Ahmed Draia University – Adrar

Faculty of Arts and Languages

Department of ARTS AND English Language

Linguistic Borrowing from French into Spoken Algerian

Arabic by Adults, Case of Study: Adrar City Centre.

Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Master’s Degree in

Didactics and Linguistics

Presented by: Supervised by:

Bousmat Aya Mr. Keddouci Othmane

Nadjemi Amel

President: Mr. Boukli Reda

Supervisor: Mr. Keddouci Othmane

Examiner: Mr. Mohamed Omari

Academic year: 2021/2022

 Dedication
I would like to dedicate this work to my beloved parents Souria and Dieb

for their moral support and sacrifices in my life,

My beloved sister Alaa, My wonderful brothers Abdeldjalil and yassine for

being there for me throughout the entire process

I also dedicate this work to my relatives and closest friends Imane, Hanaa,

Hayet and Rania for their love and kindness.

Aya

It is such a big honour for me to dedicate this work to my mother who offered

me all the needed stuff to be where I am today whether financially or morally.

She is the one who supports me when taking a decision, when engaging in a new

step either in my life or study career. On the other hand, i would also like to

dedicate this work to my little sister, the one who plays the sister's role as well

as the best friend one for me.

Amel

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 Acknowledgements

First of all, Thanks to Allah the almighty, the most merciful.

A great appreciation is extended to our teacher and supervisor Mr. Othmane

Keddouci who was abundantly helpful and offered invaluable assistance,

support and guidance. We consider it an honor to work with him.

We would also acknowledge the members of the jury for reading and evaluating

our work.

We would like to thank all the teachers and students who helped us during this

fantastic experience.

Finally, we extend our utmost gratitude to all the participants who kindly

provided us with the needed data, without their cooperation this work would not

have been finished.

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 Abstract

The main purpose of this work is to shed light on the borrowing process in Algeria and Adrar

speech community in particular; we focused on the reasons that led to such a process and to

see whether Adrarian people are aware of it by giving some examples of borrowed words

phonologically and morphologically. In the first chapter, we give a review of the literature

including definitions of the concepts related our dissertation such including diglossia,

bilingualism, code switching and code mixing. In addition, we give more importance to the

borrowing phenomenon by giving definition, types, and the factors. The second chapter provide

an overview of how language differs from dialect. Then we talked about the linguistic situation

of Algeria (some of the used languages and language varieties in Algeria nowadays). In the last

chapter, which is concerned with the methodology and collecting data, we used three

instruments, which are a questionnaire, a word list and a naming picture task; we give it to a

random sample of 60 people. In the end, the results confirmed our hypotheses, which

demonstrated that people are aware of the borrowing phenomenon. People borrow words

because of the lexical gaps, prestige and the habit of using. Moreover, French borrowing in

Algeria is related to the long period of colonization and its use in the educational system.

IV
 Table of Contents

Dedication.................................................................................................................. II

Acknowledgements...................................................................................................III

Abstract .................................................................................................................... IV

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... V

List of Graphs ....................................................................................................... VIII

List of Tables ............................................................................................................ IX

Maps .......................................................................................................................... X

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... XI

List of Abbreviations.............................................................................................. XII

General Introduction ................................................................................................. 1

CHAPTER ONE : Review of the Literature ............................................................. 3

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 4

1.2 Bilingualism and Diglossia ........................................................................... 4

1.2.1 Diglossia: .................................................................................................. 4

1.2.2 Bilingualism ............................................................................................. 5

1.3 Code switching and Code mixing ................................................................. 6

1.3.1 Code-switching ......................................................................................... 6

1.3.2 Types of Code Switching .......................................................................... 7

V
 1.4 Code Mixing ................................................................................................ 9

1.5 Borrowing .................................................................................................. 10

1.5.1 Types of borrowing ................................................................................. 12

1.5.2 Cultural borrowing .................................................................................. 13

1.5.3 Core borrowing ....................................................................................... 14

1.5.4 Motivation of borrowing ......................................................................... 14

1.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER TWO :Language varieties and Algeria’s sociolinguistic situation...... 16

2 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 17

2.1 Language varieties ...................................................................................... 17

2.1.1 Language ................................................................................................ 17

2.1.2 Dialect .................................................................................................... 18

2.2 Algeria: A Brief Historical Background ...................................................... 20

2.3 The Sociolinguistic Situation in Algeria ..................................................... 21

2.3.1 Arabic ..................................................................................................... 22

2.3.2 Berber ..................................................................................................... 24

2.3.3 French..................................................................................................... 25

2.4 French Borrowing in Algeria ...................................................................... 26

2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 27

CHAPTER THREE : Data Analysis ...................................................................... 28

3 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 29

VI
 3.1 Adrar Speech Community .......................................................................... 29

3.2 Research Instrument ................................................................................... 30

3.2.1 Questionnaire .......................................................................................... 30

3.2.2 Word List................................................................................................ 31

3.2.3 Picture naming task ................................................................................. 31

3.3 Description of the sample ........................................................................... 32

3.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation ................................................................. 32

3.4.1 Questionnaire Analysis and Interpretation ............................................... 32

3.4.2 Word List Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................... 41

3.4.3 Pictures naming Analysis and Interpretation............................................ 43

3.5 Interpretation of the findings: ..................................................................... 45

3.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 46

General Conclusion .................................................................................................. 47

References ................................................................................................................ 48

Appendices ............................................................................................................... 52

Pictures: .................................................................................................................... 58

Abstract .................................................................................................................... 59

‫ ملخص‬.......................................................................................................................... 59

VII
 List of Graphs

Graph 1: Participants' Educational Background ................................................... 33

Graph 2: Participants' Origin ................................................................................. 34

Graph 3: Language preferences .............................................................................. 36

Graph 4: Participants' French Knowledge ............................................................. 37

Graph 5: French Use in Participants' Daily Life .................................................... 38

Graph 6: Participants' Perception of Language in Terms of Prestige ................... 39

Graph 7: Reasons behind the Borrowing Process................................................... 40

VIII
 List of Tables

Table 1: Some Examples of French borrowed words ............................................. 27

Table 2: male and female participant's age............................................................. 33

Table 3: Participants' Language Use....................................................................... 35

Table 4: Language preferences ................................................................................ 35

Table 5: Participants' view towards AA being a mixture ....................................... 36

Table 6: Participants' French Knowledge ............................................................... 37

Table 7: French Use in Participatnts's Daily Life ................................................... 38

Table 8: Participants' Perception of Languages in Terms of Prestige ................... 39

Table 9: Reasons behind the Borrowing Process .................................................... 40

Table 10: Results of the Participants' Awareness of the Origin of Borrowed Words

........................................................................................................................................... 42

Table 11: Pictures Naming ...................................................................................... 44

IX
 Maps

Map 1: Tuat region in Adrar province and Adrar ................................................. 29

X
 List of Figures

Figure 1: representation of bilingual code switching grammars (Poplack 1980:651)

............................................................................................................................................. 9

XI
 List of Abbreviations

H: High

L: Low

CM: Code-Switching

CS: Code-Mixing

CA: Classical Arabic

MSA: modern standard Arabic

AA: Algerian Arabic

XII
 General Introduction

From the dawn of humanity until now, people have used language to communicate their

thoughts, beliefs, and feelings. Since language varies across time, the language we are using

now differs from one speech community to another

Adrar is one of the multilingual communities which is known for its diversity and

complexity: Modern Standard Arabic, Algerian Arabic, French, and English, all these different

language varieties are used for communication, which will eventually lead to different

sociolinguistic phenomena like Bilingualism, Borrowing, Code switching, and Code mixing…

The adaptation of words and items from one language into another for the sake of

explaining, expressing, or describing a given idea or a certain object is known as ‘borrowing’.

Unlike borrowing an object from another person, borrowing linguistic items are not temporary.

Language borrowing may occur for different reasons, on one hand, it may be that these words

do not have equivalent words in the native language. Thus, words are borrowed to fill the

lexical gaps in the recipient language or because of the status of the source, on the other hand,

the language donor is viewed as more prestigious than the language that needs the borrowing.

Borrowed words adopt the borrowing language's phonology, morphology, and syntax.

However, they are pronounced as if they are part of the speakers’ mother tongue. Thus, our

research focuses on investigating linguistic borrowing from the French language into Algerian

dialect and how these borrowed words are adapted into Algerian Spoken Arabic.

Furthermore, the main questions raised in this dissertation are:

RQ1: Are Adrarian speakers aware of the use of borrowed words in their dialects?

RQ2: Is borrowing process related to a specific gender or educational background?

RQ3: What are the main reasons that make people borrow words from other languages?

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 In the light of these research questions, the following hypotheses are put forward: In the

light of these research questions, the following hypotheses are put forward:

H1: We hypothesize that the majority of Adrarian people are aware of the use of

borrowed words in their dialects.

H2: Borrowing process is not related to gender or educational background, people from

different backgrounds may use borrowed words.

H3: People may borrow terms from other languages to cover the lexical gaps and,

sometimes for the matter of prestige. We may also add the colonization period and the impact

of French culture

The present research work is divided into three chapters; the first chapter provides a

review of the literature including definitions of the concepts related the field of research of this

dissertation such as diglossia, bilingualism, code-switching and code-mixing. Furthermore, we

will focus more on the borrowing process by giving different points of view concerning the

borrowing definition, types, and the factors that lead to such a process. The second chapter is

concerned with language variation by providing an overview of how language differs from

dialect. Then we shed light on linguistic situation of Algeria (some of the used languages and

language varieties in Algeria nowadays). The last chapter is concerned with the methodology

used in gathering data and describing the sample population, followed by the analysis of the

obtained results in Adrar speech community using a questionnaire and a word list.

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CHAPTER ONE

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1.1 Introduction

When people from two different speech communities come in contact, they influence

each other resulting in transferring some features from one language to the other. In some cases,

only few words are borrowed, in others, a new whole language is formed. Many scholars

become interested in this phenomenon called “language contact” which is defined according

to Weinreich (1974, p. 1) as: “Two or more languages are said to be in contact if they are used

alternately by the same persons” (as cited in Benyelles, 2011) This contact between languages

will eventually raise several linguistic phenomena including diglossia, bilingualism, code-

switching, code-mixing and borrowing. In this chapter, we will be dealing with each

phenomenon focusing more on borrowing since it is our main topic of the research.

1.2 Bilingualism and Diglossia

1.2.1 Diglossia:

Whenever two languages or two varieties exist in the same speech community, many

interesting issues may occur involving topics like diglossia, bilingualism, code-switching, code

mixing, and borrowing.

The term diglossia was first used by the linguist Charles Ferguson. In his article Diglossia

(1959), he describes it as a form of bilingualism in which two coexisting linguistic codes of

varying status compete with one another. He also states that diglossia is:

“A relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the

primary dialects of the language( which may include a standard or regional
standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified( often grammatically
more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body
of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech
community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most
written and formal spoken purposes, but it is not used by any sector of the
community for ordinary conversation.” (p. 336)

This phenomenon is considered to be more noticeable in Arabic speaking communities.

For instance, if we take Algeria as an example we can notice that the first variety which is

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), is primarily used in formal situations such as political

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speeches, lectures, television or radio news, and written activities. On the contrary, the second

variety, including colloquial dialects, is naturally acquired by children and considered to be the

primary mean of everyday communication

Penelope Eckert believes that the first variety is a superposed variety referred to as ‘high’

language, it is reserved for use in more public, formal and learned domains while a vernacular,

or ‘low’, language is used in more popular and intimate domains. (1980, p. 1054).

In the same vein Saville-Troike (1982, pp. 55-54), the following are the main differences

between the H and L varieties:

1. There is a specialization of function for H and L.

2. H has a higher level of prestige than L.

3. There is a literary heritage in H, but not in L.

4. Children learn L at home, and H in school.

5. The H variety is standardized, restricted by grammatical rules and established

norms and orthography.

6. H and L varieties share the same vocabularies sometimes but with different

pronunciations.

7. There is some complementary distribution of terms.

1.2.2 Bilingualism

Many speech communities are characterized by the existence of the phenomena of

bilingualism; many scholars and linguists have defined this term. One of the most important

definitions was proposed by Bloomfield in which he sees the bilingual speaker as “native-like

control of two languages “ (1993, p. 56) that is to say, bilingual speakers, use both languages

equally in all skills as if they were natives. In the same line of thought, Weinreich states that

bilingualism is “the practice of alternately using two languages” (1953, p. 1). Another

5
definition was given by Haugen says that bilingualism starts when “the speaker of one language

can produce complete meaningful utterances in the second language”. (1953, p. 7)

Other sociolinguists reject this idea of a perfect mastery of the two languages. Myers

Scotton (2006, p. 3) states that “Being bilingual” does not imply complete mastery of two

languages. Further, speakers are rarely equally fluent in two languages”. Macnamara (1967)

also asserts that a bilingual speaker is anyone who can master a minimal competence in only

one of the four languages skills, listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing, in a

language that is not his mother tongue.

Based on what has been stated above, we notice that earlier definitions of this phenomenon

concern mastering both languages, which means that a bilingual person must control and

master two languages as native speakers do. Whereas later definitions refer to minimal

proficiency in the second language.

Using different languages in order to communicate can lead to a shift from one code to

another within very short utterances this shift is known as codes-witching.

1.3 Code switching and Code mixing

Code Switching (CS) and Code Mixing (CM) are terms that are commonly used in

bilingual and multilingual communities. They both share two different points, the first is the

concept ‘code’, linguists use it as an "umbrella term for languages, dialects, styles, etc."

(Spallanzani, 2015)

Gardner-Chloros (2009, p. 11). The other two terms "switching" and "mixing" to describe

how people manipulate the language they use, either consciously or subconsciously.

1.3.1 Code-switching

When bilingual and multilingual speakers communicate in a conversation using two

shared languages, they may shift between these languages in the same sentence or utterance.

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For instance, a person uses English and French words in one conversational turn. This

phenomenon where speakers shift between two or more codes is called code switching.

Code-switching has been studied by many scholars and linguists, and it has been given

various definitions and explanations to it. The first article in which the term code-switching

appeared in the field of linguistics was Hans Vogt’s (1954) “Language Contacts” in which he

sees code switching as a psychological phenomenon rather than a linguistic one when he gives

the following definition:

“Code-switching in itself is perhaps not a linguistic phenomenon, but

rather a psychological one and its causes are obviously extra-linguistic. But
Bilingualism is of great interest to the linguist because it is the condition of
what has been called interference between languages.” Vogt (1954, p. 368)

Brown (2007) asserts that “CS is the use of a first or third language within a stream of

speech in the second language” (p. 139)In other words, it is the use of two different languages

in the same conversation. Gumperz gives another definition (1982) in which he states that CS

is “The juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two

different grammatical systems or subsystems. “ (p. 59) It means that CS can occur not only

between languages but also between different dialects of the same language. On the other hand,

Romaine (1995) who shares the same view with Gumberz says that:

“…many linguists use the term ‘code switching’; the term ‘code’, like
‘variety’, is a neutral one and does not commit us to taking a decision as to
whether the varieties or codes concerned constitute languages or dialects.”
(p. 35)

1.3.2 Types of Code Switching

In bilingual speech, as far as code switching is concerned, speakers are more likely to

switch between two languages during the same conversation. The switch can occur either

within the sentence itself or between two distinct sentences including words, phrases and even

parts of words. Accordingly, scholars identified different types of code switching .Therefore;

7
code switching can be tag switching, intra-sentential switching, inter-sentential switching and

inter-word.

1.3.2.1 Tag Switching

The term tag switching refers to a mix involving an utterance and an interjection (or tag).

It entails the insertion of tag (one language) into an utterance which is completely in the other

language. For instance, in English, the tag: you know, i mean are often used in this context.

Moreover, tags are subject to minor syntactic constraints; therefore, they may be easily

inserted. (Romaine, 1995, p. 123).

E.g.: “Oh! Lazem tjib sources bezaf 3la topic hada, you know!”

Meaning: “Oh! You have to bring a lot of sources about this topic, you know!”

E.g.: “Ana wallahje m’en fous”.

Meaning: “I swear I don’t care”

1.3.2.2 Inter-sentential code switching

It occurs at clause or sentence boundary, where each sentence is from a distinct

language.Myers says that: “inter-sentential code switching involves switches from one

language to another between sentences: a whole sentence (or more than one sentence)” (1997,

p. 03).

This type of switching is thought of as requiring more fluency in both languages than

other types (Romaine, 1995, pp. 122-123).

E.g.: “ Majitch lbarah par ce que j’étais malade”.

Meaning: “I did not come yesterday because I was ill”.

8
1.3.2.3 Intra-sentential code switching

In this type, the switching occurs within a single clause or sentence. The shift takes place

in the middle of a sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses indicating a shift.

According to Poplack (1980) the speaker who usually uses this type of code-switching is

capable of and has strong knowledge about the grammar of the two languages being switched.

She also claims that bilinguals who do not understand the grammar of both languages cannot

use this type of switching. This type of switching is often referred to as code mixing

E.g.: “you look tired, Ro7 tor9od plus do not sleep fl bed ta3i”.

Meaning: “you look tired, go to sleep plus do not sleep in my bed”

Figure 1: representation of bilingual code switching grammars (Poplack 1980:651)

1.4 Code Mixing

Some linguists and scholars have attempted to define the concepts of Code Switching

and Code Mixing in the field of language contact. Many of them argue that there is a distinction

between these two phenomena, while others argue that they can be used interchangeably. We

have already seen some definitions of code switching now our focus is going to be on code

mixing.

Hudson (1999) made a clear distinction between the two terms CS and CS. According to

him in code-switching, the point at which the languages change corresponds to a point where

the situation changes, either independently or precisely because the language changes.

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However, when a fluent bilingual interact with another fluent bilingual, the language changes

without the situation changing at all. This kind of alternation is called code-mixing. He then

defines it “as a kind of linguistic cocktail - a few words of one language, then a few words of

the other, then back to the first for a few more words and so on”. (p. 53)

Among the other linguists who support the idea of CS and CM being two different

concepts, Kachru states:

“There is a distinction between code mixing and CS, though they

have been treated as the language contact phenomenon. The CS entails the
ability to switch from code A to code B. The alteration of codes is
determined by the function, the situation and the participants. It refers to
categorization of one's verbal repertoire in terms of functions and roles.
The code mixing, on the other hand, entails transferring linguistic units
from one code into another.” (1983, p. 193)

Some linguists however do not seem to agree on this distinction between code switching

and code mixing. Some of them have used CS as an umbrella to cover these two phenomena.

Scotton (1992), for example, uses these terms interchangeably. Hatch (1976) too; believe that

there is no clear difference between inter-sentential CS and intra-sentential CM.

1.5 Borrowing

People in their everyday conversations tend to use words from other languages to

describe concepts or ideas that do not have equivalent words in their mother tongue, this

phenomenon is called ‘’ borrowing’’.

Borrowing is an interesting phenomenon that is defined by many linguists:

According to Hornby, borrowing can be “a word, a phrase or an idea that somebody has

taken from another person’s work or another language and is used in his own”. (2005, p. 165)

For Gumperz:

“Borrowing can be defined as the introduction of single

word or short, frozen, idiomatic phrases from one variety(i.e.

10
 language), into the grammatical system of the borrowing
language and they are treated as if they are part of lexicon of that
language and share the morphological and phonological system
of the language”. (1982, p. 66)

Another attempt to define this concept is pointed out by Rajend et al (2009, p. 243):

“Borrowing’ is a technical term for the incorporation of an item from one language into another.

These items could be (in terms of decreasing order of frequency) words, grammatical elements

or sounds.’ It means borrowed words are usually adapted to the speakers‟ first language, and

are pronounced and used grammatically as if they are part of their native language.

According to Winford (2003), the borrowing language is referred to as “the recipient”

language, while the foreign language is referred to as the “source” language. For instance, in

Algeria, we can see that the Algerian Spoken Arabic contains many French borrowed words

like “/bu:sta/” from the French word “poste”, “/bla:ṣa/” from the French word “place”. Thus,

the Algerian Spoken Arabic here is known as the ‘recipient’ language whereas French is the

‘source’ or ‘donor’ language.

The borrowing process occurs as a result of linguistic contact, Haugen defines two key

terms: importation and substitution, he states:

“If the loan is similar enough to the model so that a native speaker
would accept it as his own, the borrowing speaker may be said to have
IMPORTED the model into his language provided it as an innovation in that
language, but insofar as he has reproduced the model inadequately, he has
normally SUBSTITUTED a similar pattern from his own language.” (1950.p,
212)

Accordingly, ‘importation’ is seen as a process in which the borrowed word can be

produced in the same form as the source. However, in ‘substitution’ some changes may occur

in the form and pronunciation. In other words, there is a reproduction of a concept or meaning

from one language into another.

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1.5.1 Types of borrowing

Borrowing, as seen, has several definitions and perspectives according to different

scholars and researchers; in fact, borrowing as a linguistic phenomenon occurs in different

forms and types depending on the linguistic interaction situations. Based on this distinction

between importation and substitution, Haugen (1950) distinguished different types of

borrowing. The three main types of borrowing are loanwords, loan blends and loan shifts.

1.5.1.1 Loanwords

In general, many researchers tend to associate the term loanwords with loan blends and

loan shifts. However, Haugen (1950) made a clear distinction between them. According to him:

“The term loanword had already been established to designate vocabulary whose basic form

and meaning are taken directly from another language, then integrated with lesser or greater

fidelity into the phonological and grammatical systems of the matrix language” (1950, cited in

Dil, 1972, p.152). In other words, a loanword is the result of borrowing which includes lexical

items that have been transferred from one language to another and have been integrated into

the recipient language with some slight differences in phonology or grammar from the donor

language without changing their basic form and meaning. For example, the English use of the

French term ‘Déjà Vu’.

1.5.1.2 Loanblends

A loan blend is a form in which one element is a loan word and the other is native.

Haugen (1950) defines it as “a combination of native and borrowed morphological material”.

In other words, loan blends are hybrid borrowings in which one item is kept or imported as it

is, and the other one is directly substituted or translated from another element that belongs to

the donor language. An example of that is the Japanese use of ‘suupaa’ or ‘suupaamaaketto’

which means supermarket and ‘taipuraitaa’ which means typewriter. (Yule G. , 2020)

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1.5.1.3 Loan Translation or Claque

Loan translation (also known as claque) is a direct translation of the elements of a word

into the borrowing language. For Haugen (1950), it is “morpheme-by-morpheme translation”.

In this sense, a loan translation is a word or phrase taken from another language but translated

(either as a whole or just a part of it) to correspond to the borrowing language while retaining

the original meaning. For instance, the English term “Moment of truth” is originally derived

from the Spanish “el momento de la verdad”, another example is the term ‘Perros Calientes’ in

Spanish (literally ‘dogs hot’) or hot dogs. (Yule G. , 2020)

1.5.1.4 Loanshifts

According to Fernández loan shifts “occur when a previously existing word in the

language acquires a new meaning on the model of similar form in the source language” (1983,

p. 13). Loan shifts represent the semantic transfer consisting of a shifted meaning of a native

pattern to cover an introduced concept (Haugen, 1953); the form will be kept native while the

meaning is imported.

Another classification of borrowing is distinguished by Myers-Scotton (2006) according

to two factors: cultural borrowing and core borrowing.

1.5.2 Cultural borrowing

Myers-Scotton (2006:212) states: “Cultural borrowings are words that fill gaps in the

recipient language's store of words because they stand for objects or concepts new to the

language's culture”. It involves words from other’s language to introduce new concepts and

objects which are unfamiliar to the speakers of the receiving language. In the same sense,

Steven defines cultural borrowing as: “words borrowed along with an item imported into the

culture, and fill a need in the target language”. (2012: 239), it means that these borrowed words

are usually used to fill a lexical gap in the recipient language.

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 The advancement of technology has changed many things in people’s lives, including

culture. For instance, in Algeria, many vocabulary items are introduced as cultural borrowings

such as computer, internet, website and all the types of social networks, Facebook, Email, etc.

1.5.3 Core borrowing

Myers-Scotton (2006:212) also states that: “core borrowing forms are items for which

the host language always has viable equivalents and meet no lexical needs” which means these

items are adopted even though there is a word for the concept that already exists in the recipient

language. In the same line of thought, Haspelmath (2009: 48) suggests: “core borrowings are

loanwords that duplicate or replace existing native words”. The first question that comes to our

mind when we read these definitions is why core borrowing happens when there is no lexical

need, in fact, Core borrowing occurs because it adds a level of prestige and modernity to the

language. In addition to that, a word used to replace an earlier word with the same meaning

will eventually lose some of its vitality (Myers-Scotton, 2006)

1.5.4 Motivation of borrowing

The majority of researchers agree that there are a number of different motivations that

drive a speaker of a language to borrow items from other languages. The most common

motivations have been identified as need and prestige.

Borrowing may occur in the case when there is no equivalent in the source language, this

need to borrow words happen in a situation where a group of people are exposed to original

domains of cultural information, where their personal language does not have appropriate

words to illustrate it. For instance, sometimes we come across a new, unknown concept that

we cannot express in our mother tongue, they are usually related to scientific and technological

domains, modern methods of education, scientific discoveries and trade.

On the other hand, ‘prestige’, is considered to be the primary motivation for borrowing

words (Weinreich 1968). Languages may come into contact at any given time and place,

14
according to that, we start to notice that one language is more prestigious than the other. This

prestigious language is going to influence the other languages used as a result, many speakers

prefer to use borrowed words in their daily speech so it can give them high status. In this sense,

Bloomfield (1933, p. 464) says: “In all cases, .... it is the lower language which borrows

predominantly from the upper." Accordingly, Algerian Arabic is much less prestigious than

French; the French loan words used in Algerian speech are numerous.

Social and cultural factors can also lead to language borrowing. Loanwords are typically

"significant" of concepts and objects found in the culture of the language that gives the words.

We cannot ignore the influence of war, conquest, colonization, the spread of religion as well

as geographical and economical interests.

1.6 Conclusion

In chapter one, our concern is to shed light on the major outcomes of language in contact

phenomenon which is borrowing and defining some of its related concepts such as

bilingualism, diglossia, code-switching and code-mixing. We focused more on defining the

borrowing process, reporting its types and what motivates people to borrow words. In the

coming chapter we are going to discuss the main responsible factors for the emergence of new

words, which is language variation. Furthermore, we are going to give a clear picture of the

sociolinguistic situation in Algeria.

15
CHAPTER TWO

16
2 Introduction

One of the linguistic contact results is borrowing. It includes the transfer of specific items

from one dialect or language to another. Thus, the current chapter introduces definitions of

language, dialect, and shows the differences between them. After this step, it tends to provide

a glimpse into Algeria's history by naming the various invaders who settled in this land.

Besides, the chapter sheds some light on the linguistic situation of Algeria, by talking about

the languages used in this country focusing more on French since it is our main topic.

2.1 Language varieties

The term 'variety' or 'variety of language' refers to the various ways in which language

can be portrayed. Hudson (1996, p. 22) defines a variety of language as “a set of linguistic

items with similar distribution,”

‘Language’ and ‘Dialect’ are mainly the most commonly known types of language

varieties yet making a distinction between them is considered to be one of the most difficult

theoretical issues in sociolinguistics. One attempt to distinguish between them is made by

Haugen 1966, according to him, there are two ways to separate between language and dialect

known as ‘size’ and ‘prestige. For him: “a "language" is the medium of communication be-

tween speakers of different dialects” p927. In other words, a language is considered to be

the sum of its dialects since it is larger and it contains more linguistic items than a dialect, In

this sense, Hudson (1996) says: “a variety called language contains more items than one called

a dialect”. For instance, if we consider Modern Standard Arabic to be a language in Algeria,

we may consider all language varieties spoken in different parts of the country as dialects of

this language.

2.1.1 Language

Language is defined by different linguists as the system of human communication which

consists of the structured arrangement of sounds (or their written representation) into larger

17
units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences, utterances (Jack C & Schmidt, 2010). In general, the

ability to speak a language is unique to human beings, it distinguishes them from the rest of

the living creatures. In this sense, Sapir (1921, p. 07) states: “ Language is a purely human and

non- instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system

of voluntarily produced symbols”. He views language as a key factor for distinguishing humans

from other living species.

However; according to other linguists, language can also refer to nonhuman systems of

communication, such as the language of bees, the language of dolphins, and so on. Wardaugh

proposed a different definition, he states: “a language is what the members of a particular

society speak” (2006, p. 01). He considers language to be a specific way of speaking associated

with a particular community, in other words, each society has its own language.

2.1.1.1 Standard Language

The term ‘Standard language’ refers to that variety of a language that is used in official

and formal situations, it used by educated people and in important professions in society such

as politics, the law system, and educational and scientific writings. To put it another way, it is

a prestigious language that has a dictionary, grammar and a written form. In this sense, Holmes

(2013, p. 78) says: “A standard variety is generally one which is written, and which has

undergone some degree of regularisation or codification (for example, in a grammar and a

dictionary); it is recognised as a prestigious variety or code by a community”.

For instance, in Algeria, Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the standard language. It is

the variety used in education and formal context, as a result, Algerian speakers perceive MSA

as being more prestigious than the dialects they use on a daily basis.

2.1.2 Dialect

All people agree that no one speaks the same way as others do; therefore, each individual

has his own way and style of speaking. As a result, there is a diversity in speech. Still, there

18
are some characteristics that a group of people share. It's important to remember that these

shared characteristics are essential in distinguishing one group from another. From this point,

we can define the term ‘dialect’.

Linguistically speaking, a dialect is usually thought of as a variety of language associated

with particular group or region. According to oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, dialects are

“The form of a language that is spoken in one area with grammar, words and pronunciation

that may be different from other forms of the same language” (2000). In other words, each

variety has its unique characteristics in terms of grammar, phonology, and vocabulary.

Furthermore, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of a given language.

Therefore, everybody speaks a dialect, people uses at least one dialect if not more. In the same

sense, Haugen (1966)highlights the idea that “every dialect is a language, but not every

language is a dialect.” (p. 923). According to Chambers and Trudgill the term ‘dialect’ is

often applied “to forms of language, particularly those spoken in more isolated parts of the world,

which have no written form” (1998, p. 03)

To sum up, a dialect is a variety of language which is used in everyday life, it has no

written form and it is generally associated with low status. Dialect is divided into two different

types it can be regionally or socially. Carter (1993: 20) claims: “a dialect refers to variety of

language that is identified geographically or socially”

2.1.2.1 Regional Dialect

A regional dialect, as the name implies, is a dialect related to the speakers living in a

particular geographic location. When we examine dialects spoken by people in various rural

areas, we can see the following:

“If we travel from village to village, in a particular direction, we notice

linguistic differences which distinguish one village from another. Sometimes
these differences will be larger, sometimes smaller, but they will be
cumulative. The further we get from our starting point, the larger the
difference will become.” (Chambers & Trudgill, 1998, p. 05)

19
 To illustrate, regional dialects tend to reveal minor differences from their nearest

neighbours and more differences from distant ones. In other words, Speakers near the centre

can understand varieties at both ends, while speakers at one end cannot understand speakers at

the other end. An example of that may be the Arabic dialects from Morocco to Iraq. (Amri ,

2016)

2.1.2.2 Social Dialects

The term dialect can also refer to differences in speech connected with various social

groups or classes. Social dialect is attached to a number of factors (social class, religion and

ethnicity). Accordingly, Siegel (2010, p. 05) defines a social dialect as “a variety of a language

spoken by a particular group based on social characteristics other than geography”

Yule (1985) says that: “social dialect are varieties of language used by groups defined

according to class, education, age, sex, and number of other social parameters” (p. 190). For

instance, Standard English can be classified as a type of social English spoken by the well-

educated English speakers throughout the world. However, in Algeria, this type of dialects do

not exist due to the fact that there are no clear social stratifications.

2.2 Algeria: A Brief Historical Background

The presence of two or more languages (mother tongue/first foreign language/second

foreign language) is a common situation in many countries. This eventually will lead them to

make a direct contact. Indeed, the presence of these languages, particularly foreign languages,

is going influence societies, and what is more is the fact that the contact between two languages

or more can result in one having an influence on another. In the case of Algerian society, the

language situation is greatly influenced by various historical and linguistic circumstances.

Algeria is one of the largest countries in Africa and the Arab world so throughout history,

it has witnessed several invasions. As a result, its linguistic situation is unstable, since it made

contact with several nations, the later influence the Algerian society socially, culturally and

20
linguistically. In this sense, Benrabah (2014) states: “Several invaders more or less shaped the

sociocultural history of Algeria, as well as its sociolinguistic profile”.

The Phoenicians were the first to invade, followed by the Romans in 146 BC. Six

centuries later, vandals came to replace the Roman Empire in 499 AD. Furthermore, the most

widespread and dominant impact was built by the Arabs and the French, who conquered the

land primarily for proselytizing and military-economic reasons.

With the spread of Islam, Arabs ruled Algeria for nearly nine centuries bringing with

them a strong language, a flourishing literary culture, and a relatively advanced administrative

and educational system. (Ennaji, 2005). Arabic had a major influence on North Africa in

general, and particularly on Algeria, it had made its way through the Algerian society.

The Arab rule lasted almost nine centuries before the country fell under the Ottoman

crown in 1518. Although, Algeria was ruled by the Ottoman Turks until 1830, the Turkish

language does not appear to have left its mark on Algeria's linguistic profile, apart from a few

borrowed words.

After that it was invaded by the French. In 1848, Algeria was declared a French territory

and it was colonised until it achieved independence in 1962. (Lilley, 2012) It lasted one

hundred and thirty two years until Algeria gained its independence. Despite the fact that Algeria

had a rich diversity, the French invaders imposed the French language and culture harshly.

Now that many civilisations settled in Algeria, the people were exposed to many

languages other than North African dialects. As a result, Algeria is now a multilingual country.

2.3 The Sociolinguistic Situation in Algeria

It is necessary to emphasize that Algeria's historical background seems to have a direct

impact on its current linguistic situation. Because of its unique history, it has built a strong and

complex linguistic profile.

21
 Algeria is characterized by the coexistence of various languages, they have different

political and social statuses. Here are four major languages: The official language which is

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), French which is used for formal, literary, and educational

purposes, whereas Algerian Arabic (dialect) and Berber are used for local communication.

2.3.1 Arabic

As mentioned above, Arabic is the result of Algeria's Islamic-Arabic expansion. The

spread of the Arabic language was linked to the spread of Islamic religion in the seventh and

eighth centuries.

In fact, it was necessary for the native inhabitants to learn Arabic, the language of Quran

and religion. Therefore, it spread throughout the country.

Usually, when people hear the term “Arabic language," the first thing that comes to mind

is ‘Quranic Arabic’ or ‘alfusha’, in other words Classical Arabic, however, this is not the case.

Thus, it is necessary to distinguish between the various languages of Arabic used in Algeria,

which include classical Arabic (CA), modern standard Arabic (MSA) which is the official

language of the country it is a simplified version of classical Arabic that is used in formal

occasions, the media, and is taught in schools, and Algerian Arabic (AA) which is commonly

used in everyday life.

2.3.1.1 Classical Arabic

Classical Arabic, also known as Quranic Arabic, seems to be the eloquent form of Arabic.

It is considered to be the language in which the holy book, the Qur'an, was sent and spread

throughout the world, including North Africa. CA is no longer spoken by Algerians, however;

it is primarily used for religious purposes such as reading, praying and reciting the Islamic holy

text. Moreover, CA holds a very important and prestigious place in the Arabic-speaking

communities, it is usually referred to as a ‘pure’ language. Nevertheless, due to its high level

of lexical and syntactic codification, only a few people are fluent in it.

22
 After independence in 1962 Algerians attempted to reclaim their Arab and Muslim

identities, despite the French language that had been imposed during the colonial period,

therefore; they made plans to support the Arabic language.

2.3.1.2 Modern Standard Arabic

In the nineteenth century, Modern Standard Arabic has emerged as a simplified version

of Classical Arabic. It is now considered to be more relatable and understandable than CA,

therefore; it becomes the official and national language of Algeria. In other words, MSA is now

a modern version of CA which contains a number of foreign words that fit the scientific and

technological demands of today’s world. According to Holes (2004), MSA can be defined as

“the modern descendent of classical Arabic, unchanged in the essentials of its syntax but very

much changed and still changing in its vocabulary and phraseology.” (p. 05)

MSA is mainly used either spoken or written in formal contexts such as in education

system, political speeches, administrative institutions, and other formal situations. In this sense,

Karin C. Ryding (2005, p. 05) states:

“MSA is the language of written Arabic media, e.g., newspapers,

books, journals, street signs, advertisements – all forms of the printed
word. It is also the language of public speaking and news broadcasts on
radio and television.”

Even though MSA is considered to be the country's official language, it is not usually

used in everyday life conversations. In fact, most people speak another variety of Arabic which

is the Algerian Arabic or dialect.

2.3.1.3 Algerian Arabic

Each country has its own spoken language beside the formal one, Algeria as all countries

has its own non-standard varieties which are called dialects, or Algerian Arabic ‘Darija’. It is

the low variety that represents a colloquial form. We can define it as the mother tongue for the

Algerian people that has a specific phonological, lexical, morphological, and semantic features.

In order to support this underlying fact, Richard (1991) says “what is in fact, Algerian Arabic?
23
It is an Arabic that is stripped of its absolute declensions, it is useless terminology. It is a

spoken, lively Arabic which bears the mark of the creative genius of Berber, of rural and urban

Algeria which integrates foreigner terms harmoniously”

Another aspect of AA is that it contains a number of major local variants (in

pronunciation, grammar, and so on) that can be seen from town to town, even if they are nearby

together. In this regard, it is important to note that AA and MSA are seen to be in a diglossic

relationship. MSA as a high variety whereas AA as a low variety.

Despite the fact that AA is a non-codified language, it is not always limited to oral

communication; it is commonly written in Arabic or with Latin letters. For instance, we can

find people use it in internet chat rooms, text messaging, and even advertisements.

Algerian Arabic is also characterized by borrowed words from French, Turkish, Spanish

and other languages, however; the French borrowings is the common one. As part of everyday

conversations, we can hear a mixture of foreign words (borrowed and phonologically adapted).

2.3.2 Berber

Berber also known as Tamazight language refers to the early indigenous language and

dialects spoken in North Africa, primarily in Morocco, Algeria, Libya, northern Mali, and

northern Niger. That is why it describes not only the Algerian identity, but it is also considered

as a Maghrebian personality. It is the mother tongue of many Algerians, in addition to Algerian

spoken dialect. In this sense, Oakes (2008, p. 19) states: “Arabic about 20% of the Algerian

population speaks Berber as the first language and many of these do not use Arabic at all,

preferring French as their second language”.

Berber, like many other languages, has a variety of dialects that vary from one region to

another. Kabylia, which is located in the north of Algeria, is the main Berber speaking

community (in Tizi Ouzou, Bejaia), in the second position comes Auras region (Chaouia in

24
Khanchela, Banta, Souk Ahras, Oum El Bouaghi and Tebessa), and also Mozabite in Mzab and

Tamashekt in the Sahara Desert.

In the past, the governmental entities did not give an opportunity for Berber variety to

have a unified written form which is a clear reason that prevented Tamazight from being part

of the Algerian Educational System. In this respect, Kahlouch (2002) and Tigziri (2002) states:

“Teaching of Tamazight organised by the HCA was marked by a great deal of haste and

improvisation because the Berber language lacked an official status and proper planning

institutions” (qtd. In Benrabah, 2007, p. 235). Nonetheless, it has recently gained national and

official acceptance, it is now used in schools and in TV and radio programs.

2.3.3 French

It is true that Algeria was invaded by numerous countries, yet none of them had as much

influence on the Algerian language system as the French language. In this respect, Calvet

(1974, p. 219) states:

“Though the French left Algeria a long time ago, their language has not.
This is so at a number of levels and works differently in Algiers. In Algeria,
French was inherited from the colonial power and became the language of
the bureaucracy. Statistically, Algeria is the most francophone country
among the old colonies.”

As we already mentioned, the presence of French in Algeria is mostly due to colonial

reasons in the past in addition to some economic and political factors in the present. French has

not been classified as an official language, yet it is widely used by the government and members

of the Algerian society.

In the post-independence period, Algerian authorities sought for arabization they tried to

replace French with Modern Standard Arabic. However, they did not totally ignore the French

language and ordered to teach it at schools as the first foreign language; Hence, French

continued to spread among new generations.

25
 French is now taught in primary schools beginning in the third year, and also in higher

education as many scientific fields such as: biology, mathematics, physics etc. are taught in

this language. The majority of Algerians, particularly those in the north, are fluent in it, some

of them seem to master it whereas others if they are not capable of writing it, they still manage

to speak it. As a result, Algerian dialects are today defined as having a large number of French

words particularly in the form of borrowing because of the daily contact with French

throughout the colonial period and later. (DERROUICHE & DJEZIRI , 2015)

2.4 French Borrowing in Algeria

Borrowing, as defined in the first chapter, refers to words that have been introduced to a

specific language and have become a permanent part of the recipient language. Sometimes the

donor language is considered of being more prestigious or socially acceptant than the recipient

language. In Algeria, borrowing is a result of the impact and influence that French had on

Algerian Arabic. We speak about French because it is basically the language which we borrow

the most from.

According to Haoues (1984) , the length of the colonial era has made French deeply

rooted in the daily life of Algerians and a large number of French words are used as if they are

part of Algerian dialect. You almost never hear an Algerian say something without using

utterances from French words, some being adapted morphologically or phonologically, and

others, being used with no modification. However, most borrowed words will sound more

Arabic than French.

26
 French Algerian Arabic English

Famille /familja/ Family

Cuisine / k u: z i n a / Kitchen

Gateau /gato/ Cake

Machine /maʃina/ Machine

Table /tabla/ Table

Valise /faliza/ Suitcase

Casserole /kasrɔna/ Saucepan

Carte /karəta/ Card

Table 1: Some Examples of French borrowed words

2.5 Conclusion

To conclude, this chapter tends, first, to make a distinction between a language and a

dialect by defining both of them. Then, it has summarized the historical background that

influences Algerian’s current sociolinguistic situation which is characterized by the

existence of many languages and language varieties namely; Arabic, Berber, and French.

Finally, since French deeply influenced the Algerian speakers, we gave some examples of the

most borrowed words from French.

27
CHAPTER THREE

28
3 Introduction

In this chapter, after exploring the research theoretical framework, the focus now shifts

to the methodology side, analysing and interpreting the collected data. First, we will give a

general overview about Adrar speech community, then we will introduce the three research

instruments used in data collection: questionnaire, words list and a picture naming task. Finally,

we will interpret and discuss the findings.

3.1 Adrar Speech Community

Adrar is one of the Algerian regions that is located in the South of Algeria. It has borders

with Bechar, Tindouf, Elbayad, Tamenrasset, and Ghardaia. It is also surrounded by two

countries on the south, Mali and Mauritania.

The capital city, Adrar (its origin is Zenete), is a part of the Tuat region and situated in

the Timmi district (Bouhania, 2012). Following Algeria's independence, a large number of

Algerians came from all over Algeria, from the North West, the centre and the East. Since the

north experienced serious terrorism incidents in the 1990s, people were looking for security,

jobs, and better living conditions. (Agoudjil, 2021)

Map 1: Tuat region in Adrar province and Adrar

city
29
 Adrarian dialect is called Tuatia / tuwa:tijja /. Like all the Algerian spoken dialects,

Tuatia is also influenced directly by French. This contact between French and the Adrarian

dialect shaped in creating the borrowing phenomena, people now are using French words and

adapting them in their daily lives communication.

3.2 Research Instrument

Research instruments are measurement tools used to obtain data on a topic of interest

from research subjects. They play a major role in the information gathering process. The choice

of these tools depends on the kind of the research method used and the researcher’s objective,

while factors such as time and costs certainly play an important part. In our research, a

questionnaire, a word list as well as a picture naming task seem to be the relevant instruments,

mainly for the sake of gathering more accurate, spontaneous, and objective data. The data

gathered was analysed quantitatively in which it focuses on objective measurements and

statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data and qualitatively in which it aims at

gaining a deep understanding of a specific event, both of them are used as part of the research

procedures to reach a convenient result.

3.2.1 Questionnaire

In order to conduct a sociolinguistic investigation, we need to gather a large amount of

information from a large population, this can be easily done by using a questionnaire. A

questionnaire is research instrument that consists of a series of questions designed to gather

information from participants. According to Copland, Garton and Richards (2010) a

questionnaire is an instrument designed to gather information by means of analysing responses

to a number of questions. This type of research tool is the most commonly used by researchers

(Bloomer 2010, as cited in Al Alami 2015). A questionnaire may include either open- ended

or close-ended questions and sometimes it can be made up of both of them.

30
 In the present research work, the questionnaire is used to learn about people's attitudes

toward linguistic borrowing.

It consists of a mixture of open-ended and close-ended questions. It was given to a

random sample of 60 people. Since the participants were of different ages and educational

background, the questionnaire was translated into Arabic.

The questionnaire was divided into two sections. In the first section, respondents were

requested to give their gender and age and educational background as a preliminary

information. The second section contained questions related to the research project mainly

about linguistic borrowing and the factors that lead to such a process by asking them to tick the

boxes and make full statements whenever it is necessary. In addition, other questions need to

be answered in the participants’ own words.

3.2.2 Word List

The data was also collected using a different research instrument known as a words list,

which is a list of words presented to the participants. In this research, we have used this kind

of instrument to test people awareness about borrowing by giving the participants a list of

borrowed words and asked them to write the source language. The researchers selected twenty

words that are mostly used in people’s daily conversation for the word list, which takes up one

page.

3.2.3 Picture naming task

Another research instrument was used to collect data known as picture naming task. It is

a test in which a person is asked to identify an object based on its picture or description, or

simply to produce names for a specific category. It has been given to the same sample of

informant, the participants were given a list of pictures and were asked to name each one in

the variety they speak.

31
3.3 Description of the sample

In a research or study, the term "population" refers to a particular group in a particular

research or study, and from that population the researcher selects a sample from which he/she

makes inferences about the population. (Brown J. D., 1988))

According to Fridah (2002) it is “a group of individuals, persons, objects, or items from

which sample are taken for measurement for example a population of presidents or professors,

books or students” (p. 01). He also explained the process of sampling as: “the act, process, or

technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose

of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population” (p. 01).

Therefore, the target population involved in our research is Adrarian speakers. However,

due to the large population of Adrar, we were required to select a sample. The sample was

chosen randomly from a group of sixty people, 27 men and 33 women, aged between 23 and

42, they are of different educational backgrounds.

3.4 Data Analysis and Interpretation

In order to achieve research aims and objectives, the main data were obtained,

collected and gathered from research tools. Then, they are going to be analysed and described

as follow:

3.4.1 Questionnaire Analysis and Interpretation

The present study's questionnaire is divided into two sections.

Section one:

It aims to collect information about the study's participants. This information includes

the respondents' gender, age and educational background.

32
Question 1: Gender

The participants were asked to identify their gender. Twenty-seven (27) males and thirty

three (33) females were chosen to answer the following questions in order to represent the

whole population.

Question 2: Age

Age Group Male Female Total

23-27 10 18 28

28-32 14 12 26

33-37 01 03 04

38-42 02 00 02

Total 27 33 60

Table 2: male and female participant's age

From the above table, we notice that the dominant age among the respondents is between

23 and 28 years old since the questionnaire was given to groups of young people. The existence

of people from different ages enriches the findings.

Question 3: level of education

5%
University
20%
Secondary
47%
Middle

28% Primary

Graph 1: Participants' Educational Background

33
 According to the result obtained, we can notice that most of the participants (47%) have

a university level followed by a rate of 28% which represents the secondary level, then the

middle level mainly involves twelve respondents with a rate of 20% while only 5% have just

the primary level.

Question 4: origin

35 Participants’ Origin
30
30
25
20
15
10
5 7 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1
0

Graph 2: Participants' Origin

The above graphs show that the majority of the participants are originally from Adrar,

whereas the rest are from different wilayas. Knowing this information can help us understand

how the participants’ language is influenced from a young age.

Section two:

This section is composed of seven questions:

Question 1: which language or language variety do you use in your daily life?

The aim of this question is to figure out the spoken languages used by people in Adrar

city centre in their daily life. The next table revealed the result obtained:

34
 Options Frequency Percentage %

MSA 00 00%

AA 60 100%

Berber 00 00%

French 00 00%

Table 3: Participants' Language Use

As the result show, the participants chose AA as the language used in their daily

interactions. People speak Algerian Arabic mainly because it is their mother tongue.

The following question aimed at gathering information about language preferences.

Therefore, we asked participants about the language used beside their mother tongue. This

question will help us to determine what impact these languages may have on the way they

speak.

Question 2: which languages do you prefer to use besides your mother tongue?

Options Frequency Percentage %

MSA 23 39%

English 00 00%

Berber 2 03%

French 35 58%

Table 4: Language preferences

35
 MSA MSA
39%
French AA
58%
Berber

Berber French
3%

Graph 3: Language preferences

The table and the graph above reveal that French language is more appreciated than

MSA. It has a high score of 58%, followed by a rate of 23% to represent MSA, since both of

them are considered as the language taught in schools and used in formal setting. However, a

very small number of respondents (2) use Berber.

Concerning the third question, the respondents were asked to give their opinions about

Algerian spoke Arabic, whether it is a mixture of different languages or not. In case they say

yes, they were asked to mention these languages.

Question 3: Do you think that Algerian Arabic is a mixture of Arabic and other

Languages?

If yes, what are these languages?

Options Frequency Percentage %

Yes 52 87%

No 8 13%

Total 60 100%

Table 5: Participants' view towards AA being a mixture

36
 According to the result obtained, the majority of the respondents (87%) answer with yes.

Most of The participants claim that in addition to French, the language used most in AA, we

can also find Spanish, Berber, and Turkish. Therefore, they consider AA as a mixture of Arabic

and other languages. This could be due to their awareness of the long period of colonization

influence and how Algeria was exposed to many languages.

Question 4: How good is your knowledge of French?

Options Frequency Percentage %

Very good 8 13%

Good 15 25%

Acceptable 25 42%

Poor 9 15%

Very poor 3 5%

Total 60 100%

Table 6: Participants' French Knowledge

45%

40% 42%

35%

30%

25%
25%
20%

15%
15%
10% 13%

5%
5%
0%
Very good Good Acceptable Poor Very poor

Graph 4: Participants' French Knowledge

37
 Answers obtained show that most participants' (42%) are acceptable when it comes to

French language, 25% are good, A close percentage of those who are very good (13%) and

poor (15%).However, just three people (5%) say that they are poor.

The next question seeks to find out how much French is used in everyone’s daily life.

Certainly AA is the language used in their everyday interactions, but let’s examine the degree

of French use.

Question 5: To what extent do you use French in your daily life?

Options Frequency Percentage %

Always 6 10%

Sometimes 23 38%

When it is required 27 45%

Rarely 3 5%

Never 1 2%

Total 60 100%

Table 7: French Use in Participatnts's Daily Life

50%

45%
45%
40%

35% 38%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%
10%
5%
5% 2%
0%
Always Sometimes When it is required Rarely Never

Graph 5: French Use in Participants' Daily Life

38
 The above table and the graph show that 45% of the participants use French when it is

required which is the highest percentage. Also 38% of the participants use it sometimes. Few

of them (10%) answered by ‘always’. whereas only 5% of our informants told us that they use

it rarely and only one person answered by ‘never’. However, the majority of participants

insisted on the importance of using some French words, they described it as ‘inevitable’.

Next, we asked participants to give us their impression in terms of prestige to know more

how people perceive the French language in comparison with their mother tongue and other

languages.

Question 6: which language or language variety is more prestigious?

Languages MSA AA French Berber

Percentage % 57% 00% 43% 00%

Table 8: Participants' Perception of Languages in Terms of Prestige

MSA

AA
43%
French
57%
Berber

Graph 6: Participants' Perception of Language in Terms of Prestige

39
 From the graph, we can say that Modern Standard Arabic was chosen as the language of

prestige by 57% of our respondents as well as French (43%). The majority of the respondents

have a great esteem for Arabic mainly because it is strictly linked to our religion and to the

Holy Quran.

The following question aims at discovering the reasons behind the use of borrowed words

from other language.

Question 7: Why do you think people borrow words from other languages?

Options Frequency Percentage %

For the matter of prestige 17 28%

The habit to use them 19 32%

24 40%

Total 60 100%

Table 9: Reasons behind the Borrowing Process

45%
40%
40%
35%
30% 32%
25% 28%

20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
For the matter of prestige The habit to use them To fill the lexical gaps

Graph 7: Reasons behind the Borrowing Process

From the results obtained we conclude that the majority of participants (40%) claim that

the main reason for borrowing is to fill the lexical gap. this is argued with Weinreich (1953)

cited in 1.5.4 in which he claims that borrowing lexical items is motivated by the necessity to

40
 name new things, people, places, and concepts. 32% of the participants use them as a habit and

28% think that prestige is the reason for borrowing.

If others, state them

We have also asked the participants to state other reasons that can lead to such process,

we pointed out that we are talking about borrowing words from French language. Some of the

informants have given more than one reason, while a small number of respondents did not

answer.

We summarized them in the following points:

o Historical reasons.

o Algerian dialect is strongly influenced by French.

o French is taught at school

o The long period of the French colonization

o These words are easy to convey

o Finding words in French easily

3.4.2 Word List Analysis and Interpretation

In addition to the questionnaire, a word list was given to the same sample. The

respondents were given 20 words and they were asked to write the source language in front of

each word. This procedure aimed at examining participants' awareness of borrowing. The

results are clearly shown in the table below:

N Borrowed Words’ Word in Word in Positive Answers Negative Answer

words Origin Arabic English

1 Tabla French ‫طابلة‬ Table 56 93.33% 4 6.66%

2 Tiki French ‫تيكي‬ Ticket 52 86.66% 8 13.33%

3 Kuzina French ‫كوزينة‬ Kitchen 43 71.66% 17 28.33%

4 Blasa French ‫بالصة‬ Place 59 98.33% 1 1.66%

41
5 Pilla French ‫بيال‬ Battery 49 81.66% 11 18.33%

6 Tabsi Turkish ‫طبسي‬ Plate 22 36.66% 38 63.33%

7 Lomba French ‫لومبة‬ Lamp 44 73.33% 16 26.66%

8 Grafata French ‫قرافاطة‬ Necktie 43 71.66% 17 28.33%

9 Ferchita French ‫فرشيطة‬ Fork 44 73.33% 16 26.66%

10 Sachi French ‫صاشي‬ Bag 53 88.33% 7 11.66%

11 Bitraf French ‫بيطراف‬ Beetroot 56 93.33% 4 6.66%

12 Sabbat Spanish ‫صباط‬ Shoe 10 16.66% 50 83.33%

13 Zalamit French ‫زاالميت‬ Matches 22 36.66% 38 63.33%

14 Zeroudiya Spanish ‫زرودية‬ Carrots 7 11.66% 53 88.33%

15 kaba French ‫كابا‬ Travel bag 40 66.66% 20 33.33%

16 douche French ‫دوش‬ Shower 58 96.66% 2 3.33%

17 Vista French ‫فيستا‬ Jacket 53 88.33% 7 11.66%

18 kouloir French ‫كولوار‬ Corridor 47 78.33% 13 21.66%

19 Tilivizion French ‫تيليفزيون‬ Television 58 96.66% 2 3.33%

20 Bosta French ‫بوسطة‬ Post office 57 95% 3 5%

Table 10: Results of the Participants' Awareness of the Origin of Borrowed Words

The results obtained from the word list show that the majority of the participants gave

positive responses. We can clearly see that they are aware of words taken from French For

instance the words: ‘Blasa’ (which means place) with a score of 98.33%, ‘douche’ (which

means shower) with 96.66%, ‘Vista’ (which means Jacket) with 88.33% and ‘Tiki’ (which

means ticket) with a rate of 86.66%.

However when it comes to words from other languages like Spanish or Turkish, the

participants failed to find out the origin of these words for example the words: ‘Sabbat’ (means

shoe) with a rate of 16.66% and ‘Zeroudiya’ (means carrots) with a score of 11.66%.

42
3.4.3 Pictures naming Analysis and Interpretation

We have also used another tool which is a list of pictures in order to fully examine

people’s awareness about the use of borrowings and how these words are adapted

phonologically and morphologically in Algerian Spoken Dialect. The participants were given

this list and were asked to name each picture in the language variety they speak. The responses

of the participants are detailed in table below: (the phonological and morphological adaptation

of French borrowed words appears in italics)

Pictures In French In English Number of Participants’

participants answers

Fauteuil Armchair 60 [fɒteı] ‫فوتاي‬

81.66%
[arika ] ‫اريكة‬
18.33%

foulard scarf 60 [fu:lara] ‫فوالرة‬

78.33%
[fu:nara] ‫فونارة‬
6.66%
[meharma] ‫محرمة‬
15%

trottoir sidewalk 58 [tritouar] ‫طريطوا‬

71.66%
[tritouar]‫طروطوار‬
18.33%
[triq] ‫طريق‬
6.66%
frottoir squeegee 60 [frɒtoar] ‫فروطوار‬
100 %

chauffage heating 60 [ʃɒfaʒ] ‫شوفاج‬

100%

43
les gants gloves 60
[ligɒn] ‫ليقون‬
63.33%
[sbaʕiat] ‫صباعيات‬
36%
costume suit 59 [kɒstim] ‫كوستيم‬
93%
[kɒstima] ‫كوستيمة‬
5%
Bicyclette / bicycle 57 [bisklet] ‫بيسكالت‬
78.33%
vélo [vilɒ] ‫فيلو‬
25%
cadenas padlock 57 [kadna] ‫كادنة‬
83.33%
[kadena:t] ‫كادنات‬
11.66%

journal Newspaper 55 [ʒurnen] ‫جورنان‬

40%
[ʒarida] ‫جريدة‬
28.33%
[ʒu:rnel] ‫جورنال‬
23.33%
valise suitcase 60 [faliza] ‫فاليزة‬
81.66%
[kaba] ‫كابة‬
16.66%
[saka] ‫ساكة‬
1.66%

téléphone phone 57 [tilifɒn] ‫تيليفون‬

78.33%

[pɒrtabel] ‫بورطابل‬
16.66%

Table 11: Pictures Naming

44
 As seen in table... above, many words are pronounced similarly to the source language

as it appeared in many instances such as the words: [fɒteı] ‘armchair’ with a rate of 81.66%,

while some used the Arabic form [arika] (18.33%), [kadna] ‘padlock ‘with a score of 83.33%,

[kostim] ‘suit’ with percentage of 93%. Most of the participants showed that they were

conscious that these words were in fact derived from French.

These words are adapted into AA morphologically and phonologically for instance

adding the morpheme /a/ and replacing the /v/ with /f/ in [faliza] valise [fu:lara] foulard. In

the 9 picture we can notice that some of the informants used the plural form, they add the suffix

/a:t/, which is in fact taken from the regular plural feminine form in Modern Standard Arabic,

Furthermore, words related with technology are in fact borrowed from French and

become part of AA, we can notice that they are kept as they are for example the word [tilifon]

‘phone’ (78.33%) and [ʃofaʒ] ‘heating’ (100%).

3.5 Interpretation of the findings:

After the analysis of the results and collecting data, we tried to summarise the findings

obtained from the participants’ answers of the questionnaire, word list and naming pictures.

Therefore, the hypotheses are either confirmed or disproved.

The results revealed that Adrarian speakers are deeply influenced by the French

language, people do import many words from French most of the time in their speech to the

point that they are now considered them a part of the Algerian Spoken Dialects.

One of the main findings of this study is that people are in fact aware of the borrowing

phenomenon when it comes to the French language in particular, however since the majority

of our informants are young educated people we can say that educated people are more

conscious of this process than less educate ones.

Generally speaking, people import many words and terms either to fill a lexical gap since

the target language has no equivalents, or to show prestige as well as the habit of using them.

45
 However, if we take Algeria in particular we can notice that people borrow words from

French language for different reasons including the country’s colonial relationship with France

and also integrating the French language use in the educational system. The results also show

that borrowed words are adapted phonologically and morphologically and integrated into the

recipient language. These results and the data gathered support our hypothesis.

3.6 Conclusion

Chapter three tackles the practical part of the research work, we tried to give an overview

about Adrar speech community which represents our case of study. Following that, we

introduced the research instruments used to collect the needed data. Then we described the

target population and sample. In the last part we dealt with the results gained from analysing

and discussing data which led us to arrive to certain conclusions. In the end the results

confirmed our hypotheses proposed early in this paper, which demonstrated that people are

aware of the borrowing phenomenon especially young educated ones. Also, the reasons for

using borrowed words are mainly: to fill the lexical gaps, to show prestige and the habit of

using them. However when it comes to Algeria, speakers borrow words from French due to the

long period of colonization and its important place in the Algerian society, it is highly valued

in different levels: economic, social and educational.

46
 General Conclusion

Different cultures may come into contact and interact for different reasons. They start to

influence each other in many levels, one of them is the language people use in their everyday

life communication. This influence by time will create various phenomena that researchers may

find interesting.

Borrowing has always been seen as a well-known phenomenon. It has been studied for a

long time by scholars in various fields of linguistics, usually borrowing occurs whenever a

speech community adopts some linguistic elements into its current language. The responsible

factors favouring this process are mainly necessity or need where a language does not have

equivalent words for something or other factors such as prestige, culture and history influence.

Therefore, the main aim of our research is to investigate this interesting phenomenon taking

the speech community of Adrar City Center as a case study.

The research work is divided into three chapters. The first chapter involves a theoretical

overview concerning the subject matter and related concepts. Chapter number two covers the

linguistic situation of Algeria and also a brief presentation about language variation. The third

chapter focuses on the research's practical part including the methods used to analyse and

interpret the data gathered.

Concerning the hypotheses, we noticed from results obtained that many young people

know that many borrowed words used in their interactions are taken from French so they are

in fact aware of this process, the reasons behind it are mainly the need for lexical gap filling,

the tendency to use more prestigious words and also the influence of the French culture and

history so now they are using them as habit.

Finally, we would like to say that French borrowing remains an interesting research topic

that is why we wanted to explore more about by investigating people’s awareness of this

process and the motivating reasons behind it.

47
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51
Appendices

52
 Appendix 1

Questionnaire

The questionnaire in front of you is a part of a research for a Master’s degree. We would

be so grateful if you could answer the following questions for the sake of gathering information

about the process of borrowing French words in Algerian spoken dialect.

Gender: Male Female

Age:

Educational Background:

Primary level Middle level Secondary level Universtiy

Where are you from?

1/ which language or language variety do you use in your daily life?

Modern Standard Arabic Algerian Arabic Berber French

2/ which languages or language variety do you prefer to use besides your mother tongue

Modern Standard Arabic French English Berber

3/ Do you think that Algerian Arabic is a mixture of Arabic and other languages?

Yes No

If yes, what are these languages?

……………………………………………………............................................................

....

53
4/ How good is your knowledge of French?

Very good Good Acceptable Poor Very poor

5/ To what extent do you use French in your daily life?

Usually Sometimes Rarely When it is required

6/ which language or variety of language is more prestigious?

Modern Standard Arabic Algerian Arabic Berber French

7/Why do people borrow words from other languages?

For the matter of prestige The habit to use them To fill the lexical gaps

If others, state them

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you for your Collaboration

54
 ‫استبيان‬

‫االستبيان الموجود أمامك جزء من بحث للحصول على درجة الماستر‪ .‬سنكون ممتنين لو تفضلتم‬

‫باإلجابة على األسئلة التالية من أجل جمع المعلومات حول عملية االستعارة اللغوية للكلمات الفرنسية‬

‫باللهجة الجزائرية‪.‬‬

‫أنثى‬ ‫ذكر‬ ‫الجنس‬

‫السن‬

‫جامعي‬ ‫توي‬
‫ثان‬ ‫متوسط‬ ‫ابتدائي‬ ‫المستوى التعليمي‬

‫ى‬ ‫من اين انت‬

‫ن‬
‫حياتك اليومية‬ ‫‪-1‬ما هي اللغة او اللهجة التي تستعملها في‬
‫خ‬
‫االمازيغية‬ ‫الفرنسية‬ ‫اللهجة الجزائرية‬ ‫العربية‬
‫ا‬
‫‪ -2‬ما هي اللغات التي تفضل استخدامها إلى جانب لغتك األم؟‬
‫ه‬
‫االنجليزية‬ ‫ا االمازيغية‬ ‫العربية‬ ‫الفرنسية‬
‫ع‬

‫من اللغة العربية ولغات أخرى‬

‫‪ -3‬هل تعتقد أن العربية الجزائرية هي مزيج خ‬

‫ه‬ ‫ال‬ ‫نعم‬

‫ع‬
‫اللغات‪.......................................................................‬‬ ‫اذا اجبت بنعم اذكر هذه‬
‫خ‬
‫‪.................................................................................................................‬‬
‫م‬
‫‪ -4‬ما مدى اتقانك للغة الفرنسية‬
‫ه‬
‫سيئ جدا‬ ‫سيئء‬ ‫مقبول‬ ‫جيد‬ ‫جيد جدًا‬
‫ع‬

‫اتك اليومية؟‬
‫‪ -5‬إلى أي مدى تستخدم اللغة الفرنسية في حي خ‬

‫مطلقا‬ ‫نادرا‬
‫خ‬
‫ً‬ ‫عند الحاجة‬ ‫أحيانا‬ ‫دائما ً‬

‫ح‪55‬‬

‫تع‬
 ‫‪ -6‬أي لغة تجدها مرموقة ؟‬

‫اللهجة الجزائرية‬ ‫االمازيغية‬ ‫الفرنسية‬ ‫العربية‬

‫‪ -7‬لماذا في رايك يستعير الناس بعض الكلمات من لغات أخرى؟‬

‫النها مرموقة اكثر‬ ‫النها اصبحت عادة‬ ‫لملء الفراغات اللغوية‬

‫اذا كانت هناك اجابة اخرى اذكرها ‪.......................................................................‬‬

‫‪.................................................................................................................‬‬

‫شكرا على تعاونكم‬

‫‪56‬‬
Appendix 2

Word List:

N Borrowed words Word in Arabic Word in English Origin

1 Tabla ‫طابلة‬ Table ………

2 Tiki ‫تيكي‬ Ticket ………

3 Kuzina ‫كوزينة‬ Kitchen ………

4 Blasa ‫بالصة‬ Place ………

5 Pilla ‫بيال‬ Battery ………

6 Tabsi ‫طبسي‬ Plate ………

7 Lomba ‫لومبة‬ Lamp ………

8 Grafatta ‫قرافاطة‬ Necktie ………

9 Ferchita ‫فرشيطة‬ Fork ………

10 Sachi ‫صاشي‬ Bag ………

11 Bitraf ‫بيطراف‬ Beetroot ………

12 Sabbat ‫صباط‬ Shoe ………

13 Zalamit ‫زاالميت‬ Matches ………

14 Zeroudiya ‫زرودية‬ Carrots ………

15 kaba ‫كابا‬ Travel bag ………

16 douche ‫دوش‬ Shower ………

17 Vista ‫فيستا‬ Jacket ………

18 kouloir ‫كولوار‬ Corridor ………

19 Tilivizion ‫تيليفزيون‬ Television ………

20 Bosta ‫بوسطة‬ Post office ………

57
Appendix 3

Pictures:

...................... ........................... ........................... ...........................

......................... ........................... ........................... ...........................

................ ...........................
........................... ...........................

58
 Abstract

The main purpose of this work is to shed light on the borrowing process in Algeria and Adrar
speech community in particular; we focused on the reasons that led to such a process and to
see whether Adrarian people are aware of it by giving some examples of borrowed words
phonologically and morphologically. In the first chapter, we give a review of the literature
including definitions of the concepts related our dissertation such including diglossia,
bilingualism, code switching and code mixing. In addition, we give more importance to the
borrowing phenomenon by giving definition, types, and the factors. The second chapter provide
an overview of how language differs from dialect. Then we talked about the linguistic situation
of Algeria (some of the used languages and language varieties in Algeria nowadays). In the last
chapter, which is concerned with the methodology and collecting data, we used three
instruments, which are a questionnaire, a word list and a naming picture task; we give it to a
random sample of 60 people. In the end, the results confirmed our hypotheses, which
demonstrated that people are aware of the borrowing phenomenon. People borrow words
because of the lexical gaps, prestige and the habit of using. Moreover, French borrowing in
Algeria is related to the long period of colonization and its use in the educational system.

Key Words: borrowing, Algerian Spoken Arabic, French, bilingualism.

‫ملخص‬
‫الغرض األساسي من هذا العمل هو إلقاء الضوء على عملية االستعارة اللغوية في الجزائر ومجتمع أدرار على‬
‫وجه الخصوص ؛ ركزنا على األسباب التي أدت إلى مثل هذه العملية ومعرفة ما إذا كان الناس األدراريون على علم بها‬
‫ نعطي مراجعة عامة بما في‬، ‫ في الفصل األول‬.ً‫من خالل إعطاء بعض األمثلة على الكلمات المستعارة صوتيًا وصرفيا‬
‫ فإننا نعطي أهمية أكبر‬، ‫ باإلضافة إلى ذلك‬.‫ذلك تعريفات ال مفاهيم المتعلقة بأطروحتنا مثل ازدواجية اللغة وثنائية اللغة‬
‫ يقدم الفصل الثاني لمحة عامة عن كيفية اختالف اللغة عن‬.‫لظاهرة االستعارة من خالل اعطاء التعريف و األنواع والعوامل‬
‫ في‬.)‫ ثم تحدثنا عن الوضع اللغوي للجزائر (بعض اللغات واللهجات المستخدمة في الجزائر في الوقت الحاضر‬.‫اللهجة‬
‫ استخدمنا ثالث أدوات وهي االستبيان وقائمة الكلمات وتسمية الصور؛‬، ‫الفصل األخير المعني بالمنهجية وجمع البيانات‬
‫ في النهاية أكدت النتائج فرضياتنا التي أظهرت أن الناس على دراية بظاهرة‬.‫صا‬ ً ‫ شخ‬60 ‫أعطيناها لعينة عشوائية من‬
.‫ االقتراض‬. ‫ يرتبط‬، ‫ عالوة على ذلك‬.‫حيث يستعير الناس الكلمات بسبب الثغرات المعجمية والهيبة وعادات االستخدام‬
.‫االقتراض الفرنسي للكلمات في الجزائر بالفترة الطويلة لالستعمار واستخدامه في النظام التعليمي‬

‫ ثنائية اللغة‬، ‫ الفرنسية‬، ‫ اللهجة العامية الجزائرية‬، ‫ االستعارة اللغوية‬:‫الكلمات المفتاحية‬

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