Unraveling the Threads of Recurrence: Exploring Mathematical

Relations
Samuel Atack
November 16, 2023

Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 Relations 3
2.1 Defining Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Formal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Informal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.3 Representation of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Properties of Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Relations to Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Mathematical Induction, Explicit Definition, Definition by Recurrence, Transition

from One to the Other 4
3.1 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.1 Base Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1.2 Inductive Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Explicit Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Recursive Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 Converting Between Explicit and Recursive Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4.1 From Recursive to Explicit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4.2 From Explicit to Recursive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Arithmetic Sequences and Series 7

4.1 Defining the Arithmetic Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Arithmetic Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Arithmetic Sequence’s Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4 Arithmetic Sequence’s Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Geometric Sequences and Series 9

5.1 Defining the Geometric sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.2 Geometric Sequence’s Propreties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.3 Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.4 Geometric Sequence’s Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6 Variation, Convergence, Divergence and bounds of Sequences 11

6.1 Standard Variation of a Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.1.1 Exceptions and Non-Monotonic Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.2 Bounded Sequences, Convergence and Divergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.1 Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.2 Bounded Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.2.3 Divergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

7 Conclusion 13

1
8 Bibliography 14

2
1 Introduction
In real-life scenarios, relations and functions establish connections between certain entities out of the
infinity of possibilities. These connections are pervasive, from familial relationships like father and son
or brother and sister to mathematical relationships such as the inequality x < y or the statement “line
l is parallel to line m.” In mathematics, these relations are formally defined and studied.

Mathematically, a relation R, which relates to a non-empty set A and another non-empty set B, is
represented as a subset of the Cartesian product A × B. This subset is constructed by specifying the
connections or relationships between the first and second elements within the ordered pairs of A × B.
Furthermore, a relation f , defined from a set A to a set B, is classified as a function if every element
in set A corresponds to one and only one element in set B.

To summarise, all functions can be considered as relations since they exhibit the properties of
relations. However, it’s important to note that not all relations are functions, as functions maintain a
strict one-to-one correspondence between their domain and codomain elements. Then, if relations are
broader and more versatile, how come functions steal the spotlight? In this essay, we will demonstrate
different uses of relations, as well as the uses of a few specific relations.

2 Relations
2.1 Defining Relations
2.1.1 Formal Definition
The definition of a relation in mathematics is, given a set X, a relation R over X is a set of ordered
pairs of elements from X, formally:

R ⊆ {(x, y) : x, y ∈ X}.

2.1.2 Informal Definition

The statement (x, y) ∈ R reads ”x is R-related to y” and is written as xRy. The order of the elements
is important; if x ̸= y then yRx can be true or false independently of xRy. For example, 3 divides 9,
but 9 does not divide 3.

A relation on a set may or may not hold between two given set members. For example, ”is less
than” is a relation on the set of natural numbers; it holds between 1 and 3 (denoted as 1 < 3), and
likewise between 3 and 4 (denoted as 3 < 4), but neither between 3 and 1 nor between 4 and 4.

2.1.3 Representation of Relations

Visually representing a relation can be useful for understanding series, a notable example is the Boolean
Matrix. A relation R on a finite set X may be represented as a Boolean Matrix. The members of X
are arranged in some fixed sequence x1 , . . . , xn ; the matrix has dimensions n × n, with the element
in row i, column j, being !if (xi , xj ) ∈ R, and otherwise ×. In a Boolean Matrix, each element can
only have one of two values: true (1) or false (0). They can also be used to represent binary relations
between sets of elements. If there is a relation between two elements, the corresponding matrix entry
is set to 1; otherwise, it’s set to 0.

3
 Figure 1: Representation of Rdiv as a Boolean Matrix

2.2 Properties of Relations

If you have a relation R over a set X it will have a key property that is essential when defining se-
quences, this property is the transitive property. For all x, y, z ∈ X, if xRy and yRz, then xRz. A
transitive relation is irreflexive if and only if it is asymmetric. For example, ”is the ancestor of” is a
transitive relation, while ”is the parent of” is not.

The transitive property states that if a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to
c. In the context of sequences, the transitive property ensures that if certain elements are related
to each other, the relationship extends to other elements in the sequence based on the defined rule.
Understanding this property is crucial for it is the basis of mathematical induction which is one of the
ways to define sequences.

2.3 Relations to Sequences

Sequences can be perceived as particular forms of relations, where every term in the sequence matches
an element in the collection of ordered pairs. For instance, a sequence of natural numbers can be in-
terpreted as a relationship between the natural numbers and their respective positions in the sequence.

Relations can be used to analyse patterns and trends within sequences and series. By exploring the
connections among the elements in a sequence or series, it becomes possible to uncover fundamental
mathematical patterns, characteristics, and behaviours. This examination frequently includes investi-
gating how the terms in the sequence or series are interrelated, providing valuable insights into their
convergence, divergence, etc. . .

3 Mathematical Induction, Explicit Definition, Definition by

Recurrence, Transition from One to the Other
3.1 Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction proves that we can climb as high as we like on a ladder, by proving that we
can climb onto the bottom rung (the basis) and that from each rung we can climb up to the next one
(the step). Mathematical induction can be used to define sequences by first proving the truth for the
base case and then proving the truth for

4
3.1.1 Base Case
In the base case, you prove that the statement holds for the smallest value of the variable, usually
n = 1 or n = 0.
For example, let’s prove the formula for the sum of the first n positive integers:

n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
2

3.1.2 Inductive Step

Assuming the statement holds for an arbitrary positive integer k, you then prove that it also holds for
k + 1. This is the inductive step.

Using the assumption that the formula holds for k, we can express the sum of the first k +1 positive
integers:
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1)
By the assumption, this is equal to
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2
Now, we can simplify
k(k + 1) 2(k + 1) k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
+ =
2 2 2
Factoring out k + 1:
(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
This matches the formula for the sum of the first k + 1 positive integers:

(k + 1)(k + 2)
2
So, if the statement is true for k, it’s also true for k + 1.

3.2 Explicit Definition

If you had a sequence like an arithmetic sequence and wanted to find the n-th term in that sequence
then the explicit formula immediately comes to mind. This formula defines terms in a sequence by
their position in the sequence. Taking a sequence S

{2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . .}

If one wanted to find the 77th term of that sequence, a77 by simply calculating one would need to
multiply by the common ratio 76 times(in this case 2)

a77 = 2 · 2 · 2 . . .

Instead, making use of the explicit formula

a77 = 277 = 1.51115727 · 1023

This formula does have its limits however, and if we only had it we could not define all sequences,
however, whatever the sequence1 , there’s a formula for it.
1 In the case of this essay

5
3.3 Recursive Definition
Imagine a curious young child at the beach lucky enough to stumble across a nautilus shell, the pattern
of its growth can be defined by the Fibonacci sequence, in which each term can be found by adding
the preceding two terms, but how can we define the Fibonacci sequence? Instead of employing the
explicit formula, we opt for the recursive formula.
The recursive formula has two ”parts”, the 1st2 term and the nth

a1 = 0
an = an−1 + an−2 with n ̸= 1 or 2

Using this we can calculate some terms of the Fibonacci sequence

a0 = 0
a1 = 1
a2 = a0 + a1 = 0 + 1 = 1
a3 = a2 + a1 = 1 + 1 = 2
a4 = a3 + a2 = 1 + 2 = 3
a5 = a4 + a3 = 3 + 2 = 5

Therefore the first 6 terms in the Fibonacci sequence are 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5. So now the young child at
the beach knows the widths of the parts of the nautilus shell. What if instead of a circular nautilus
shell, you had a triangle? What if this triangle represented triangular numbers? How would you define
these triangular numbers, using the explicit definition, the recursive definition, how about both?

3.4 Converting Between Explicit and Recursive Definition

Imagine placing dots in the shape of an equilateral triangle, starting with a single dot at the top
and adding one more row of dots at the bottom each time. The number of dots in each row forms a
sequence known as triangular numbers. The first 5 terms of this sequence

{1, 3, 6, 10, 15}

Triangular numbers, denoted as Tn , can be explicitly defined by the formula:

n(n + 1)
Tn = .
2
In this explicit definition, you can calculate the nth triangular number directly using the formula. For
n = 10
10(10 + 1) 10 × 11
T10 = = = 55.
2 2
This formula provides an efficient way to compute triangular numbers. However, if instead of defining
it using the explicit function, we defined it using the recursive function.
• T1 = 1
• Tn = Tn−1 + n.

3.4.1 From Recursive to Explicit

If you have the recursive definition of triangular numbers, you can transition to the explicit definition
Apply the recursive relation repeatedly to calculate Tn for any n:
2 In the Fibonacci sequence the 1st and 2nd terms are equal to 0 and 1 respectively.

6
 Tn = Tn−1 + n
Tn−1 = Tn−2 + (n − 1)
Tn−2 = Tn−3 + (n − 2)
...
T2 = T1 + 2
T1 = 1

Sum the= equations to find Tn :

Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + (n − 2) + (n − 1) + n
Simplify the sum using the formula for the sum of an arithmetic series:

n(n + 1)
Tn = (Explicit Definition)
2
If on the contrary, you had an explicit definition and wanted to transition to a recursive definition,
what would you do?

3.4.2 From Explicit to Recursive

The explicit definition of triangular numbers is, Tn = n(n+1)2 , which allows the calculation of any tri-
angular number Tn when you know the value of n. However, to transition to a recursive definition, you
need to start by specifying the first term, T1 , explicitly. This is the initial condition for the recursive
definition.

Now, to transition to the recursive definition, you express Tn in terms of the previous term Tn−1
and the value of n.

• Tn represents the number of dots in the n-th row of the equilateral triangle.

• Tn−1 represents the number of dots in the (n − 1)-th row of the triangle, which is just above the
n-th row.
• n is the number of dots added in the n-th row to form the complete triangle.

Therefore, Tn can be calculated by adding the number of dots in the previous row (Tn−1 ) to the
dots added in the n-th row (n). This forms the recursive relation: Tn = Tn−1 + n.

4 Arithmetic Sequences and Series

4.1 Defining the Arithmetic Sequence
The definition of an Arithmetic Sequence in English given by Oxford Languages is “a sequence of
numbers in which each differs from the preceding one by a constant quantity” In the language of
Mathematics this definition can be given as a function where the initial term of an arithmetic sequence
is a1 and the common difference of successive members is d, then the n-th term of the sequence (an )
is given by:
an = a1 + (n − 1)d

7
4.2 Arithmetic Series
An arithmetic series is the sum of a sequence {ak }, k = 1, 2, . . ., in which each term is computed from
the previous one by adding (or subtracting) a constant d. The sum of the sequence of the first n terms
is given by
n
X
Sn = ak
k=1
Xn
= a1 + (k − 1)d
k=1
n
X
= na1 + d (k − 1)
k=1
Xn
= na1 + d (k − 1)
k=1
Xn
= na1 + d k
k=1

A simple yet effective strategy3 for finding arithmetic series is to find the total number n of terms
being added together. Then multiply this number n by the sum of the first number in the set a1 and
the last number in the set an . Taking the product to find the sum you then divide this product by 2
and obtain the sum of all the numbers in the set.This can be expressed as n(a12+an ) 4

To derive the formula above we begin by expressing the arithmetic series in two different ways

Sn = a + a2 + a3 + . . . + an−1 + an
Sn = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + (a(n − 2)d) + (a(n − 1)d)

The next step is to rewrite the terms of one of the expressions in reverse order

Sn = (a(n − 1)d) + (a(n − 2)d) + . . . + (a + 2d) + (a + d) + a

Then add the corresponding terms on both sides of the two equations

2Sn = n(2a + (n − 1)d)

To solve for Sn divide each side of the equation by 2

n
Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d)
2
This can be simplified
n
Sn = (a + a + (n − 1)d)
2
n
= (a + an )
2
3 Rumoured to have been invented by Carl Friedrich Gauss in primary while being quizzed by his teacher.
4 Computation of the sum 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14. When the sequence is reversed and added to itself term by term, the
resulting sequence has a single repeated value in it, equal to the sum of the first and last numbers (2 + 14 = 16). Thus
16 × 5 = 80 is twice the sum.

8
4.3 Arithmetic Sequence’s Product
If you have an arithmetic sequence which you sum, then you get an arithmetic series. If instead of
adding all the numbers you were to multiply them then you would get the product of this sequence.
The product of the members of a finite arithmetic sequence with an initial element a1 , difference d,
and n total elements can be determined with the following expression

a1 a2 a3 . . . an = a1 (a1 + d)(a1 + 2d) . . . (a1 + (n − 1)d)

n−1
Y
= (a1 + kd)
k=0
Q Q
The symbol
P is derived from the Greek letter (pi). Its function is the same as that of the summation
symbol ( ) but instead of giving the sum it gives the product.
We will not go into the derivation of the product due to its more complex usage of the gamma function.

4.4 Arithmetic Sequence’s Standard Deviation

The standard deviation of an Arithmetic sequence is how close the terms are to the mean.
AP5 1: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
AP 2: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
Both of these sequences have the same mean of 6. However, AP 1 has a smaller standard deviation
than AP 2 because its terms are closer to the mean, while AP 2 has a larger standard deviation because
its terms deviate further from the mean.
The standard deviation of any finite arithmetic sequence can be calculated using the following ex-
pression where n is the number of terms in the sequence and d is the common difference between
terms r
(n − 1)(n + 1)
σ = |d|
12

5 Geometric Sequences and Series

5.1 Defining the Geometric sequence
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term is found by multiplying the previous
one by a common ratio. The general form of a geometric sequence is the following

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , ar4 , . . .

where r ̸= 0 is the common ratio and a ̸= 0 is a scale factor, equal to the sequence’s start value.
Geometric sequences exhibit a pattern that is similar to the way geometric shapes grow or shrink. If
you have a square and you repeatedly scale it down by a fixed factor, you get smaller squares that
maintain the same shape. Similarly, in a geometric sequence, each term is obtained by scaling the
previous term by a constant factor.

5.2 Geometric Sequence’s Propreties

The n-th term of a geometric sequence with an initial value a = a1 and common ratio r is given by

an = arn−1

If a ̸= a1 then the n-th term is given by

an = am rn−m
5 AP is the abbreviation of Arithmetic sequence.

9
The geometric sequence also has some simple properties linked to the common ratio. If the common
ratio is positive then all the terms in the geometric sequence will be the same sign as the initial term.
If however, instead, it is negative then the terms will alternate between positive and negative. If the
common ratio is greater than 1 then there will be exponential growth toward positive or negative
infinity. If the common ratio is equal to 1 then the sequence is a constant sequence. In the opposite
case, if the common ratio is inferior to 1 but superior to -1 and not equal to 0 then there will be
exponential decay toward zero.

Lastly, let ω = cis 2π

n

n−1 n−1
X cis(2kπ) X k
= ω
n
k=1 k=0

Since this is a geometric series and ω ̸= 1, we can write it as

1 − ωn
1−ω
Since ω is a root of unity, we know ω n = 1, meaning this is equal to 0.
n−1
X cis(2kπ)
=0
n
k=1

5.3 Geometric Series

A geometric series is a series for which the ratio of each two consecutive terms ak+1 /ak is a constant
function of the summation index k. In the more general case of the ratio, a rational function of the
summation index k produces a series called a hypergeometric series. However, this hypergeometric
series escapes the scope of this report so we will not talk about it6 .
In the simpler case ak+1 /ak = r equal to the constant r, the terms ak are of the form ak = a0 rk .
Letting a0 = 1, the geometric sequence (ak )nk=0 with constant |r| < 1 is given by
n
X n
X
Sn = ak = rk
k=0 k=0

is given by
n
X
Sn = rk = 1 + r + r2 + . . . + rn . (1)
k=0

Multiplying both sides by r

rSn = r + r2 + r3 + . . . + rn+1 (2)
subtracting 2 from 1 then gives

(1 − r)Sn = (1 + r + r2 + ... + rn ) − (r + r2 + r3 + ... + r( n + 1))

= 1 − r( n + 1),

therefore
n
X 1 − rn+1
Sn = rk =
1−r
k=0

For −1 < r < 1, the sum converges as n → ∞,in which case

∞
X 1
S = S∞ = rk = 1
1−r
k=0

Put simply all this means is that in cases where the common ratio ’r’ falls between -1 and 1, and as
6 If interested a good website explaining the hypergeometric series: https://mathworld.wolfram.com/HypergeometricSeries.html

10
you add more terms (approaching infinity), the series converges to a specific value ’S.’ The formula for
this infinite sum is:
∞
X 1
S = S∞ = rk =
1−r
k=0

5.4 Geometric Sequence’s Product

The product of a geometric sequence is the product of all terms. It can be quickly computed by taking
the geometric mean of the sequence’s first and last individual terms, and raising that mean to the
power given by the number of terms. Given that the geometric mean of two numbers equals the square
root of their product then, the product of a geometric sequence is
n √
Y √
ari = ( a · arn )n+1 = ( a2 rn )n+1
i=0

The proof of this is quite simple, let P represent the product

P = a · ar · ar2 · ar3 . . . arn−1 · arn

Carrying out the multiplications and gathering like terms

P = an+1 r1+2+3+...+(n−1)+n

The exponent of r is the sum of an arithmetic sequence. Substituting the formula for that calculation
n(n+1)
P = an+1 r 2

Simplifying the expression to

n √
P = (ar )n+1 = (a rn )n+1
2 √
= ( a2 rn )n+1

This concludes the proof.

6 Variation, Convergence, Divergence and bounds of Sequences

6.1 Standard Variation of a Sequence
In an increasing sequence, each term is greater than or equal to the previous term. Mathematically, if
we have a sequence {an }, it’s increasing if an+1 ≥ an for all n.
Conversely, in a decreasing sequence, each term is less than or equal to the previous term. Mathemat-
ically, a sequence {an } is decreasing if an+1 ≤ an for all n.
And lastly, a constant sequence is one where all terms are the same. In this case, an+1 = an for all n.
To determine the type of variation in a sequence, you can calculate the differences between consecutive
terms:

• If the differences are all positive, it’s an increasing sequence.

• If the differences are all negative, it’s a decreasing sequence.
• If the differences are all zero, it’s a constant sequence.

6.1.1 Exceptions and Non-Monotonic Sequences

The reciprocal property assumes that the original sequence is monotonic, meaning it’s either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing. In practice, many sequences are not strictly monotonic. They might
have regions of constant values, oscillations, or irregular behaviour, making it difficult to establish a
simple relationship between the original and reciprocal sequences.

11
For example, consider a sequence that alternates between positive and negative values. Its reciprocal
sequence may exhibit intricate patterns that are not strictly increasing or decreasing. Consider the
sequence {an } defined as follows:

an = (−1)n+1 · n
In this sequence, n is a positive integer (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), and (−1)n+1 alternates between −1 and 1
as n varies. When n is odd (1, 3, 5, . . .), (−1)n+1 is −1, and an = −n. And when n is even (2, 4, 6, . . .),
(−1)n+1 is 1, and an = n. Now, let’s consider the reciprocal sequence {1/an }:
1 1
= n+1
an (−1) ·n
This reciprocal sequence does not strictly follow the expected pattern of increasing or decreasing.
When n is odd, it’s decreasing (negative values), and when n is even, it’s increasing (positive values).
The relationship is far from straightforward and showcases the intricate patterns that can emerge in
sequences.

6.2 Bounded Sequences, Convergence and Divergence of Sequences

A sequence can do one of three things as n increases, it can tend to a real number, tend to infinity, or
tend to nothing. If it tends toward a real number it converges, if not then it diverges.

6.2.1 Convergence of Sequences

The definition of a sequence of real numbers that converges to a real number a is if, for every positive
number ϵ, there exists an N ∈ N such that for all n ≥ N , |an − a| < ϵ. a is the limit of the sequence,
limn→∞ an = a.

This simply means that a sequence un converges to a real number a if, given any open interval U
containing a, all the terms of the sequence ∈ U except a finite amount.

For example, the sequence n1 converges to zero. Let ϵ > 0. We choose N ∈ N such that N > 1ϵ .
Such a choice is always possible by the Archimedean property7 . To verify that this choice of N is
appropriate, let n ∈ N satisfy n ≥ N . Then, n ≥ N implies n > 1ϵ which is equal to n1 = | n1 − 0| < ϵ,
proving that n1 converges to zero.

1
However, if instead of the sequence n we had the following sequence:

(1, −1, 1, −1, . . .)

Given that this sequence does not converge, it has to diverge.

6.2.2 Bounded Sequences

Recall that the following sequence does not converge:

(1, −1, 1, −1...)

Later in this paper, we will give a concise proof of this fact. However, for now, contrast this with the
following sequence, which we have seen:
1 1 1 1 1
(1, , , , , , . . .)
2 3 4 5 6
This converges to zero, as we proved earlier in this paper. However, even though they are different in
whether or not they converge, these sequences do have something in common. They are both bounded.

A sequence (xn ) is bounded if there exists a number M > 0 such that |xn | ≤ M for all n ∈ N .
7 The Archimedean property states that given two positive numbers x and y, there is an integer n such that nx > y

12
This means we can find an interval [−M, M ] that contains every term in the sequence (xn ). Given
this definition, a simple property becomes apparent which is that a convergent sequence will always
be bounded.

Given the sequence xn = (1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2...), we can see that the interval [1, 2] contains every term
in xn . This sequence is therefore a bounded sequence.

Given the sequence xn = (10, 100, 1000, 10000, ...), we can see that there is no real number that
serves as an upper bound because lim(xn ) is infinity. Therefore, there does not exist any interval that
contains every term in the sequence xn , and xn is not a bounded sequence.

6.2.3 Divergence of Sequences

A sequence that does not have a limit or in other words, does not converge, is said to be divergent.

Let us return to the example of a divergent sequence that was given under the definition of diver-
gence. Recall that this sequence, xn , was (1, −1, 1, −1, 1, −1...). One subsequence8 of xn is (1, 1, 1, ...).
This subsequence converges to 1. Another subsequence of xn is (−1, −1, −1, ...). This subsequence
converges to −1. Now, we will prove that xn is divergent by contradiction. Assume xn is convergent.
Then, by the fact that subsequences of a convergent sequence converge to the same limit as the original
sequence, all its subsequences converge to l(xn ), implying that all its subsequences converge to the
same value. The two subsequences of xn stated above converge to different values. Therefore, this
contradicts our original hypothesis that xn is convergent. We are then able to conclude that xn is
divergent.

Once we have proved that a sequence diverges, how do we then prove that it diverges to infinity,
or does not? A sequence {an } diverges to infinity (an → ∞) if for every M > 0 there is some positive
integer N such that if n > N then an > M .

7 Conclusion
In conclusion, there are many different types of series, ways to define these series, interesting properties
of these series, and variations of these series. However, even if some series have a limit, there is no
limit to the possibilities of series; even if some series are bounded, there is no bound to the things
you can do with them. All series are functions, and all functions are relations, but not all relations
are functions. And even after all this time looking at series we still haven’t scratched the surface of
possibilities.

8 A subsequence of a given sequence is a sequence that can be derived from the given sequence by deleting some or

no elements without changing the order of the remaining elements.

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8 Bibliography
Nykamp, Duane Q. “Recurrence Relation Definition.” Math Insight, University of Minnesota, math-
insight.org/definition/recurrence relation. Accessed 20 Sept. 2023.

Courant, Richard, and Herbert Robbins. What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary Approach to Ideas
and Methods. 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1996.

Hayes, Brian. “Gauss’s Day of Reckoning.” American Scientist, Sigma Xi, 9 Mar. 2020, www.americanscientist.org/article/g
day-of-reckoning.

“The Home of Language Data.” Oxford Languages, Oxford University Press, 2023, languages.oup.com/.

Tropfke, Johannes. Analysis. Analytische Geometrie. De Grutyer, 1924.

Weisstein, Eric W. “Arithmetic Series.” Wolfram MathWorld, mathworld.wolfram.com/ArithmeticSeries.html.

Accessed 11 Oct. 2023.

Halmos, Paul Richard. Naive Set Theory. Dover, 2017.

Emmanuel Farcy, Olivier Lecluse. “Variations d’une Suite.” My Scenari, 2020, lecluseo.scenari-community.org/1S/Suites/co

Khurma, Manan. “Relations and Functions.” Cuemath, 2022, www.cuemath.com/algebra/relations-

and-functions/.

Lytle, Becky. “Introduction to the Convergence of Sequences.” University of Chicago, 2015, pp. 1–7.

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