SCIENCE

From the Latin word "scientia," which means "knowledge"

Any methodological activity, such as observation,

experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation,
aimed at discussing natural phenomena
Systematized knowledge based on facts

Divisions of Science
• Social Science
. Political Science
. History
• Mathematics
• Natural science - deals with nature and natural
phenomena

Branches of Natural Science

• Physical Science - deals with non-living things
• Biological Science - deals with living things

Scientific Method

• An orderly, logical, and rational manner of solving

problems
Enables and leads scientists toward unveiling the truths
about observable phenomena, helping them construct their
clear representations

Steps in Solving Problems

• The Problem - question formulated from observations to
which you want to find specific answers
• Identify, state, know, and understand the problem
• Identify the variables

Types of variables

Independent variable - the one which is manipulated or

changed
Dependent variable - the one which is measured and
observed; depends on the independent variable
Example: In the experiment, "the effect of sunlight on the
growth of the plants"
Sunlight - independent variable
Growth - dependent variable

Hypothesis

It is an inference or a scientific guess.

• It can be a positive or a negative hypothesis.
• Experimentation
• Designed and conducted to test the validity of the
hypothesis
• A good experiment is one where the least time, effort, and
logistics are used, but yields the best result.

• Steps in Performing an Experiment

Gather the materials to be used in experimentation
Set the materials
Observe
Gather the data
Interpret the data
Conclusion
• Draw the conclusion by stating the findings in the manner
that allows the problem to be solved answered.
• Application
This is an optional step. If the results of the experiment are
good enough, then there will be a need to apply the results
of the experiment in real-life situations,

Scientific Attitude

This is the scientist's way of doing and thinking, especially

when performing an experiment or any scientific
investigation.

Some of the scientific attitudes are the following:

Curiosity - pays particular interest and asks questions about
observations
Honesty - reports results of observations truthfully
Humility - accepts that he does not have the monopoly of
ideas about the
phenomenon
• Unbiased - ability to separate his own personal ideas from
the actual findings
Open-mindedness - readiness to accept or consider
opinions of others
•Patience and perseverance - does not easily give up
when investigation seems difficult

Law vs. Theory

• Law - generalizations formulated from observations that
are proven correct and true.
Ex. Ohm's Law: that current is directly proportional to the
voltage but inversely proportional to the resistance. This
explains that an increase in voltage will increase the current
if the resistance is constant and if the voltage is held
constant, and increase in resistance will give a decrease in
current.
Theory - generally accepted explanations of observations,
but are yet to be fully proven because some questions still
need to be answered.
Ex. Theory of Evolution: results of scientific investigations
explain changes in organisms, but questions that cannot
undergo experimentations are left unanswered.

PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Branches of Physical Science

• Physics - deals with matter and energy and of the

interactions between the twoChemistry - deals with the
composition and properties of matter
• Earth Science - deals with the physical aspects of the
Earth
• Physics
• Scientific Notation
• Short-hand in writing extremely large or small numbers
using the power of ten notation
• Takes the form Ax 10n. where A is an integer from 1 to
9.9999 and n is the exponent in the power of ten
• The exponent n may be dealt also as the number of times
the decimal point is moved: positive if moved to the left,
and negative when moved to the right.
• Ex. 361000 = 3.61 x 105 - decimal point is moved to the left
5 times so that the number
• to the left of the decimal point is less than ten.
• Ex. 000361 = 3.61 x 104 - decimal point is moved to the
right 4 times so that the
• number to the right of the decimal point is less than ten.
• Measurement
• The process of comparing the quantity to be measured
and the corresponding standard
• The quantity is the one being measured, not the object
• Physical Quantities
• There are two physical quantities, namely: the
fundamental quantities and the derived quantities.
• The fundamental quantities are also called basic
quantities. The following are the fundamental quantities,
together with their corresponding standard units:
• length
• meter
• mass
• kilogram
• time
• second
• temperature
• Kelvin
• luminous intensity
• candela
• electric current
• ampere
• Derived quantities are quantities taken from fundamental
quantities.
• Ex. Area = I x I, area is taken from the fundamental
quantity, length
• Density = mass/volume, and volume = I x I x I, density is
derived from fundamental
• quantities length and mass.
• Relationship between Quantities
• Direct Proportionality -When one quantity increases, the
other quantity increases also in proportion to each other.

• A is directly proportional to B
• A/B = K
• If A is plotted against B, the resulting graph line is straight
line slanting to the right
• Direct-square Proportionality - When one quantity
increases, the other quantity increases also, but faster and
greater than the other. is directly proportional to B2
A/B2 = K
If A is plotted against B, the resulting graph line is a
parabola.

Inverse Proportionality - When one quantity increases, the

other quantity
decreases.
• A is inversely proportional to B.
o'
AB = K
• If A is plotted against B, the resulting graph line will be a
hyperbola.
Physical quantities are also classified as vector and scalar
quantities.

Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitude only.

Ex. Area, density, distance, speed
Vector quantities are quantities with both magnitude and
direction.
Ex. Displacement, velocity, force
• Vector quantities can be represented by an arrow, the tail
represents the magnitude and the arrowhead represents
the direction.

Mechanics
• Force§Push or pull that changes or tends to change the
motion of the body
It is a vector quantity.
Its unit is newton or kg-m/sec2 in MKS.
• Sets of forces
Parallel forces - forces whose lines of action are parallel to
each other
Concurrent forces - forces whose lines of action meet at a
common point
Friction - a force between two surfaces that opposes the
motion of the body

Laws of Equilibrium
First law of equilibrium - for a body to be at rest, the sum of
all the forces should be equal to zero.Second law of
equilibrium - for a body to be at rest, the sum of all the
torques should be equal to zero.

Motion

• L Continuous change in position of a body with respect to

a reference point
• Speed is the rate of motion.
• v = d/t, where v = speed, d = distance, and t = time
• Velocity is also the rate of motion, only it is a vector.
• Uniform motion is one where the speed or velocity remains
constant.
• Acceleration, is the change in velocity at a given time
interval.
• Rectilinear motion - motion along a straight path. An
example of this is the motion of a freely-falling body.
• Curvilinear motion - motion along a curved path. Circular
motion and projectile motion are examples of curvilinear
motion.
Newton's Three Laws of Motion

• Law of Inertia.- a body at rest will remain at rest and a

body in motion will
continue to move in uniform motion unless acted upon by
an unbalanced force.

Law of Acceleration - When acted upon by a net force, the

body will accelerate, and that the acceleration of the body
is directly proportional to the
force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of the
body. F = ma.

Law of Interaction - for every action, there is an equal but

opposite reaction.
• Work
The product of the force applied and the displacement
through which the force is directed.
W = Fd, measured in N.m or joule (J)
Can be done easier and faster with the use of machines
Machine is any device that helps in doing work.о
The six simple machines are: lever, pulley, wheel, and axle,
inclined plane, screw, and wedge.

Mechanical advantage is the number of times a machine

can do work compared to the work done without a
machine.
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of work output to
work input.
Efficiency = work output/work input × 100%
• Power Rate of doing work P = W/t, measured in joule/sec
or watt
• Energy
• Ability of doing work
• Forms of energyMechanical energy
⁃ Potential energy (PE) - energy due to position of the body
PE = mgh, where m = mass of the body, h = height and
g = acceleration due to gravity which is 9.8 m/s?.
⁃ Kinetic energy (KE) - energy of the body which is in motion
KE = 1/2mv?

Electrical energy - energy of the moving electrons

Chemical energy - energy in the atoms and molecules of
matter
Nuclear energy - energy resulting from the fission or fusion
reactions in atoms
Radiant energy - energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves
Thermal energy - internal energy of a body which is the total
kinetic energy of the molecules of a body fluids

Density is the mass of the substance at a given volume,

d = m/.
If the density of the material or substance is greater than the
density of the liquid, the material will sink in the liquid; if the
density of the material or substance is less than the liquid,
the material will float in the liquid.
• The greater the density of the liquid, the greater is the
buoyant force.
• Pressure is the force exerted at a given unit area, p = FIA

Liquid pressure depends on the density and height of the

liquid.
Liquid pressure, ps dig where p is the liquid pressure, d is the
density of the liquid, and h is the height of the liquid. g is a
constant and does not affect the pressure.
Atmospheric pressure or air pressure depends on the height.
The higher the position, the thinner is the air, and the lesser is
the air pressure.

Heat and Temperature

Heat is the total kinetic energy of molecules of a body.

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of molecules.
Temperature conversion
OC = 5/9 (oF - 320)
OF = 9/5 C + 320
oK = oC + 2730
• Methods of Heat Transfer
Conduction - heat transfer from one molecule to adjacent
molecule
Convection - heat transfer by the actual movement of
heated molecules. The circulation of the heated molecules
is called convection current.
Radiation - transfer of heat across space in the form of
electromagnetic waves

• Change of Phase
Melting or Fusion - change of phase from solid to liquid at its
normal melting point
Freezing or Solidification - change of phase from liquid to
solid at its normal freezing point
Vaporization - change of phase from liquid to gas at its
normal boiling point
Condensation - change of phase from gas to liquid
Sublimation - change of phase from solid to gas without
passing the liquid state
Wave and Sound
• A wave is a disturbance propagated through a medium.
There are two kinds of waves: transverse wave and
longitudinal wave.

The properties of waves are reflection, refraction, diffraction,

and interference.
• Sound is a longitudinal wave, coming from a vibrating
source, transmitted through a medium and interpreted by
the sense of hearing.

Light
•
Theories about the nature of light:.

Corpuscular Theory - Light is made up of particles known as

corpuscles.
.
Wave Theory - Light is a wave.

Electromagnetic Wave Theory –

Light is composed of electric field and magnetic field.
Since light behaves as a wave, it can be reflected,
refracted, diffracted, and interfered.
The image formed by a mirror is due to reflection of light.
The kinds of mirror are plane and curved mirrors. Curved
mirrors can be convex or concave.
The image formed by a lens is due to refraction of light.
Lenses are categorized as diverging and converging.

Electricity

Classifications of electricity:
Electrostatics is electricity at rest. It only Involves electric
charges and their
behaviour.

Electric charges are of two kinds:

• Negative charge - when there is an excess of electrons
• Positive charge - when there is a deficiency of electrons
Current electricity - electricity due to moving charges
Basic components of electric circuit:
Quantity
Unit
Current
Ampere
Measuring Device
Ammeter
Voltage
Volt
Voltmeter
Resistance
Ohm
Ohmmeter

Ohm's Law states that the current flowing is directly

proportional to voltage and
inversely proportional to resistance. I = V/R.

Electromagnetism
• Magnetism - derived from Magnesia, an island in the
Aegean Sea Magnet - an object that attracts magnetic
objects like metals
• A magnet has two poles, north and south.
• Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
• Generator - a device that changes mechanical energy to
electrical energyMotor - a device that changes electrical
energy to mechanical energy

Nuclear Energy

• Atom - The smallest and indivisible particle of matter it is

composed of sub-particles, namely: electron, which carries
negative charge, proton which is positively charged; and
neutron, which is neutral.

• Types of Nuclear Reaction

Fission - when a heavy nucleus splits together with the
release of energy
Fusion - when two light nuclei combine with the release of
energy

Chemistry
• Study of the composition and changes in matter

Matter
• Anything that has mass and has volumeMass - amount of
the substance indicative of the inertia it possesses
• Volume - space occupied

Classification of Matter:
• Pure substances - made of definite kind of material
• Elements - made of the same atomsEx. Gold, aluminium,
oxygen, carbon, platinum, etc.

Compounds –
made of 2 or more different atoms in definite composition
ratio and which cannot be separated by ordinary physical
means

Ex. Water - H20 - composed of 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1

atom of oxygen
Glucose - C6H1206

Mixtures - physical combination of 2 or more substances

which can be separated by mechanical means

• Homogeneous mixture - a mixture in which the molecules

are thoroughly mixed; a mixture that is uniform throughout.

⁃ Solutions are homogeneous mixtures. The components of

solution are solute, which is the dissolved particles, and the
solvent, which is the dissolving particles.

Heterogeneous mixture

Suspensions - heterogeneous mixture where particles are

too large that they settle at the bottom of the container
Colloids - heterogeneous mixtures whose particles are not
large enough to settle nor small enough to be dissolved, like
the Tyndall Effect, which is the scattering of light by the
particles

Methods of Separating Mixtures

Filtration - use of filter paper to separate liquid from solid
components
Filtrate - liquid that passes through the filter paper
Residue - substance that did not pass through the filter
paper

Decantation - pouring off a layer of liquid from a mixture

Magnetism - use of magnets to separate magnetic
materials from the nonmagnetic ones

Centrifugation - Substance is subjected to circular or

rotational motion in a centrifuge.
Distillation - Liquid is set to boiling. Vapour is collected and
later cooled in order to condense.

Chromatography - passing mixture in solution or suspension

or as a vapour (as in gas chromatography) through a
medium in which the components move at different rates

Properties of Matter
• Physical properties
Extensive - depends on the amount of the substance
Ex. mass, volume, weight, pressureIntensive - does not
depend on the amount of substanceEx. density, taste,
colour, smell, specific heat capacity, melting or boiling
point, malleability, etc.

Chemical Properties
Property exhibited due to composition of the substance
Ex. combustion, corrosion, decomposition, etc.

Changes in Matter
• Physical change - change in form and appearance but
not in the composition Change in phase: melting,
evaporation, condensation, sublimation, freezing