of discourse elements (Wyson, 2018).

a. Focus on patterns: repetitions, - Visual representations, since they

contradictions, similarities (Kain, 1998). usually take the form of tables, graphs,
You may also look at vocabulary choices and charts, which stimulate the eyes.
and text organization. - Structurally arranged, since GOs help
you compartmentalize the pool of data
3. Third read: Integration of Knowledge you have with you, make them appeal to
and ideas. you and others.
- Discourse elements, since only vital
a. Ask the how and why questions: how are information should be
the craft and structure of the text used compartmentalized.
to deliver the message? Why does it
have to be that way?
b. Try to answer those questions using
details in the text itself and your own
synthesis of the text.
A graphic organizer is also known as a CYCLE – describes how a series of events
knowledge map, concept map, story map, interact as a set of results repeatedly.
cognitive organizer, advance organizer, or
concept diagram. It is a pedagogical tool that
uses visual symbols to express knowledge and
concepts through relationships between them.
The main purpose of a graphic organizer is to
provide a visual aid to facilitate learning and
instruction.

The simplest and most widely utilized GO is the

TABLE.
CONCEPT MAP – depicts suggested
relationships between concepts.

VENN DIAGRAM – used to compare and

contrast ideas. It is one of the most commonly
used GOs used to display comparison and
contrasts of two (or more) sets of data.

FLOW CHART – used to show chronology of

events in a narrative or stages in a process.

CAUSE AND EFFECT (fishbone diagram) – a

graphical tool for displaying a list of causes
associated with a specific effect.

PLOT DIAGRAM – used to map events in the

story and analyse major parts of the plot.
TOPIC OUTLINE

Outlining organizes information in a neat list,

depending on your specific need for the
information you just arranged.

An outline is generally defined as a group of

information structured in an organized list
(Wyson, 2018). The keyword to consider here is
list. You are going to list down the essential
information from a specific article you have
read, or a news report you have listened to or
viewed.

Two Formatting Styles of Outlines

Simply put, all main ideas are discussed at the
Alphanumeric Format
1st Level in every outline. Nowhere else. It will
be a kind of “cheat sheet” he next time your
teacher asks you to summarize a particular
composition.

SENTENCE OUTLINE

We have banked on the argument that topic

outlines are composed right after you are
exposed to a pool of information needed to be
Decimal Format
organized in a neat list.

But what if the roles are reversed and the tables

are turned? What if it’s from YOU where all the
information must come from? This is where the
sentence outline comes in.

When you compose and finish sentence

outlines, writing the essay itself will be a
breeze, because all you need to do is to
TOPIC OUTLINE- The defining characteristic of
connect those sentences by using transitional
the topic outline is that you only use keywords
devices.
and/or key phrases in filling the outline.

One strategy to remember when you write topic

outlines is that you hold the power as to what
information to include in the outline.
PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT a. Topic subordination

organization=arrangement Commonly applied to paragraphs (which, when

combined, make up the whole essay/discourse
Organization, also known as arrangement, is
material), topic subordination is the explicit
achieved when ideas are logically and
highlighting of the topic sentence, and the
accurately arranged with focus on the
supporting details which are clipped onto it.
arrangement of ideas, incidents, evidence, or
details in a definite order in a paragraph, essay, - Establish the definition itself first
or speech. Simply put, organization is - Give some supporting details to
developing your ideas into a logical and augment the argument
sensible pattern.
Example: You want to define the term “vlog” as
Cenizal-Raymundo (2016) defines organization a topic for your essay.
organization as the effective strategic plotting
of ideas in a text.

Effective, a writer does not live on organizing

information alone; s/he must be able to Observe closely: the first sentence is the topic
organize such thoughts, concepts, and facts in sentence, since it introduces you to what a vlog
a way that it will be easily understood by is. The sentence that comes after it is its
everyone regardless of their level of supporting detail; it gives you an idea about the
comprehension. origin of the term.

Strategic plotting, organizing information is GENERALIZATION TO SPECIFICATION

deliberately decided, depending on the need of
This organizational pattern allows you to
those who may read your essay, article, or any
expand the reach of the thought that you
other discourse material you are asked to
present in your topic sentences by giving
make.
examples.
Ideas, the root of it all. Remember that the
If I want to give additional supporting details
reason we organize ideas is to easily
about it, I can do so by giving some examples of
understand them should we need them right
vlogs, as well as the people and/or institutions
now, or in the future.
that allow people to share their vlogs.
IBC Format most common organizational pattern
when writing an essay
Introduction (the overview and the pre-test)
Body (the lectures themselves)
Conclusion (the summary, activities, and the
learning output)

ORGANIZATION TECHNIQUES

A. Topic subordination
B. Generalization to specification
COHESION Examples
after all, for example, for instance, indeed, in
Halliday and Hasan (1975) define it as the fluid
fact, of course, specifically, such as, the
connection of ideas between sentences and
following example, to illustrate
paragraphs.
Cause and Effect
They must fluid, like water connected through
accordingly, as a result, because,
pipes of various degrees so they can flow in a
consequently, for this reason, hence, if . . .
single, unified direction all throughout your
then, since, so, then, therefore, thereupon,
household. This is through the use of
thus, to this end
transitional devices.
Place
“Cohere” means “to stick together”. cohesion
above, adjacent to, below, beyond, closer to
sticks the ideas in sentences together to
elsewhere, far, farther on, here, near, nearby,
become grammatically and logically correct.
opposite to, there, to the left, to the right
COHESION- ideas ae connected at the
Concession
sentence level
although it is true that, granted that, I admit
COHERENCE- ideas are connected at
that, it may appear that, naturally, of course
conceptual level
Summary, Repetition, or Conclusion
Sequence
as a result, as has been noted, as I have said,
again, also, and, and then, besides, finally, first,
as mentioned earlier, as we have seen, in any
second, third, furthermore, last, moreover,
event, in conclusion, in other words, in short,
next, still, too
on the whole, therefore, to summarize
Time
Michael Alexander Kirkwood (M.A.K.)
after a few days, after a while, afterward, as
Halliday13 Apr 1925 – 15 Apr 2018
long as, as soon as, at last, at that time, before,
earlier, immediately, in the meantime, in the British linguist who studied and made known
past, lately, later, meanwhile, now, presently, the concept of cohesion in the English
simultaneously, since, so far, soon, then, language in the mainstream in 1976, with the
thereafter, until, when help of his wife, Indianborn linguist Ruqaiya
Hasan.
Comparison
again, also, in the same way, likewise, once COHERENCE- this is the connection between
more, similarly the whole text and the reader.

Contrast
although, but, despite, even though, however,
in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the contrary, on the one hand .
. .on the other hand, regardless, still, though,
STCCCECnEPSrc
yet
You can achieve coherence through these
ways:

A. CONNECTING OLD AND NEW

INFORMATION

As facts are created and changed every day,

you must be able to connect with the reader by
providing both sides of the coin: what was said
then, and what is proven now. This is highly
effective when you write informative and
argumentative essays, where facts are the stars
of the show.

B. CONTEXTUALIZATION OF CONTENT

You must also be able to make a connection

with your readers by tailor-fitting your content
to what they want/what they are interested
with.

C. MEANING MAKING

Your readers must be able to make sense of

what you have said.

COHERENCE, in other words refers to the

overall sense or quality of a passage.

All of your supporting sentences should come

from the topic sentence. Focus is the key.