1

Fundamentals of Dielectrics

1.1 Dielectrics
A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity. On the basis
of band structure, the dielectric materials have an energy gap of 3 eV or more. This
large magnitude of energy gap precludes the possibility of electrons being excited
from the valence band to the conduction band by thermal means. In electromag-
netism, a dielectric (or dielectric material or dielectric medium) is an electrical insu-
lator that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When a dielectric material is
placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material as they
do in an electrical conductor, but instead only slightly shift from their average equi-
librium positions, causing dielectric polarization (Figure 1.1). Because of dielectric
polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field and negative
charges shift in the direction opposite to the field (e.g. if the field is moving parallel to
the positive x-axis, the negative charges will shift in the negative x-direction). This
creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric
itself. If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules, those molecules not
only become polarized but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field.
The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and
magnetic energy in materials [1, 2]. Dielectrics are important for explaining various
phenomena in electronics, optics, solid-state physics, and cell biophysics [3, 4].
Although the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically
means materials with a high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called
the relative permittivity. The term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical
obstruction, while the term dielectric is used to indicate the energy-storing capacity
of the material (by means of polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the
electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The polar-
ization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor’s surface
charge for the given electric field strength.
The term dielectric was coined by William Whewell (from dia + electric) in
response to a request from Michael Faraday [5, 6]. A perfect dielectric is a material
with zero electrical conductivity (cf. perfect conductor infinite electrical conduc-
tivity), thus exhibiting only a displacement current; therefore, it stores and returns
electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor.
Pyroelectric Materials: Physics and Applications, First Edition. Ashim Kumar Bain and Prem Chand.
© 2023 WILEY-VCH GmbH. Published 2023 by WILEY-VCH GmbH.
2 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

Charge Figure 1.1 A polarized dielectric

material.
+Q –Q

Dielectric

Electric Plate
field E area A

Plate separation d

1.1.1 Polarization of Dielectrics

The factors contributing to the polarization of dielectric molecules are as follows:
the formation of dipole moments and their orientation relative to the electric field.
If, in a dielectric, the molecules forming elementary dipole moments are composed
of neutral particles such as atoms, the electric field shifts the electric charge of an
atomic shell against the direction of field and the nucleus is moved in with the field.
Thus, the center of gravity of the positive and negative charges is displaced from
the center of the atom and an “induced dipole moment” is produced, as shown in
Figure 1.2a. This part of polarization of molecules is called electronic (Pe ). The elec-
tronic polarization is independent of temperature, but it is directly proportional to
the field strength.
If the molecule producing an elementary dipole moment is made of ions of oppo-
site signs, the following process occurs when the dielectric is placed into an electric
field: the positive ions leave their equilibrium positions and move in the direction
of field, and the negative ions are displaced against the direction of field. This dis-
placement of ions or their groups in a dielectric initiates an ionic polarization (Pi )
of molecules, as shown in Figure 1.2b. The ionic polarization is also independent of
temperature, but it depends on the binding energy of particles in the molecule and
in the lattice of the dielectric.

E Figure 1.2 Polarization

No field + –
processes: (a) electronic
polarization, (b) ionic
+ (a) – +
polarization, (c) orientational
polarization, and (d) space
charge polarization.

– + (b) – +

(c)

(d)
 1.1 Dielectrics 3

The asymmetric distribution of charge between different atoms in a molecule

produces permanent dipole moments in the molecules of a dielectric. Under the
action of an electric field, these permanent dipoles are rotated into the direction of
the field and thus contribute to polarization. In this case, we speak about the orien-
tational polarization (Po ), as shown in Figure 1.2c. The orientational polarization is
dependent on temperature. With increasing temperature, the thermal energy tends
to randomize the alignment of the permanent dipoles inside the materials.
In real dielectrics, free charges may exist, which, under the action of an electric
field, move through the dielectric and are captured by various defects within the
dielectric without coming into contact with the electrodes. The free charges then
form regions with a surface or a space charge, which in turn produces a dipole
moment, also contributing to the polarization of a dielectric. This mechanism ini-
tiates a space (surface) charge polarization (Ps ) inside the dielectric, as shown in
Figure 1.2d. Like the orientational polarization, the space charge polarization is also
a function of temperature, which, in most cases, increases with temperature.
The total polarization of a dielectric may simultaneously involve all the four
mechanisms. If we assume that they are independent, we can write the total
polarization of a dielectric material as the sum of the contributions from the four
sources described earlier:
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps (1.1)
where the subscripts on the right refer to the four types: electronic, ionic,
orientational, and space charge polarization, respectively.

1.1.2 Dispersion of Dielectric Polarization

In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in response to an applied field.
The dielectric polarization process can be expressed as a function of temperature.
[ ( )]
t
P(t) = P 1 − exp − (1.2)
tr
where P is the maximum polarization attained on application of the electric field,
and tr is the relaxation time for the particular polarization process. The relaxation
time tr is the time taken for a polarization process to reach 63% of the maximum
value.
The relaxation time varies widely on different polarization processes. There are
a number of polarization mechanisms, as shown in Figure 1.3. The most common,
starting from high frequencies, are given in the subsequent section.

1.1.2.1 Electronic Polarization

This process occurs in an atom when the electric field displaces the electron den-
sity relative to the nucleus it surrounds. Electronic polarization may be understood
by assuming an atom as a point nucleus surrounded by spherical electron cloud of
uniform charge density. Electrons have very small mass and are therefore able to
follow the high-frequency fields up to the optical range. It is an extremely rapid pro-
cess and is essentially complete at the instant the voltage is applied. Even when the
4 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

ε′, ε″ Relaxations

Space charge Resonances

Dipoles
Ions Electrons
ε′

ε″
1

10 104 108 1012 1016 1020

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 1.3 Frequency dependence of polarization dispersion.

frequency of the applied voltage is very high in the optical range (∼1015 Hz), the
electronic polarization occurs during every cycle of the applied voltage.

1.1.2.2 Ionic Polarization

This process is associated with the relative motions of cations and anions in an
electric field. Ionic polarization is slower than electronic polarization, as the dis-
placement involved here is that of much heavier ion as compared to the electron
cloud. The frequency with which ions can be displaced over a small fraction of the
interatomic distance will be of the same order as the lattice vibration frequency
(∼1013 Hz). If an electric field of frequency in the optical range (∼1015 Hz) is applied,
the ions do not respond at all, as the time required by an ion for one vibration is
100 times larger than the period of the applied voltage. Therefore, there is no ionic
polarization at optical frequencies.

1.1.2.3 Orientation Polarization

It is slower than ionic polarization. Orientation polarization arises from the rotation
of molecular dipoles in the field. It is easier for the polar molecules to reorient them-
selves in a liquid than in solid. Orientation polarization occurs when the frequency
of the applied voltage is in the audio range.

1.1.2.4 Space Charge Polarization

It is the slowest process, as it involves the diffusion of ions over several interatomic
distances. The relaxation time for this process is related to the frequency of successful
jumps of ions under the influence of the applied field. Space charge polarizations
often occur in the kilohertz range or even lower.
Referring to Figure 1.3, all the four types of polarization are present at machine
frequencies. As the frequency increases, space charge, orientation, and ionic polar-
ization become inoperative in that order. When several polarization processes occur
in a material, it follows that the dielectric constant will decrease with increasing fre-
quency of the applied voltage. When the period of the applied voltage is much larger
than the relaxation time of a polarization process, the polarization is completed at
 1.1 Dielectrics 5

any instant during each cycle, and when the period of the applied voltage is much
shorter than the relaxation time for a polarization process, the polarization does not
occur at all. But when the period of the applied voltage is in the same range as the
relaxation time, resonance occurs.
At high frequencies, usually microwave and beyond – the processes that take
place are undamped and are called “resonances.” Real dielectric materials have
several such resonances due to ionic and electronic polarization. At frequencies
below microwaves, the polarization processes are heavily damped and are called
“relaxations.” In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the permittivity
of a dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field. This is because
there is a lag between changes in polarization and changes in the electric field. The
permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function of frequency of the electric
field. Dielectric dispersion is very important for the applications of dielectric
materials and for the analysis of polarization systems.
This is one instance of a general phenomenon known as material dispersion:
a frequency-dependent response of a medium for wave propagation.
When the frequency becomes higher:
● dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric field in the
microwave region around 1010 Hz
● ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can no longer track the
electric field past the infrared or far-infrared region around 1013 Hz
● electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet region around 1015 Hz.
In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity approaches the constant 𝜀0
in every substance, where 𝜀0 is the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity
indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field and polarization, if a
polarization process loses its response, permittivity decreases.
The effect of temperature on the relative permittivity of a material can be twofold.
In orientation polarization, the randomizing action of thermal energy decreases
the tendency for the permanent dipoles to align themselves in the applied field.
This results in a decrease in the relative permittivity with increasing temperature.
The other effect of temperature is to facilitate the diffusion of ions in space charge
polarization. Thermal energy may aid in overcoming the activation barrier for the
orientation of relatively large polar molecules in the direction of the field.

1.1.3 Dielectric Relaxation

Dielectric relaxation is the momentary delay (or lag) in the dielectric constant of a
material. This is usually caused by the delay in molecular polarization with respect
to a changing electric field in a dielectric medium (e.g. inside capacitors or between
two large conducting surfaces). Dielectric relaxation in changing electric fields could
be considered analogous to hysteresis in changing magnetic fields (e.g. in inductor
or transformer cores).
Relaxation in general is a delay or lag in the response of a linear system, and there-
fore, dielectric relaxation is measured relative to the expected linear steady state
6 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

(equilibrium) dielectric values. The time lag between electrical field and polarization
implies an irreversible degradation of Gibbs free energy.
In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation response of a dielectric
medium to an external, oscillating electric field. This relaxation is often described
in terms of permittivity as a function of frequency, which can, for ideal systems,
be described by the Debye equation. On the other hand, the distortion related to
ionic and electronic polarization shows behavior of the resonance or oscillator type.
The character of the distortion process depends on the structure, composition, and
surroundings of the sample.

1.1.4 Debye Relaxation

Debye relaxation is the dielectric relaxation response of an ideal, noninteracting
population of dipoles to an alternating external electric field. It is usually expressed
in the complex permittivity 𝜀 of a medium as a function of the field’s frequency 𝜔:
Δ𝜀
𝜀(𝜔) = 𝜀∞ + (1.3)
1 − i𝜔𝜏
where 𝜀∞ is the permittivity at the high-frequency limit (i.e., 𝜔 → ∞), Δ𝜀 = 𝜀s − 𝜀∞
where 𝜀s is the static, low-frequency (i.e., 𝜔 → 0) permittivity, and 𝜏 is the char-
acteristic relaxation time of the medium. Separating into the real part 𝜀′ and the
imaginary part 𝜀′′ of the complex dielectric permittivity yields [7]:
𝜀 −𝜀
𝜀′ = 𝜀∞ + s 2∞2 (1.4)
1+𝜔 𝜏
(𝜀 − 𝜀∞ )𝜔𝜏
𝜀′′ = s (1.5)
1 + 𝜔2𝜏 2
These are the Debye equations, and we find that they are reasonably applicable to
most dispersions at electrical frequencies. The dielectric loss is also represented by:
𝜀′′ (𝜀 − 𝜀∞ )𝜔𝜏
tan 𝛿 = = s (1.6)
𝜀′ 𝜀s + 𝜀∞ 𝜔2 𝜏 2
This relaxation model was introduced by and named after the physicist Peter
Debye [8]. It is characteristic for dynamic polarization with only one relaxation time.

1.1.5 Molecular Theory of Induced Charges in a Dielectric

A dielectric contains no free charges; then how it is possible for an induced charge
to appear on the surface of a dielectric when placed in an electric field? This can
be explained by the molecular viewpoint of dielectric. The dielectrics are classified
into polar and nonpolar. A nonpolar molecule is one in which the center of grav-
ity of positive and negative charges normally coincides, while a polar molecule is
one where they do not coincide. Polar molecules, therefore, have permanent dipole
moments. In the absence of an external field, these dipoles are oriented at random.
But strong field orients more dipoles in the direction of the field. The charges of a
nonpolar molecule suffer a small displacement when placed in an electric field.
 1.1 Dielectrics 7

Figure 1.4 The

depolarization field E 1 is
opposite to P. The fictitious
surface charges are E0 E1 P
indicated: the field of these
charges is E 1 within the
ellipsoid.

The molecules are said to become polarized by the field and are called induced
dipoles. Therefore, the dielectrics, both polar and nonpolar, behave in the same way
under the influence of external electric field. We can imagine that these dipoles in
the applied electric field can have excess negative charges on one surface and positive
charges on the opposite surface, as shown in Figure 1.4.
These charges are not free, but each is bound to a molecule lying in or near the
surface. The net charge per unit volume within the rest of the dielectric medium is
zero. The electric field E1 set up by the induced charge always opposes the applied
field E0 . The resultant field E is the vector sum of these two. That is,
E = E𝟎 + E𝟏 (1.7)
The field E1 is called the depolarization field; this is because within the body, it
tends to oppose the applied field E0 as shown in Figure 1.4. The resultant field E
points to the same direction as E0 but is smaller in magnitude. This leads to the con-
clusion that if a dielectric is placed in an electric field, the induced surface charges
appear, which tend to weaken the original field within the dielectric. Thus, we can
define the dielectric constant (k) or relative permittivity (𝜀r ) as the ratio of the mag-
nitude of the applied field E0 to the resultant field E. Then,
E0 V
= 0 = k = 𝜀r (1.8)
E V
where V 0 is the potential difference without any medium and V is the same with a
dielectric medium in between the capacitor plates.
Therefore, for same charges Q, the ratio of capacitance with dielectric C and capac-
itance without dielectric (for free space) C0 will be
Q
C V V0 E
= Q
= = 0 = k = 𝜀r (1.9)
C0 V E
V0

From the above definition of k, the dielectric constant or permittivity for free space
is unity. Obviously, k is a dimensionless quantity.

1.1.6 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

If a constant voltage V 0 is applied to a plane condenser with a vacuum capacity C0 ,
a charge Q of density 𝜎 = Q/A is set up on the condenser with area A and distance of
separation d between the plates (Figure 1.4). From the application of Gauss’s law, we
know that the electric field intensity between two plates with a vacuum is E = 𝜎/𝜀0 .
8 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

The potential difference V 0 is the work done in carrying a unit charge from one
plate to the other. Hence,
( ) ( )
𝜎 Qd
V0 = Ed = d= (1.10)
𝜀0 𝜀0 A
Rearranging the relation (1.9), we can write
( )
Q 𝜀0 A
= (1.11)
V0 d
The capacitance C0 can be written as:
( )
Q 𝜀0 A
C0 = = (1.12)
V0 d
The capacitance C of the capacitor with dielectric medium can be written as:
A
C=𝜀 (1.13)
d
where 𝜀 is the permittivity (absolute permittivity) of dielectric medium between
the capacitor plates. The permittivity (𝜀) is often represented by the relative per-
mittivity (𝜀r ), which is the ratio of the absolute permittivity (𝜀) and the vacuum
permittivity (𝜀0 ).
𝜀
k = 𝜀r = (1.14)
𝜀0
Rearranging relations (1.13) and (1.14), we can write
( ) ( )
A A
C = 𝜀 r 𝜀0 = k𝜀0 (1.15)
d d
Relation (1.15) can be expressed in the rationalized form in the SI system by the
formula:
( ) ( )
A A
C = 𝜀r 𝜀 0 = 𝜀r (8.854 × 10−12 ) F (1.16)
d d
where d is in meters and A is in square meters. Normalized units in the cgs electro-
static system can be expressed by the formula:
( )( )
1 A
C = 𝜀r cm (1.17)
4𝜋 d
where d is in centimeters and A in square centimeters.

Sample Problem 1.1

A parallel-plate capacitor of area A = 4 × 10−2 m2 and plate separation d = 2 × 10−2 m
is raised to a potential difference V 0 = 100 V by connecting a battery when there is
no dielectric in between the plates.
(a) Calculate the capacitance C0 of the capacitor. (b) What is the free charge
appeared on the plates?
(a) From Eq. (1.12), the capacitance of the capacitor:
𝜀0 A (8.85 × 10−12 F∕m)(4 × 10−2 m2 )
C0 = =
d 2 × 10−2 m
−12
= 17.8 × 10 F = 17.8 pF (Answer).
 1.1 Dielectrics 9

(b) From Eq. (1.12), the free charge:

Q = C0 V0 = 17.8 × 10−12 F × 100 V = 17.8 × 10−10 C (Answer).

Sample Problem 1.2

Calculate the dielectric constant of a barium titanate crystal, which when inserted
in a parallel plate capacitor of area A = 10 mm × 10 mm and distance of separation
of d = 2 mm, gives a capacitance of 10−9 F.
From Eq. (1.15), the dielectric constant of the medium between the capacitor
plates:
( )
C d 10−9 F × 2 × 10−3 m
k= = = 2259 (Answer).
𝜀0 A 8.854 × 10−12 F∕m × 102 × 10−6 m2

Sample Problem 1.3

A capacitor of 1 nF is required. If a dielectric material of thickness 0.1 mm and
relative permittivity 5.4 is available, determine the required plate area.
From Eq. (1.15), the area of the capacitor plates:
Cd 1 × 10−9 F × 0.1 × 10−3 m
A= = = 0.00209 m2 = 20.9 cm2 (Answer).
𝜀0 𝜀r 8.854 × 10−12 F∕m × 5.4

1.1.7 Electric Displacement Field, Dielectric Constant, and Electric

Susceptibility
In physics, the electric displacement field (denoted by D) or electric induction is a
vector field that appears in Maxwell’s equations. It accounts for the effects of free
and bound charge within materials. “D” stands for “displacement,” as in the related
concept of displacement current in dielectrics. In free space, the electric displace-
ment field is equivalent to flux density, a concept that lends the understanding of
Gauss’s law.
In a dielectric material, the presence of an electric field E causes the bound charges
in the material (atomic nuclei and their electrons) to slightly separate, inducing a
local electric dipole moment. The electric displacement field “D” is defined as:
D = 𝜀0 E + P (1.18)
where 𝜀0 is the vacuum permittivity (also called permittivity of free space), and P is
the (macroscopic) density of the permanent and induced electric dipole moments in
the material, called the polarization density.
In a linear, homogeneous, isotropic dielectric with instantaneous response to
changes in the electric field, P depends linearly on the electric field,
P = 𝜀0 χE (1.19)
where the constant of proportionality 𝜒 is called the electric susceptibility of the
material. Now, rearranging relations (1.18) and (1.19), we can write
D = 𝜀0 (1 + 𝜒)E = 𝜀E (1.20)
10 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

where 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀r is the permittivity, and 𝜀r = (1 + 𝜒) is the relative permittivity of the

material.
In a linear, homogeneous, and isotropic media, 𝜀 is a constant. However, in
a linear anisotropic media, it is a tensor, and in nonhomogeneous media, it is
a function of position inside the medium. It may also depend upon the electric
field (nonlinear materials) and have a time-dependent response. Explicit time
dependence can arise if the materials are physically moving or changing in time
(e.g. reflections off a moving interface give rise to Doppler shifts). A different form
of time dependence can arise in a time-invariant medium, as there can be a time
delay between the imposition of the electric field and the resulting polarization of
the material. In this case, P is a convolution of the impulse response susceptibility 𝜒
and the electric field E. Such a convolution takes on a simpler form in the frequency
domain: by Fourier transforming the relationship and applying the convolution
theorem, one obtains the following relation for a linear time-invariant medium:
D(𝜔) = 𝜀(𝜔)E(𝜔) (1.21)
where 𝜔 is the frequency of the applied field. The constraint of causality leads
to the Kramers–Kronig relations, which place limitations upon the form of the
frequency dependence. The phenomenon of a frequency-dependent permittivity is
an example of material dispersion. In fact, all physical materials have some material
dispersion because they cannot respond instantaneously to applied fields, but for
many problems (those concerned with a narrow enough bandwidth), the frequency
dependence of ε can be neglected.

1.1.8 Local Field in a Dielectric

We now develop an expression for the local field at a general lattice site, not nec-
essarily of cubic symmetry. To evaluate Eloc , we must calculate the total field acting
on a certain typical dipole; this field is due to the external field as well as all other
dipoles in the system. This was done by Lorentz as follows: the dipole is imagined
to be surrounded by a spherical cavity whose radius R is sufficiently large that the
matrix lying outside it may be treated as a continuous medium as far as the dipole is
concerned (Figure 1.5a). The interaction of our dipole with the other dipoles lying
inside the cavity is, however, to be treated microscopically, which is necessary since
the discrete nature of the medium very close to the dipoles should be taken into
account. The local field, acting on the central dipole, is thus given by the sum
Eloc = E0 + E1 + E2 + E3 (1.22)
where E0 is the external field; E1 is the depolarization field, that is, the field due to the
polarization charges lying at the external surfaces of the sample; E2 is the field due
to the polarization charges lying on the surface of the Lorentz sphere (Figure 1.5b),
which is known as Lorentz field; and E3 is the field due to other dipoles lying within
the sphere.
It is important to note that the part of the medium between the sphere and the
external surface does not contribute anything since the volume polarization charges
 1.1 Dielectrics 11

ε0

Central
dipole ε1

θ
R R

ε2

(a) (b)

Figure 1.5 (a) The procedure for computing the local field. (b) The procedure for
calculating E 2 , the field due to the polarization charge on the surface of the Lorentz sphere.

compensate each other, resulting in a zero net charge in this region. The contribution
E1 + E2 + E3 to the local field is nothing but the total field at one atom caused by the
dipole moments of all the other atoms in the specimen. Dipoles at distances greater
than perhaps 10 lattice constants from the reference site make a smoothly varying
contribution. It is convenient to let the interior surface be spherical.

1.1.8.1 Lorentz Field, E 2

The polarization charges on the surface of the Lorentz cavity may be considered as
forming a continuous distribution. The field due to the charge at a point located at
the center of the sphere is, according to Coulomb’s law, given by
P
E𝟐 = (1.23)
3𝜀0

1.1.8.2 Field of Dipoles Inside Cavity, E 3

The field E3 due to the dipoles within the spherical cavity is the only term that
depends on the crystal structure. For a reference site with cubic surroundings in
a sphere, E3 = 0 if all the atoms may be replaced by point dipoles parallel to each
other. The total local field at a cubic site is then,
P P
Eloc = E𝟎 + E𝟏 + =E+ (1.24)
3𝜀0 3𝜀0
This is known as Lorentz relation. The difference between the Maxwell’s field E
and the Lorentz field Eloc is as follows: the field E is macroscopic in nature and is
an average field. On the other hand, Eloc is a microscopic field and is periodic in
nature. This is quite large at molecular sites, indicating that the molecules are more
effectively polarized than they are under the influence of Maxwell’s field E.
If there are n molecules or atoms per unit volume in a dielectric, then the electric
dipole moment per unit volume is n𝛼Eloc , represented by P, known as polarization.
Therefore,

P = n𝛼Eloc (1.25)
12 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

where 𝛼 is a constant and is known as polarizability of the dielectric material.

Rearranging relations (1.24) and (1.25), we can write
( )
P
P = n𝛼Eloc = n𝛼 E + (1.26)
3𝜀0
The polarization is induced by electric field, and therefore, it is a function of elec-
tric field. The relationship is written in the following way:
P = 𝜀0 𝜒E (1.27)
where 𝜒 is called the dielectric susceptibility. In general, 𝜒 is a tensor and depends
on the electric field. The dielectric susceptibility 𝜒 is defined in terms of relative
permittivity 𝜀r of the material.
𝜀r = (1 + 𝜒) (1.28)
Now, rearranging relations (1.26–1.28), we can write an expression in terms of the
relative permittivity:
𝜀r − 1 n𝛼
= (1.29)
𝜀r + 2 3𝜀0
The above equation is known as Clausius–Mossotti relation. This relates the rela-
tive permittivity to polarizability of the dielectric material. The total polarizability 𝛼
can be written as the sum of four terms, representing the most important contribu-
tions to the polarization, that is, 𝛼 = 𝛼 e + 𝛼 i + 𝛼 o + 𝛼 s , where 𝛼 e , 𝛼 i , 𝛼 o , and 𝛼 s are the
electronic, ionic, orientational, and space charge polarizabilities, respectively.
Since 𝜀r = k = n2 , we can rewrite relation (1.29) as follows:
n2 − 1 n𝛼
= (1.30)
n2 + 2 3𝜀0
This is the Lorentz–Lorenz equation. It connects the index of refraction (n) with
the polarizability.

1.1.9 Dielectrics Losses

When an electric field acts on any matter, the latter dissipates a certain quantity
of electric energy that transforms into heat energy. This phenomenon is known
as the loss of power, meaning an average electric power dissipated in matter
during a certain interval of time. As a rule, the loss of power in a specimen of a
material is directly proportional to the square of the electric voltage applied to the
specimen.
If a metal conductor is first connected to direct voltage and then to alternating
voltage, the acting magnitude of which is equal to direct voltage, the loss of power
P in watts will be the same in both cases in conformity with the Joule–Lenz law and
equal to
V2
P= (1.31)
R
where V is the voltage in volts and R is the resistance of the conductor in ohms.
 1.1 Dielectrics 13

As distinct from conductors, most of the dielectrics display a characteristic feature:

under a given voltage, the dissipation of power in the dielectrics depends on the
voltage frequency; the expense of power at an alternating voltage is markedly higher
than that at a direct voltage; rapidly grows with an increase in frequency, voltage, and
capacitance; and depends on the material of the dielectric.
The power losses in a dielectric under the action of the voltage applied to it are
commonly known as dielectric losses. This is the general term determining the loss
of power in an electrical insulation at both a direct and an alternating voltage. Dielec-
tric losses at a direct voltage can be found from relation (1.31) where R stands for the
resistance of the insulation, while the losses under the alternating voltage are deter-
mined by more intricate regularities. Actually, the dielectric losses mean the losses
of power under an alternating voltage.

1.1.9.1 Dielectric Loss Angle

The phase diagram of currents and voltages in a capacitor energized by an alter-
nating voltage is shown in Figure 1.6. If the power was not dissipated at all in the
dielectric of the capacitor (ideal dielectric), the phase of current I through the capac-
itor would be ahead of the phase of voltage V by 90∘ , and the current would be purely
reactive. In actual fact, the phase angle 𝜙 is slightly less than 90∘ . The total current
I through the capacitor can be resolved into two components: active I a and reactive
I r currents.
Thus, the phase angle describes a capacitor from the viewpoint of losses in a dielec-
tric. Since the phase angle 𝜙 is very close to 90∘ in a capacitor with a high-quality
dielectric, the angle 𝛿 (i.e. 𝛿 = 90∘ − 𝜙) is a more descriptive parameter, which is
called the dielectric loss angle. The tangent of the angle is equal to the ratio of the
active currents to the reactive currents:
tan 𝛿 = Ia ∕Ir (1.32)
or the ratio of active power P (power loss) to the reactive power Pr :
tan 𝛿 = P∕Pr (1.33)
The dielectric loss angle is an important parameter for the dielectric materials.
This parameter is usually described by the loss tangent tan 𝛿. Sometimes, the quality
factor of an insulation portion is determined, that is, the value is reciprocal of the loss
tangent:
1
Q= = tan 𝜙 (1.34)
tan 𝛿

Figure 1.6 Phase diagram of current V

and voltage in a capacitor with a
dielectric material.

I, Z
φ
Ia
δ
Ir O
14 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

The values of tan 𝛿 for the best electrical insulating materials employed in
high-frequency and high-voltage engineering practice are of the order of thousands
and even tenths of thousands of fractions.

1.1.9.2 Total and Specific Dielectric Losses

The value of dielectric losses P in an insulating material having a capacitance C is
described from relation (1.31) as follows:
P = VIa = VIr tan 𝛿
Inserting the intensity of the capacitive current through an insulation portion with
a capacitance of C, we get
Ir = V𝜔C (1.35)
Since 𝜔 = 2𝜋f , the angular frequency, the dielectric losses P can be expressed as
follows:
P = V 2 𝜔C tan 𝛿 = 2𝜋fCV 2 tan 𝛿 (1.36)
Inserting the value of effective length Λ = A/d in Eq. (1.36) and replacing 𝜀0 by its
numerical value
10−9
𝜀0 ≈ F∕m
36𝜋
the expression of dielectric losses can be formulated as:
P = 5.56 × 10−11 V 2 f Λ𝜀r tan 𝛿 (1.37)
Formulas (1.36) and (1.37) have a broad field of application. They hold for any size
and shape of an insulated portion.
The knowledge of total amount of dielectric losses in the insulated portion is not
enough, and it is necessary to study the distribution of dielectric losses at the separate
points of insulation. Let us consider a cube with edge dx inside the insulated portion
in which we are interested so that the lines of forces pierce the cube entering and
leaving it through two opposite faces in the direction perpendicular to these faces
(Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 Electric field pierces a

Charge Electric field cube with edge dx in an insulated
Charge
+Q portion.
–Q

dx

dx Plate area A
dx

Plate separation d
 1.1 Dielectrics 15

The capacitance of the capacitor formed by the cube according to relation (1.15)
with d = dx and A = (dx)2 is
( )
A
C = 𝜀r 𝜀0 = 𝜀r 𝜀0 dx
d
and the voltage across the cube is V = E dx. Inserting these values into Eq. (1.36),
we get
dP = E2 𝜔𝜀0 𝜀r tan 𝛿(dx)3 (1.38)
whence the specific dielectric losses are the losses per unit volume of the dielectric,
dP dP
p= =
dV (dx)3
where V = (dx)3 is the volume of the cube. So, the specific dielectric loss p is
expressed as:
p = E2 𝜔𝜀0 𝜀r tan 𝛿 (1.39)
Now substituting 𝜔 = 2𝜋f and replacing 𝜀0 by its numerical value in Eq. (1.39),
10−9
𝜀0 ≈ F∕m
36𝜋
We have the expression for specific dielectric losses:
p = 5.56 × 10−11 E2 f 𝜀r tan 𝛿 (1.40)
Formulas (1.39) and (1.40) are suitable for any pattern of field that possesses unlike
properties at different places. The product 𝜀r tan 𝛿 is called the dielectric loss index
(factor).

1.1.10 Dielectrics Breakdown

At high electric fields, a material that is normally an electrical insulator may begin
to conduct electricity – that is, it ceases to act as a dielectric. This phenomenon is
known as dielectric breakdown. The mechanism behind dielectric breakdown can
best be understood using the band theory.
Essentially, there are two “bands” in every material that the electrons within the
material may occupy: the valence band and the higher energy conduction band
(Figure 1.8). Electrons in the valence band can be conducted as being bound in
place, whereas electrons in the conduction band may act as mobile charge carriers.
In dielectrics, the two bands are separated by a certain energy gap Eg , corresponding
to energies that are forbidden to the electrons. Since the valence band is lower in
energy, electrons will preferentially occupy this band. Therefore, in a dielectric
under normal conditions, the conduction band will be empty. If an electron in the
valence band is supplied with energy greater than or equal to Eg , for example, from
a high energy photon, it may be promoted to the conduction band.
An electric field of sufficient strength can supply enough energy to promote many
electrons to the conduction band at once. Since electrons in the conduction band
act as charge carriers, the material now conducts charge rather than storing it. For
16 1 Fundamentals of Dielectrics

Conduction band Conduction band

(empty) (occupied)

e– e– e– e– e– e– e–
Energy

Energy gap Eg e– e–e– e– e– e– e–

e– e– e– e– e– e–
e– e– e– e– e– e– e–
Valence band Valence band
(occupied) (occupied)

(a) Before break down (b) High electric field promotes

dielectric break down

Figure 1.8 (a) Band structure before dielectric breakdown. (b) band structure after
dielectric breakdown.

each material, there is a characteristic field strength needed to cause dielectric break-
down. This is referred to as the breakdown field or dielectric strength. Typically,
values of the dielectric strength lie in the range 106 –109 Vm−1 . The exact value of
the dielectric strength depends on many factors – most obviously, the size of the
energy gap, the geometry and microstructure of the sample, and the conditions it is
subjected to.
The dielectric breakdown is associated with the formation in a dielectric crystal of
a conducting path in which the current density is substantially higher than the aver-
age for the specimen. The Joule heat generated because of the high-density current in
the path leads to the destruction of the material, including melting, the appearance
of an air channel as a result of volatilization, and the extensive formation of crys-
tal defects or cracking. Thus, dielectric breakdown is an irreversible phenomenon.
Dielectric breakdown is often associated with the failure of solid or liquid insulating
materials used inside high-voltage transformers or capacitors in the electricity dis-
tribution grid, usually resulting in a short circuit or a blown fuse. It can also occur
across the insulators that suspend overhead power lines and within underground
power cables or lines arcing to nearby branches of trees.

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