2305 Lectures

Casting
Mech2305
Dr Michael Bermingham
m.bermingham@uq.edu.au
CRICOS Provider No 00025B

Is the text book necessary?
What chapters should I study?

UQ Poll: web based ‘clickers’ that you can do on your phone
During my lectures I may ask questions. Where appropriate you can respond
using UQ poll.
If you have a mobile device with internet, connect to ‘Eduroam’ (you can use your
own data if you wish)
Bookmark this page:
apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
We will be using this throughout the semester so please ‘bookmark’.

Let’s do a test
What is this?
A) Fossilised animals
B) Diamond
C) Metallic titanium
D) Ore
E) Don’t know
Mining, Minerals Processing
& Raw Material Production
Value Added Manufacturing

Primary Ingot Casting
Wrought Net Shape Additive

Processing Casting Manufacturing
Extrusion Other Processes (Sheet

Machining & Drawing Joining
Metal forming, Surface
Engineering…)
Products
Casting Processes



Engineering…)
Products
Solidification
97% of all metal products are manufactured

using at least one solidification process
In this Lecture
• Introduction to Casting
• Solidification basics
• Casting Methods
– Sand Casting
– Die Casting
– Investment Casting
• Further Reading
– Kalpakjian “Manufacturing and Engineering Technology” Chapters
10 & 11 (important) – available from Library
– Campbell “Castings” - available from Library
– Blackboard
How to we turn raw materials into final products?
Raw Material
Melting and Solidification
of primary ingots
Down stream
manufacturing
processes
Casting is more than just pouring liquid into a mould
• Equipment for casting

• Physical & chemical properties of the metal. Eg. melt temp, reactivity
• Issues such as shrinkage, porosity , defects etc.
Melting titanium
-special furnace
required $$$
Casting lead
- Equipment purchased from
regular shops e.g. Kmart

Casting
• One of the oldest manufacturing processes (~4000BC)
• Today still essential manufacturing method
– Primary metal production
– Finished or semi finished products

Casting
• Casting is a manufacturing process that produces near net
shape components that can be used directly after slight
finishing operation, such as polishing, heat treatment,
surface treatment etc.

Casting
• At the most basic level, casting
involves melting a material and
pouring it into a mould. After
solidification, the casting is removed
from the mould.
• So what happens when liquid metal
solidifies….

Freezing Bubbles
Pasta Dendrites
UQ Poll apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
What is the freezing temperature of

pure water? (at standard atmosphere)
a. 0.0°C
b. -0.4°C
c. -1.8°C
d. -4.7°C
e. -42°C
Nucleation and growth
• The driving force for a liquid to turn into a solid at the freezing
point is a reduction in free energy. At a certain temperature,
the solid is more favourable
• For solid to form atoms randomly moving in the liquid must
come together to form an ordered structure (a solid
surface/embryo) Freezing point
• But, the formation of a new surface requires energy (an
energy barrier that must be overcome)
• The energy barrier is overcome by undercooling (cooling
below the freezing point) Energy barrier to create new surface
The important thing to remember is that

cooling below the freezing temperature is
always required before nucleation and growth
of the solid phase can occur
Driving force to turn solid

(reduction in free energy)
• Homogeneous nucleation
– Homogeneous nucleation occurs directly in the liquid and requires the
formation of a new surface (which is an energy barrier)
– The energy barrier to create a new surface is significant
– Consequently, homogeneous nucleation requires high undercooling
(much lower temperature below the melting point).
Example: homogeneous nucleation temp of water ≈ -42ºC
Molten
metal
2/03/2020
• Heterogeneous nucleation
– Nucleation occurs on some pre-existing surface (since the
surface already exists there is little to no energy barrier)
– Nucleation requires low undercooling
– Nucleation is much easier than homogeneous nucleation
Courses MECH3305 and MECH4304 offer more
details regarding nucleation and growth
Existing
particle
Melt
Mould wall
2/03/2020
This video shows a solidification experiment from when I was a
hard working PhD student working late on Saturday evenings

Solidification of pure metal
• Lots of grains/crystals nucleate at cold mould wall
• As heat extracts through mould wall, solidifying grains grow
into the melt, via the attachment of atoms onto the crystal
• Grains grow fastest in fast growth directions, opposite heat
extraction direction
• Growth in some directions is cut off.
Analogy: stacking Lego blocks
Mold wall
The growth of
misoriented
equiaxed
grains is
Favorable orient
suppressed
Heat extraction
2/03/2020
Columnar grain structures
Form coarse columnar structure
• Pour metal into square, cold mould
• Heat is extracted from the mould wall
• Chill zone forms at mould wall – lots
of nuclei – gives lots of small grains
2/03/2020
Columnar grain structures
Form coarse columnar structure
• Fast growth of well oriented
grains leads to zone of large
columnar grains.
• Large grains have typically poor
strength & poor ductility
Macrostructure of an Al ingot
2/03/2020
• We can prevent the columanar zone from forming by adding grain
refiners (innoculants)
• Grain refiners are added to the melt prior to casting and they serve
as nucleation catalysts (they are new surfaces for heterogenous
nucleation)
• Equiaxed grains form, which typically gives better mechanical
properties
Molten
metal
innoculants
2/03/2020
Solidification of alloys
Macrostructure of ingot
Common ingot structure Addition of grain refiners
Further Reading:
Chapter 10
Kalpakjian
Pure metal
Good
26
Solidified Microstructures
• Typically large grains (columnar or equiaxed)
• May contain intermetallics (insoluble elements)
• Typically contain dendritic structures
• May contain defects (e.g. porosity)
More about these in Reverse Engineering

Lecture Week 9
Fluidity
• The capability of the molten metal to fill mould cavities
• It is measured by the fluidity index that is the length of the
solidified metal in the spiral passage.
– The greater the length, the bigger is its fluidity.

Fluidity depends on
• Viscosity
– Higher viscosity, lower fluidity
• Surface tension
– The force that tries to minimize the surface area of matters (not
actual definition)
– Higher surface tension, lower fluidity. Oxidation film on the melt
surface increase the surface tension.
• Freezing range of alloy.
– Long freezing range - low fluidity
– High fluidity for short freezing range alloys, eg pure metals &
eutectics.
• Inclusion content.
– A slurry has a higher viscosity than the pure fluid.

Fluidity depends on
• Mould materials and its surface characteristics
– Higher thermal conductivity, rougher surface, lower fluidity
• Mould design
– The design and dimensions of the sprue, runners and risers
• Degree of superheating
– T = Tactual – Tmelting
– Higher superheating, higher fluidity
• Rate of pouring
– Higher rate of pouring, higher fluidity
• Heat transfer
– Higher thermal conductivity, lower fluidity
Castability: The ease with which a metal can be cast to produce a part
with good quality

Some common defects
• The caster must prevent defects as much as possible
Porosity – can be caused by insufficient metal feed (shrinkage), can
be caused by gas inclusions (liquid can hold lots of gas, but the solid
cannot so gas precipitates during solidification)
Inclusions – foreign particles (oxides, dross, slag, sand etc.)
Hot Tears – when a crack forms in a casting due to combination of
shrinkage and the development of tensile stress in a constrained
casting. The hot metal is weak, so cracks form easily
Others such as blisters, scabs, cold shuts, incomplete fill and more.
Read about these in the text book and black board has some casting
defects slides
Casting Methods
• Many different casting processes and variants
– Sand casting
We will briefly look at these,
– Die casting read about others in private study
– Investment casting
– Centrifugal casting
– Squeeze casting
– Semisolid casting
– Slush casting
– Directional solidification – e.g single crystal turbine blades

Sand Casting
• A pattern (of the desired cast product) is made, typically in halves but can be more
complicated. The pattern also contains a feeding system.
• Sand is packed around the pattern.
• The pattern is removed leaving a empty cavity for the liquid metal to fill.
• Sometimes cores are inserted in the sand mould (e.g. if hollow sections are desired)
• The sand mould is assembled and ready for casting

Sand Casting

Typical Sand mould

Typical Sand mould
• Flask – supports & contains mold
• Cope – top part of 2 piece mold
• Drag - bottom part of 2 piece mold
• Parting line – partition between cope
& drag
• Pouring basin - Molten metal is
poured into pouring basin until there
is metal in riser
• Riser – supplies additional molten
metal to the casting as it shrinks
during solidification. Mould cavity
should solidify before the
solidification of risers. Open riser and
blind riser
2/03/2020
Typical Sand mould
• Sprue - Molten metal flows down
through sprue & fills mould cavity
• Gate & running system - controls
metal flow into mould cavity
• Cores - are inserts made from sand.
they form hollow regions of final
casting and form the interior surface
of castings
• Vents - carry off gases produced
when molten metal contacts sand.
Much gas permeates out through
sand.
• Fettle – a process to cut off runner &
riser, remove adhering sand, etc.
2/03/2020
Types of sand mould
– Green sand mould: sand + clay + water (bonding agent)
• Used as moist (so called “green”) or skin dried in air or oven or furnaces
• The cheapest and easy to recycle
– Cold-box moulds:
• organic or in-organic binder used to bind sand, eg inorganic silicate
binder cured by CO2
• Harder molding surface
• More expensive because sand cannot be recycled
– Baked mould: Oven or furnace dried or baked.
• Stronger than green sand
• Better dimensional accuracy & better surface finish
• Greater mould distortion, greater susceptibility to hot cracking (sand is
less collapsible).
2/03/2020
Making a sand mould
http://www.google.com.au/search?q=sand+casting&hl=en&rlz=1T4ADRA_enA
U463AU463&prmd=imvnsbfd&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=fAdD
T4r3NJGkiQe5_qTRCg&ved=0CEoQsAQ&biw=1920&bih=917
2/03/2020
MECH2305
Making a sand mould
• Patterns – parting agent is used
– Form cavity in mould – the shape of the castings
– Can be single piece, split patterns and match-plate patterns.
– Made from wood, plaster, plastic or metal.
– Design should allow for metal shrinkage upon solidification
– ease of removal from sand through proper taper or draft
2/03/2020
Steam engines

Making a sand mould
• Cores
– Cores form hollow region of finished casting.
– Cores are placed in mold cavity before casting to form the interior surface.
– Cores are anchored by core prints and sometime are supported by chaplets.
– Cores are made of sand in the similar way of making moulds.
– Cores are removed during shakeout & fettling
2/03/2020
Sand Casting
• Advantages
– Low capital investment means that short production runs are
viable.
– Use of sand cores allows fairly complex shapes to be cast.
– Large components can be produced.
• Disadvantages
– The process has a high unit cost, as it is labour intensive and time
consuming.
– The sand mould leaves a poor surface finish, which often requires
further processing.
– Cannot make thin sections.

Making engine block

Die Casting
• Die Casting (also known as permanent mould casting)
uses a reusable metal mould (usually hardened steel)
• Liquid metal can be poured or shot into the mould under
gravity or pressure

High Pressure Die Casting
Hot chamber Die Casting Cold chamber Die Casting
Liquid metal is injected very quickly at high pressures (typically 15-30MPa).

Short cycle times (200-300/hr), thin wall components can be cast. Turbulent
filling which may cause defects. Restricted to low melting point alloys to prevent
die wear. Machines and dies are very expensive, but used for mass production
so individual component cost is low.
Die Casting
• Moulds are expensive, need large production runs to be
economical
2/03/2020
Die Casting
• Highly automated process, can have low costs if have large
production runs
http://www.google.com.au/search?q=die+casting&hl=en&rlz=1T4ADRA_enAU463AU463&prmd=imvnsb&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=zA5D
T4yfBuyImQWgyamoBw&sqi=2&ved=0CFAQsAQ&biw=1920&bih=917#q=die+casting&hl=en&sa=X&rlz=1T4ADRA_enAU463AU463&tbm=isch&prmd=i
mvnsb&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=e9c543aa56534888&biw=1184&bih=505
2/03/2020
High Pressure Die Casting
• Advantages:
– Very low unit cost.
– High definition & surface finish.
– Excellent dimensional accuracy.
– Cool metal mould gives fast solidification, leading to a fine grain structure.
– Can produce thin sections.
• Disadvantages:
– A large capital investment is required to set up a die casting process.
– It is difficult to control the microstructure of the solid.
– The alloys used must have a low melting point, often at the expense of other
properties, such as strength and stiffness.
– Cannot be used for complex shapes, as the casting couldn’t be ejected from the
mould.
– Cannot be used for large castings.

Low Pressure die casting
• Used when cast component quality is required
– Low turbulence means less chance of oxide or porosity
entrapment

Investment Casting
• Also known as “lost wax” casting
• Pattern made of wax or plastic through various methods
• Wax patterns are assembled
• Assembly coated with fine ceramic slurry – Repeated until shell has
developed desired wall thickness (approx 8mm)
• De-waxing - remove wax by heating to 90 ~ 175C
• Harden mold – fire the moulds at 650 ~ 1050C to dry the mould, burn off
residual max
• Pour in molten metal
• Shakeout & separate parts
• Finishing
• Expensive, but good surface finishing, high dimensional accuracy and suitable
for making complicated shapes.

Investment Casting
2/03/2020
Investment Casting

Investment Casting
To make small, precise, complex shaped components
http://www.google.com.au/search?q=investment+casting&hl=en&qscrl=1&nord=1&rlz=1T4ADRA_enAU463AU463&site=webhp&prmd=imvnsb&tbm=
isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=iEZDT6vRIeXFmQX3lbSlBw&sqi=2&ved=0CFQQsAQ&biw=1920&bih=917
2/03/2020
Investment Casting
• Advantages
– Metals with a high melting temperature can be cast due to ceramic
mould
– Complex shapes can be formed by using ceramic liners in the
original wax patterns
– Good surface finish can be obtained using fine ceramic material
• Disadvantages
– Expensive as mould cannot be reused
– Time consuming (drying times for ceramic range roughly 24 hrs)

MECH2305
Introduction to Engineering Design and Manufacturing
“Computer-Aided
Manufacturing”
Week 2
Content of Lecture
 Computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM)
 Computer numerical
control (CNC) Machining
 NC-codes
My experience in “CAM”
Rebars are used for

reinforcing concrete
Rolling mill
My experience in “CAM”
Computer-
aided
manufacturing
(CAM)
Design and Production of a Component
CAM
NC-code
CAD
Machinist
CAE
CNC
machine
Product
Definition of
Computer-Aided Manufacturing
• “control machine tools
by producing a set of
CAM instructions called
NC-Code
___________”
“the use of
computer software
to …
• “control and manage
manufacturing
systems”
“including fabrication, planning,
management, transportation and
storage”
Computer Aided Manufacturing
History of CAM
ENIAC Personal Computer iPhone
Prototype NC
machine
1952
ARPANET
1946 1969 1975 1990 2004 2007
1981 1998 2005

1980’s CSNET
1954-1956
1949 ‘birth of 1990’s
Parsons and Douglas Ross Tools were
internet’ DNC was
USAF request invented APT built with introduced:
MIT for NC “Automatically dedicated “network of
machine tool Programmed CPU CNC”
Tool”
History of Computer Aided Manufacturing
“U.S. Army bought 120 NC machines and

loaned them to various manufacturers to
increase adoption of the technology”
5- and 8-hole
punched tape
CNC machine with

a punched tape
reader
http://bobcad.com/the-cad-cam-evolution-for-cnc-machining/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_tape
HAAS VF-1 CNC Vertical

Machining Center
Why use CAM?
Why use CAM?
Benefits
 High accuracy in manufacturing
 Short production times
 Greater manufacturing flexibility
 Simpler fixturing
 Reduced human error
 Ability to do complex contour machining
(e.g. 2 to 5 – axis machining)
Why not…?
Drawbacks
 High cost
 Maintenance
 The requirement of
skilled part
programmers
Understanding the CAM processes
 Geometry
Wireframe
Surface
CAD
Solid
Define cutter path by Tool Path Generation

What to cut
selecting geometry How to cut
Tool Type
(e.g. contours, pockets, hole Rpm’s – Feeds
patterns, surfaces, volume) Methods
CL
File
 Post Process
o NC Code
N1 G80 G90
N3 G0 T01 M06
NC-Code N5 G0 X0 Y0
 Geometry
Wireframe
Surface
Solid
CAD
Define cut parameters Tool Path Generation

What to cut
How to cut
Cut Parameter Details Tool Type
Tool Information Type, RPM, Feed Rpm’s – Feeds
Methods
Cut Method  zig zag, spiral, inside
out
 roughness and finish CL
parameters File
 Post Process
o NC Code
N1 G80 G90
N3 G0 T01 M06
NC-Code N5 G0 X0 Y0
 Geometry
Wireframe
Surface
CAD Solid
A “generic” cutter location (CL) file Tool Path Generation

What to cut
of the cut paths is produced How to cut
Tool Type
Rpm’s – Feeds
“A CL file is a CNC program in a neutral Methods
format created by a CAD/CAM system. It is
considered neutral because it is not CL
formatted for any particular machine tool” File
 Post Process
o NC Code
N1 G80 G90
N3 G0 T01 M06
NC-Code N5 G0 X0 Y0
 Geometry
Wireframe
Surface
CAD Solid
Post Processing Tool Path Generation

What to cut
“filters CL information and formats it How to cut
Tool Type
into NC code based on machine Rpm’s – Feeds
Methods
specific parameters…”
CL
File
 Post Process
o NC Code
N1 G80 G90
N3 G0 T01 M06
NC-Code N5 G0 X0 Y0
CAM Functions
 Tool & material libraries

 Tool path simulation
 Tool path editing
Tool path simulation
 Tool path optimization
 Cut time calculations for cost estimations
Cost estimation
Tool & Material Library

Integrated CAD/CAM/CAE
Siemens NX interface CATIA interface
“advanced high-
end CAD/CAM/CAE
softwares”
PTC Creo (previously

pro/Engineer) interface
Computer Numerical
Control (CNC) Machining
Conventional Milling
Limitations of Conventional Machining
 Manufacturing complex
curved geometries in 2D or
3D was extremely
expensive
 often requires complex jigs

to control cutter motions
 machining without
repeatable accuracy
 Unmanned machining
operations were impossible
Jig
What is CNC Machining?
• “…the automation of
machining tools by means of
CNC lathes
computers executing pre-
programmed sequences of
commands”
• Tools: lathes, mills, routers,

grinders CNC mill
• a subtractive process to
attain a shape
CNC grinders
Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing
vs
Additive
manufacturing
Subtractive
manufacturing
Components of CNC Machining
 Part program
 Machine Control Unit (MCU)
 Tool: Lathe, drill press,
milling machine etc.
Machine Control Unit (MCU)
 Reads / interprets
coded instructions for
machining a particular
part by generating
electrical output signals
 Acts as a feedback
controller for precise
positioning of the
machine table or spindle
Parts of the MCU
“reads and
interprets
instructions”
Data Processing
Unit (DPU)
MCU “executes
instructions”
Control Loop Unit

(CLU)
Fundamentals of CNC machining
“In a NC machine, motion is controlled by servo

motors”
Table
Leadscrew
Encoder A/C Motor
~
Servo Controller
Counter Comparator
Input (converted from analog to digital value)
Motor lead screw rotation table moves
Motor speed control feedback position sensed by encoder

Fundamentals of CNC machining:
How a CNC servo system works…
A servo motor is an actuator

that allows for high degree
control of angles
 The control signal is in
the form of electrical
pulses
 e.g. the size of the pulse
width controls the angle of
rotation
Applications of CNC machining:
2D Milling
 Number refers to direction mill moves: X and Y axis

 blanking metal sheets by laser, router, plasma, water-jet
 cutting marble or ceramic tiles
2.5D milling/profile cutting
 mill can move X, Y and Z but cutting operation in only two axes at
a time
“A 2.5D refers to a
surface which is a
projection of a plane
“Furniture manufacturing” into 3rd dimension ”
3D Milling
“….mill
can move along
X, Y, and Z”
2D vs 2.5D vs 3D Machining
4D Milling
“….millcan move
along X, Y, Z
and rotates on 1
axes”
5 Axis or 5D Milling
 mill can move along X, Y, Z and rotates on A and

B axes
Impeller Manufacturing
5 axis milling for making an impeller
1 Vid here: SLIDE 20

Introduction to
NC Codes
Numerical Control Codes
“A CNC program is the

instructions
set of all ________________
(called commands) required
to complete a task (e.g.
machining a component)”
“made using a
programming language” “Screenshot of an
NC Code”
G-Code (RS-274)
 most widely used NC

programming language
 converts human-readable
information into computer-
readable format
 Allows sending instructions

CNC machine
to a ______________,
which it understands and “Example of
obeys an NC Code”
Old way: APT and NC-Code
Cutter Location
Data
Text-based NC-Code produced

by G-code
Automatically postprocessor
Programmed Tool
Modern way: GUI
Modern software has a

graphical user interface
(GUI) Cutter Location
Data
G-Code
NC-Code: Blocks
The lines of instruction are called “blocks”…
…and blocks
consist of
words
(commands)”
Remember:
“Programming follows certain
syntax
rules or __________”
NC-Code: Words
“Words consist of a letter and a numerical value”

Letter Functions Example
G Preparatory G00,G1, G02
M Miscellaneous M30
X, Y, Z Coordinate data X1 Y1 Z0.4
F Feed rate F3.5
N Sequence number N05
T Tool call T1
S Spindle speed S1000
“The number of blocks required depends on the

complexity of the task to perform”
Example of CNC Programming
The Task :
“Drill a hole in a
work-piece on a
milling machine”
“Let’s first look at …then see how the same

how a machinist operation will be performed
would do it… with a CNC program…”
“Drilling a hole…old school”
Step 1
Top
View Drill Home
“move drill along

X & Y to the hole
position”
Front
View
Step 2
Top
View  “Z Axis Move Above
Hole”
 “Turn On: Coolant”
 “Turn On: Spindle”
.100”
Front
View
Step 3
Top
View
“Lower drill
along Z Axis to
create hole”
Front
View
Step 4
Top
View
“Drill is moved out
of hole along the z-
axis”
Front
View
Step 5
Top
View
• Turn Off: Spindle
• Turn Off: Coolant
• X&Y Axis Move
Home
Front
View
“Drilling a hole…CNC way”
Step 1: X & Y Rapid To Hole Position
Top
View Drill Home
O0001 Number Assigned to the program
N005 Sequence Number

N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
G54 Fixture Offset N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
G90 Absolute Programming Mode
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
S600 Spindle Speed set to 600 RPM
M03 Spindle on in a Clockwise Direction N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
Front G00 G28
N030 G91 Rapid X0
Motion
Y0 Z0
X1.0 X Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero
View N035 M30
Y1.0 Y Coordinate 1.0 in. from Zero
Step 2: Z-axis move to position, Coolant on
Top Drill Home

View
O0001
N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
G43 Tool Length Compensation N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
H01 Specifies Tool Length Compensation N015 G43 H01 Z .1 M08
Z .1 Z Coordinate 0.1 in. from Zero N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
M08 Flood Coolant On
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
Front N035 M30
View
Step 3: Drill hole along Z axis O0001
N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
Top N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
View N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N035 M30
G01 Straight Line Cutting Motion

Z-.75 Z Coordinate -.75 in. from Zero
F3.5 Feed Rate set to 3.5 in./min.
Front
View
Step 4: Drill moved out of hole
O0001
Top N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
View N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N035 M30
G00 Rapid Motion

Z.1 Z Coordinate .1 in. from Zero
Front M09 Coolant Off
View
Step 5: Drill moved to original position
O0001
Top
N005 G54 G90 S600 M03
View
N010 G00 X1.0 Y1.0
N015 G43 H01 Z.1 M08
N020 G01 Z-.75 F3.5
N025 G00 Z.1 M09
N030 G91 G28 X0 Y0 Z0
N035 M30
G91 Incremental Programming Mode
G28 Zero Return Command X0, Y0, Z0
X,Y,& Z Coordinates at Zero
Front
M30 End of Program
View
Practice Questions
True or False
1. CAM refers to the process of producing engineering
drawings for CNC machines to follow.
FALSE. CAD refers to the process of producing engineering
drawings
2. CNC machining is an automated, subtractive process for

shaping materials.
TRUE
Practice Questions
3. NC code is the most common programming language for
producing machine-accessible commands.
FALSE. G-code is the most common programming language
for producing machine-accessible commands
4. The first NC machine tool was produced in 1980s when

personal computers (PCs) became prevalent.
FALSE. The first NC machine tool was produced in 1950s
after the first digital computer was created.
5. CNC machines use servo motors for table motion.

TRUE
Practice Questions
Multiple choice.
6. PTC CREO, Siemens NX and CATIA are:
a. CAD only software packages
b. CAD/CAM/CAE software packages
c. NC-code programming languages
7. When setting absolute programming in G-code, all

coordinates and movements are based on:
a. the origin
b. the current position
c. the z-axis
MECH2305
Introduction to Engineering Design and
Manufacturing
Engineering Metals
Why Metals?
Strong + Ductile = Tough
Safe engineering
Withstand Deformable for
– no catastrophic
high loads processing
failures
• metals processing / engineering is about understanding

and controlling structure and properties
Outline
• Structure of metals
• Steels and their heat treatment
• Cast irons
• Al, Mg and Ti alloys (Light alloys) and their heat treatment
Resources:
• Kalpakjian textbook – Chapters 1, 4, 5 & 6
• Blackboard TLPs – Microstructural examination, Phase
diagrams
• “ASM Handbooks Online” (available through library) – a great
resource for readers interested in understanding different
alloys, heat treatments, their properties and microstructures
Metallic Materials
• Ferrous alloys
– Steels and irons
• Nonferrous alloys
– All other alloys (Al, Mg, Cu, Ti, Ni)
• Used as pure metals or alloys
• Properties can be altered by forming processes
and / or heat treatments.
• Cast, wrought, sintered, direct deposition
Structure of Metals
• Few electrons in outer orbitals: Metallic Bonds
• Electrons shared - ‘electron cloud’ - high thermal and electrical conductivity
• Atoms arranged in periodic arrays - crystalline - lowest energy structure
• Polymorphism: crystal structure can vary with temperature or alloying
“Tin Pest” at -40°C : a 27% volume increase from Tetragonal to Diamond Cubic structure
Unit Cell – smallest unit of volume that contains
all of the structural and symmetry information
Crystal Lattice -
Solidification
• Grains (crystals) are made up of repeating structures (unit cells).

• Although grains are made of the same structure (unit cells) they are
orientated in 3D space differently
Remember in Casting lecture we mentioned

grains – same structure but differently
orientated in 3D space
Grain boundaries form when these differently orientated crystals come together
Structure of Metals
• Polycrystalline
• Size and orientation of crystals (grains)
effects properties
crystal
orientations grains
Defects in Corn
Like corn, crystals in metals are not perfect and are full of defects
Missing row of kernels

(dislocation)
Missing Kernel
(Vacancy)
Crystal Defects - Schematics
Point: vacancy, interstitial / substitutional atoms
Linear: dislocation
Planar: grain boundaries, phase boundaries
Point defects Dislocation Grain boundaries

Crystal Defects (>1000 000X)
Dislocations Grain Boundary
The average thickness of a human hair is about 50,000x the size of this scale bar
Deformation of Metals
• Most metals deform by ‘Slip’ – one 2 slip systems

atomic plane sliding over another
• Slip systems – plane & direction - 5 or
more slip systems for ductile metals
• BCC – 48 slip systems, FCC – 12 slip
systems, HCP – 3 slip systems, more
active at elevated temps 3 slip systems
• Less common deformation
mechanisms - twinning and stress
induced phase transformations
Dislocations
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cpvTwYAUeA8
Dislocations
Dislocations: mechanism for deformation of metals, ‘dislocation glide’. Less
force to deform a crystal due to dislocations (~1/10 perfect crystal - in practice
all metals contain defects including dislocations)
∴ Strength and ductility depend on ease and distance of dislocation
movement.
Further reading:
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/dislocations/index.php
MECH2300 text book “Callister – Materials Science and Engineering…” also great
Demonstration
Spring
UQ POLL: what is actually happening here?

a. The wire is plastically deformed

b. The wire is elastically deformed
c. The wire is undergoing slip deformation
d. The wire is undergoing a change in crystal structure
e. Could be magic
Nitinol shape memory
More Details:
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superelasticity/shape_memory1.php
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superelasticity/printall.php
Materials Engineering
• Shape memory materials
• Applications

Grains and Grain Boundaries
If most metals fail plastically by slip (dislocation moving
through the crystal), what role will grain boundaries play?
UQ POLL: apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
a. Grain boundaries will make it easier for slip

b. Grain boundaries will make it harder for slip
c. Grain boundaries have no influence on slip
Hint: Remember that ‘grains’ are simply differently aligned ‘crystals’. Two grains
have the same crystal structure (e.g. FCC, BCC etc.) but are orientated in 3D
space differently.
Hint 2: Dislocations travel more easily through a crystal of uniform orientation
Grains and Grain Boundaries
• Grain boundaries influence strength and ductility as they
limit movement of dislocations, strength with grain size
- controlled by deformation / temperature
• Anisotropy (texture) – due to processing, effects properties
Casting texture Rolling texture - steel

Annealing
• Recovery - stress relief (annihilation of dislocations) (<1/3 Tm)
• Recrystallisation – new grains form (1/3 to 1/2 Tm)
• Grain growth (>1/2 Tm)
(where Tm= melting temperature)
Annealing
Strengthening of Metals
• Work hardening due to tangling of dislocations
• Dislocation Barriers: precipitates, grain boundaries,
secondary phases => alloying, composites
Metal matrix Precipitate

Dislocation pile-up
composite strengthened Al
Steels and their Heat Treatment
Demonstration
UQ POLL: Is steel ductile or brittle?

a.ductile
b.brittle
c.both
How can steel have such different properties?
Many phases (crystal types)

are possible, depending on
temperature and composition
Some include:
Austenite (FCC)
Ferrite (BCC)
Cementite (Iron Carbide)
And mixtures of these (e.g.

pearlite)
Important Phases in Fe-Fe3 system
• Austenite (-phase) (A): High temperature phase, soft

and ductile, face-centred cubic (FCC)
• Ferrite (-phase) (F): Low temperature phase, soft and
ductile, body-centred cubic (BCC)
• Cementite (Fe3C): Present through all temperatures,
hard and brittle, ceramic (orthorhombic)
• Fe3C +  = pearlite (P): Forms on slow cooling from
austenite. Harder and stronger than  and . The finer
the stronger (cooling rate).
• Martensite (M): Fast cooling from austenite to obtain
(quench). Traps carbon in austenite. Very hard and
strong, but brittle. Body centred tetragonal (BCT) crystal
structure
– Bainite (B) can be obtained from medium cooling rates
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram
Austenite (Face Centred Cubic)
Ferrite (Body Centred Cubic)
More carbon
can ‘fit’ in the
FCC compared
to the BCC)
Excess carbon forms Fe3C (Cementite)

Cooling a steel with high carbon
High Temperature Low Temperature
+ Fe3C
Slow Cooling
(Time for full transformation)
Equilibrium
High Temperature Low Temperature
Not enough
time for carbon
to diffuse out,
Fast Cooling so gets
(No time for complete trapped and a
transformation) new structure
is formed
6/03/2020
Steel Classifications
Steels are Fe-C based alloys – the higher carbon content, the stronger and
harder the steels
According to carbon content
– Low carbon steels (C < 0.25wt%)
– Medium carbon steels (0.25wt% <= C < 0.55wt%)
– High carbon steels ( C > 0.55wt%)
According to production process

– Killed steels (Deoxidised with additions of Al, Mn etc.)
– Semi-killed steels (partially deoxidised)
– Rimmed steels (no deoxidisation)
According to applications
– Structural steels
– Tool and die steels
– Bearing steels
– Stainless steels
– Heat-resistant steels
– Ultra-high strength steels
Heat treatment of steels
Mechanical properties can be enhanced by heat treatment
Annealing
– Austenization (heat to > 760C) followed by furnace cooling
– Coarse pearlite + ferrite/cementite depending on carbon content
– Relatively low strength, but good ductility. Used for pre-machining
treatment
primary
ferrite
Normalisation
– Austenization (heat to > 760C) followed by air cooling
– Fine pearlite + ferrite/cementite
– Stronger than annealed. Used to heat treat large objects.
Quench
– Austenization (heat to > 760C) followed by water or oil cooling
(very fast): Martensite
– Hard and high strength, but brittle. Requires tempering.
Tempering
– After quenching, re-heat to 200 ~ 680C, then air cool
– To reduce the brittleness.
Low carbon lath martensite High carbon plate (lenticular) martensite

Chemical Heat Treatment of Steels
Surface treatment (also called case hardening)
– Carburizing, Carbonitriding, nitriding, etc.
– To increase the carbon or nitrogen content of the surface layer only
in order to harden the surface, carbides, nitrides
– Furnace atmosphere: Carbon dioxide, ammonia
Carbonitriding 1010 steel

Surface Heat Treatment of Steels
• Surface quench
– Austenise the surface layer only, then quench with water
– Flame, laser, induction hardening etc. Induction hardening
Flame hardening
Cast Irons
Cast Irons
• Carbon content: 2.11 < [C] < 4.5%
• Silicon content: up to approx. 3.5%
• Carbon: Fe3C or graphite (pure C)
• High density: much higher than Al, thus usage of Al increasing
• Lower melting temperature:
– than steel and pure Fe. 1154C vs. 1538 C for pure Fe
– cast irons easier to melt & the melt is easier to handle than steel
– ease of handling increases with increasing [C]
• Classification: Grey cast iron, Ductile cast iron, Malleable iron and
White iron
Grey Cast Iron
• Structure: Graphite flakes + F/P/M matrix.
(steel + graphite flakes)
• Silicon encourages graphite to form
• Fracture surface: grey in colour
• Composition: C + 2~3%Si + P
• Mechanical properties:
– Brittle: Graphite is brittle and soft. Flakes act
as stress raisers and crack path.
– Strength: 140 ~ 400 MPa. Less graphite,
higher strength Fe-graphite phase diagram
– Graphite provides lubrication on machined
surfaces and damping.
• Good castability: thin sections
• Applications: pipe, engine blocks, gears,
brake discs & drums, machine bases
Ductile (nodular) iron
• Structure: Add innoculants (Mg or Ce to
melt) to turn the graphite to nodular or
spherical form. Matrix can be P, F or M
• Extra operation: higher cost than grey
cast iron
• Mechanical properties: reduced stress
raisers and no easy path for crack
growth, higher strength and moderate
ductility and toughness
• Applications: used in applications such
as crankshafts, highly stressed machine
parts, heavy duty gears
Largest ductile iron casting ever made, over 300tons

and involved pouring 5 ladles in 2 minutes. Castings
were cooled in their mould for 4 weeks. The part is
used in Alcoa’s 50,000 ton forging press.
White cast iron
• Structure: Matrix (P/F/M) + carbide
(Fe3C)
• Carbide forming: faster cooling
(carbides form if graphite does not
have time to form)
– adding carbide formers, eg Cr, V
• Cost: Higher than grey iron
• Mechanical properties: carbides are
hard and brittle. As white iron has
high carbide volume fraction, it is
hard, highly wear resistant & brittle.
• Applications: used for wear
applications e.g. the balls in a ball
mill, ore crusher liner etc.
Light Alloys
Aluminium alloys
• High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, thermal and
electrical conductivity, good formability and machinability, and
relatively low price.
• Al can be alloyed with Si, Mg, Cu, Mg, Zn, Sn, etc. Not tolerant of Fe.
• Al alloys can be used as cast alloys and wrought alloys.
• Typical applications: wheels, engine heads, blocks, building fittings
Wright Brothers used a

cast aluminium engine
block to keep weight down
Magnesium alloys
• The lightest engineering metal
• Mg can be alloyed with Al, Cu, Zn, Zr, Li, Mn, Y, etc.
• Major drawback: low corrosion resistance and poor wear resistance.
• Typical applications: aircraft and missiles, bicycle and sport goods,
biodegradable implants.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqouQfkxbNY
Mass of 4 magnesium car doors = 1 steel car door
Titanium alloys
• Highest strength-to-weight ratio of the light metals
• High strength, excellent corrosion resistance
• Major drawback: expensive, poor machinability and low wear resistance,
controlled atmospheres for processing.
• Typical applications: aircraft, sport cars, jet engine, sports equipment,
biomedical applications etc. Interesting facts:
• 1950s cold war spy plane to replace U-2
• Fuel tank leaked on the runway
• Mach 3.5+
• The C.I.A. established ‘fake’ companies to
purchase the titanium from the Soviet Union
SR-71 Blackbird 85% titanium

Heat treatment
• The heat treatment of nonferrous alloys is different to most ferrous alloys
• Solution treatment followed by ageing. Ageing can be done by heating
(artificially aged) or at room temperature (naturally aged).
• The key points in designing a heat treatment process for a particular
alloy is the solution treatment temperature and time and the ageing
temperature and time.
• Solution treatment:
– Heat the alloy to an elevated temperature to dissolve all or most alloy
elements into the matrix and try to obtain a single phase.
• Ageing:
– Carried out at lower temperature of solution treatment, to allow the alloy
elements to form precipitates.
Precipitation (age) hardening
But if we heat the alloy
up we have a single
phase – α
(the β-phase dissolves)
Heat up
Room Temperature X
5%β
β phase in an α matrix
6/03/2020
If we quench
quickly we can trap
the β-phase in the
α-matrix
quench
Room Temperature
5%β
After quenching, the β phase is trapped α matrix

6/03/2020
If we heat back up
(still in the α+β zone)
And hold there for a
period of time, the β-
phase will start to
precipitate out
The β-phase will continue

to coarsen with time, but
after a certain amount of
precipitation has These precipitates are dislocation barriers
occurred, we can quench 5%β
again and trap it
6/03/2020
Heat treatment – solution and aging
Single phase zone (α) 2 phase zone (α + θ)

Solution treated (~100X)
Aged (~100 000X)
Heat treatment - Aging
90
80
70
60
Hardness (HRB)
50
200ºC
40 180ºC
160ºC
30
140ºC
20 Room Temperature
10
0
0.0001 0.01 1 100 10000
Log Time (hrs)
Figure 1 – Ageing response of Ampalloy 2712 at various ageing temperatures.

Aluminium Alloy (Al-Cu-Mg-Si )
1904 Wright Flyer Current research

- Duralumin and development
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Metal Forming:
Deformation Processing
(Part 1)
Week 4



Engineering…)
Products
Outline of Lecture
 Introduction to Deformation
Processing
 Theory of Metal Deformation
 Attributes of Deformation Processing
 Forging
Reference: Kalpakjian: Chapter 13, 14, 15

Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmarks
Messerschmitt Me 262
Alcoa 50,000 ton press

Boeing B-29 Superfortress
What is Deformation Processing?
“forming operation in which the desired

shape of a metal sample is achieved by
plastic deformation”
_________
Four Types of Deformation Processing
Forging
Rolling
Four Types of Deformation Processing
Extrusion
Drawing (wire)
Casting vs Deformation processing
VS
Casting vs Deformation processing
Casting Deformation
Processing
Advantages • No real upper size limit in • Generally stronger,
casting weight tougher, better wear and
• Complicated/complex parts impact properties
are possible • There is less need for
• Large range of alloy choices expensive alloys to attain
• Tooling is often less high strength components
expensive • Some shapes are more
• Smaller production “runs” practical to undergo
required deformation processing
Disadvantage • Property not as good due • Can not do too large,

s to defects complicated, intricate
• Some shapes not practical shapes
to cast • Expensive tooling
Case Study #1:
Cast vs Forged Components
Cast
crankshaft
VS
Forged
crankshaft
Case Study #2 :
Scale of Dimension Change
SLAB FOIL
Thickness: 300 mm Thickness: 0.025 mm
Length: 5 m Length: 60 km
*assuming constant W
 Such large strains cannot be achieved in a single operation

 HOT working + COLD working and annealing
Theory of Metal Deformation
Theory of Deformation Processing:
Effect of Stress State
Process needs an applied stress:
YS  applied  UTS
Tension Compression Shear

Pulls metal apart Increases ductility Metal deformation
and leads to
fracture
A combination of stresses leads to

high formability:
Forging
Rolling
Direct compression
Direct compression (+
shear)
A combination of stresses leads to
high formability:
Extrusion Drawing
Compression + Indirect Tension + Indirect Compression
Compression
The Effect of Temperature
“Deformation processing can be done HOT
or COLD…”
Process Type
Forging Hot or Cold The reference temperature
Rolling Hot or Cold is the Recrystallization
Extrusion Hot or Cold Temperature, Trec
Wire Drawing Generally Cold
‘Cold’ < Trec ‘Hot’ > Trec
Recrystallization Temperature
temperature at
which deformed
grains are replaced
by fine, defect-free
grains during
annealing
1/2Tm
Tm = melting point, K 1/3Tm

WHAT HAPPENS TO A
METAL WHEN DEFORMED
“COLD” VS “HOT”?
Cold-Worked Metals:
Microstructure
“…will have a
deformed or
highly strained
microstructure”
“Product has high

strength due to
strain hardening,
but has poor
ductility”
What happens when metals are
deformed at ‘cold’ temperatures?
Dislocation cell
structure
“Strain hardening occurs “…prevents crystal slip
due to increase in and stops further plastic
dislocation density…” deformation”
Hot-Worked Metals:
Microstructure
“…will possess a
fine-grained,
recrystallized
microstructure”
“Product has
good strength
and good
ductility”
Case Study: Recrystallization of Brass
CW (33%) 3 s at 580oC 4 s at 580oC

“ recrystallization Initial stage of Partial replacement of
requires a minimum recrystallization CW grains with
amount of deformation” recrystallized grains
Case Study: Recrystallization of Brass
8 s at 580oC 15 min at 580oC 10 min at 700oC

Complete recrystallization, Grain growth Enhanced grain
“all residual traces of growth
deformation stress is
removed”
Recrystallization:
Effect of Amount of Plastic Deformation
“the higher the amount of pre-deformation, the

finer recrystallized grains”
Summary
Metal Working
COLD HOT
Metal hardens Metal stays

as it is soft and
deformed ductile during
deformation
Attributes of Metal Forming
Attributes of Metal Forming
Process
1. Combination of stress leads to high
formability
2. Can be done hot or cold
3. Needs a tool for shaping
4. Friction is undesirable
5. Consider “springback” of workpiece
6. Directional grain flow can give
special qualities to product
Attributes of Deformation Processing
#3. “Needs a
tool, called
the die
___, for
shaping”
Attributes of Deformation Processing:
#4) Effect of Friction
Friction is created when
the moving surfaces of Friction is enhanced by
the die and the workpiece high temperature
surface comes into (“sticking friction”)
contact
“barrelling of workpiece”
Understanding Friction:
Theory of Asperity contact
• Surfaces consist of
asperities (high
spots) and valleys
• When surfaces are

brought together,
asperities contact first
• Asperities can
flatten increasing
surface area, and
movement can even
weld the surfaces
Consequences of Friction:
Die Wear
Friction Effects
“Too much Friction is unwanted in deformation
processing…”
 Metal flow is
reduced
 Needed forming
forces and power
are increased
 Tools wear faster

Preventing Friction
“Lubrication is an
essential part of the
forming process”
• Lowers tool wear Lubricants applied to Die
• Lowers forging loads

Lubricant Coeff of friction, µ
• Enables uniform metal
flow Dry (no lubricant) 0.33-0.35
• Functions as a parting Furnace oil 0.10-0.18
agent Graphite in 0.065-0.09
machine oil
• Serve as a barrier to heat
Graphite in water 0.10-0.13
transfer
Saw dust 0.13-0.17
#5) Springback
 Elastic recovery
after the applied
stress is released
 Changes final
dimensional
tolerance of the
product
#6) Directional grain flow
machined
Directional
grain flow can
give products
unique
properties forged
“similar to wood grains…”

Advantages & Disadvantages:
Hot Forming Processes
 Metal stays soft
during hot forming  Surface is oxidized
‘product is tough and

‘create mill scales’
ductile’
‘process requires low ‘surface has poor

forming stresses’ appearance’
‘large deformation can

be achieved per step’  Metal contracts after
cooling
‘internal defects (pores)
will be removed’ ‘lose dimensional
tolerance’
‘deformation and heat
improves chemical
inhomogeneity’
Advantages & Disadvantages:
Cold Forming Processes
 Cold-worked metal
 Surface is not hardens during
oxidized forming
‘surface has good ‘Better strength,

appearance’ fatigue, and wear
properties’
 Metal does not ‘product has poor

contract after ductility and has
working residual stress’
‘good dimensional ‘process requires high

tolerance’ forming stresses and
large equipment’
‘limited deformation per

working step’
Questions
True or False
1. All deformation processing done at room temperature is
considered cold working. FALSE
2. If the melting point of a metal is 300 C, then Trec is

between 100 to 150 C. FALSE
3. Cold worked products are stronger than hot worked

products, but hot worked products have better surface
finish than cold-worked ones. FALSE
4. Friction during deformation processing is desirable and

may be improved by applying lubricants. FALSE
Questions
True or False
5. Deformation processing needs stress greater than both the
YS and UTS. FALSE
6. Springback is undesirable as it requires extra processing

to correct the metal’s dimensions. TRUE
7. A hot-rolled steel will have a recrystallized microstructure.

TRUE
MOLD
8. The die is to forging, as __________ is to casting.
Case study: Lead
When lead (Tm = 327 oC) is deformed

at room temperature, it remains soft
and ductile and does not harden.
Explain this phenomenon.
Trec of Pb is -4 oC, hence
deformation processing at
room temperature is
considered hot working,
where the metal stays soft
and ductile due to
recrystallised microstructure
Forging
What is Forging?
 a metalworking process
in which the work piece
is shaped by
hammering or pressing
through dies and
tooling
 forged parts typically
have better mechanical
properties
 normally some final
“Forging can be room or
finishing is required
after forging except for
elevated temperatures”
precision forging
Forging Products
produces discrete parts

World’s largest forging presses
1940s 2013
During WW2, Erzhong
Germany Group
built 30,000T (China) built
press 80,000T press
Russia built France built

75,000T press 65,000T press
1954
Alcoa (US)
built a
50,000T press
Forging (Open and Closed-die)
Classifications of Forging Processes
1. Open die forging

- no lateral constraint
to metal flow
2. Closed die forging

- some lateral constraint
to metal flow
Open Die Forging
• Large, relatively simple shapes formed by compression
• Flat dies in a large hydraulic press or power hammers
are often used
• Hot working process using cold dies
Example of Open Die Forging:
Cogging
Cogging
• aka drawing out
• process that reduces a
metal’s thickness and
increases its length by
successive hammering (bite)
Cogging
0:30
The working area is small, so large pieces can be progressively

forged without large forces/heavy presses
Upsetting
Upsetting
• Increases the diameter of
the workpiece by
compressing its length
Upset forging to
make screw and
nail heads
Closed Die Forging
 Work-piece formed to
the shape of the die
cavity between 2 dies
 Normally done at
elevated temperatures
flash
punch
die
Forging Flash
To ensure metal
fully fills die
cavity a slight
excess of metal
is used
This squeezes
out of the cavity
as a thin ribbon
of metal, which
is called flash
Forging Flash
 Flash places a severe

constraint on the outward flow “Flash is
of metal due to frictional subsequently
resistance. removed by
 Thus, the metal flows within the trimming”
die cavity and fully fills the die
Flashless Forging
Closed Die Forging: Closed Die Forging:

Impression Die Forging Flashless Forging
Forgeability
“capability of a material to undergo

deformation during forging without
cracking”
Assessing Forgeability
1. Upset test
2. Hot-twist test
cylindrical specimen is
upset between flat dies to a round specimen is twisted
a reduced height at which continuously until it fails
cracking occurs on the
barrelled surface
Forging Defects
(a) Surface cracking: surface tensile stresses, lubrication
(b) Laps: buckling of webs due to insufficient metal volume
(c) Internal cracks: caused by oversized billet
(a) (b)
(c)
Die Design
 Must consider distortion & dimensional tolerances
 Rule of die design

 Part will flow in the direction
of least resistance
Simulation of Forging
 Intermediate shapes Connecting Rod
(Preforming)
 Forging simulations
Stages in Forging a
Connecting Rod
Die Design
 Gutter
 the room for flashing
 Thickness of flash: 3% of the
maximum forging thickness
 Length of the gutter: 2 ~ 5
times of the thickness
 Draft angle
Good when < 90o
Die Design
 Die Materials
 Commonly made of die and tool
steels containing Cr, Ni, Mo, & V
 Sufficient strength and

toughness at elevated
temperature and resistant to
mechanical and thermal shock
 High hardenability - heat

treatable
 High wear resistance, Press-hardened steel

for extrusion
particularly at higher
temperature
Die Design
 Die Manufacturing
 Casting, forging, machining, grinding,
electrical and electrochemical method,
etc.
 Computer assisted design
Forging Costs
 Source of Expense
 die cost
 set up cost
 materials cost
 Tooling costs & set

up costs per piece
decrease for large
production numbers
Cost Comparison:
Casting vs Forging
• Why is die casting low cost
for high production runs?
Highly automated, low
cycle times
• Why is forging more
expensive than die casting?
Cost of forging
equipment
• Why is it used?
Produces parts with
better properties
What factors influence the forging
load?
• the amount of
deformation (change in
thickness)
• friction between tool

and workpiece
• the type of metal being

forged
• the strength of the

metal used as die
• the area being

deformed by the tool
• the temperature of the

metal
Calculation of Forging Force
Forging force (on a cylindrical
workpiece) can be estimated
from:
where σf = flow stress of the material

(based on true strain)
μ = coefficient of friction between the
workpiece and the die
r = instantaneous radius
h = instantaneous height
For more information refer to Kalpakjian Section 14.2

Calculation of Forging Force
friction
Temperature
Type of
metal Area of
metal Amount of
being deformation
deformed
(toolbite)
Influence of Strain Rates
 Strain rate is important,

and an increase in the
rate of deformation
increases tensile
strength (particularly at
higher temperature)
 However, it is not
practical/productive to
forge at very low strain
rates
Sample Problem
A solid cylindrical slug of 304 Stainless Steel is 150mm in
diameter and 100mm high. It is reduced in height by 50% at
room temperature with open flat dies. Assuming that the
coefficient of friction is 0.2, calculate the forging force at the
end of the stroke.
Solution: We use the following equation:

0.2
? ?
?
ro = 75 mm
ri = ?
ho = 100
mm hi = 0.5ho=
50 mm
Step 1. We must determine the We know that the height is reduced by

instantaneous radius and height of 50%, then ho = 50mm
the workpiece during forging.
Assuming volume consistency, the radius, r is determined by:

initial
2
initial = instantaneous
2
instantaneous
(75)2 (100) = instantaneous (50)
2
instantaneous = 106 mm
Sample Problem
Step 2. Determine the flow stress, σf
The flow stress is the stress required to cause the material
to plastically flow. This value depends on the absolute value
of true strain.
True strain, ε = ln (L/L0)

= ln (50/100) = -0.69
* L is based on the height H. The negative
indicates negative strain (compression) , we
are interested in the absolute value of true
strain (0.69)
Now we can determine the

flow stress at this true strain
Sample Problem
Step 3.
Use plot and the
true strain value, to
get the true stress.
Flow stress is
approximately
~1000 MPa for 304
Stainless Steel at
0.69 True strain
Sample Problem
Step 4. Calculate the forging force:
= N
4600 tons of force
Heavy Duty Equipment is required for these operations

Question
Considering the forces required during forging, what is the

most effective technique for lowering the forces and making
forging easier?
a. Use bigger more powerful machines

b. Use lubricants to reduce the coefficient of friction
between die and work material
c. Increase the temperature
d. Increase the rate of forging
e. Reduce the rate of forging
Effect of reducing Friction &
Temperature
 Assumption #1 : decrease µ by 75% (µ=0.05)

 Assumption #2 : Heat the metal to 900oC
 f F % change
Original 0.2 1000 4600 N/A
Assumption 1 0.05 1000 3850 16%
Effect of reducing Friction &
Temperature
Assumption #2
Heating to 900°C
reduces strength
by 80%
 f F % change
Original 0.2 1000 4600 N/A
Assumption 1 0.05 1000 3850 16%
Assumption 2 0.2 200 920 80%
Questions: Forging
1. True or False. Forging is best for producing flat or long,

continuous products. FALSE
2. The excess metal that is used to ensure metal flow in the

die impression is called:
a. Die c. Gutter
B
b. Flash d. Parting metal
3. True or False. The hot-twist test is used to assess the

forgeability of a material. TRUE
Would you Cast or Forge?
Hex screwdriver bits
Landing gear
Metal statue
Engine block
End of lecture…
…thank you for listening!

MECH2305
Manufacturing
Deformation Processing
(Part 2)



Engineering…)
Products
Outline of Lecture
 Rolling
 Extrusion
 Drawing
Reference: Kalpakjian: Chapter 13, 14, 15

Rolling
What is Rolling?
“Process of reducing the

thickness or changing the
cross sectional shape of a
long workpiece by
compressive
_____________ forces
applied through a set of
rolls”
Rolling changes  Breaks down coarse grains to

finer grains
the microstructure  Closes up porous structures
of metals  Improves mechanical properties
Introduction to Rolling (Video)
2:45
Rolling
Rolling can be done at elevated temperature
or room temperature
Two basic types of rolling:

1. Flat rolling
2. Shape rolling
Using two-high rolling Rolling
in cogging mill
 Hot rolling: Initial

ingot breakdown to
blooms, billets &
slabs
Rolling
 Hot rolling to plate

(thickness >
6mm), sheet (<
6mm), bar, pipe,
rails, structural
shapes
Steels start at 1000-

1300°C
Finish 700-900°C
Rolling
 Cold rolling to
sheet strip & foil
(Al foil < 3 ~ 8 m)
 Superior
tolerances &
surface finish
(stainless steels
to mirror quality)
 Higher strengths
with cold work
Rolling Mill
Rolling mill consists of:

 Rolls (shaping)
 Bearings (to allow
rotation)
 Housing (to keep rolls
together)
 Drive (to apply power
and control speed)
Flat Rolling
Two high rolling  Two high rolling mill

 Simplest; rolls of equal size
 rolls spin in opposite
direction
 Large rolls with large reductions
used for initial ingot at high
temperatures
 Draft, h = ho - hf
Flat Rolling :
Types of Rolling Mills
Two-high Two-high
Three-high
mill Reversing mill mill
Flat Rolling :
Types of Rolling Mills
Four-high Six-high
mill mill Cluster mill
(Sendzimir Mill)
Flat Rolling:
4 and 6 High Mills
Four high rolling Six high rolling
 Decrease roll force if work rolls are small

 Bigger rolls adds stiffness (stops deflection)
 Needed for thin sheet & foil
Flat Rolling:
Cluster Mill
Cluster rolling or Sendzimir mill

 Developed for producing extremely thin gold foil
Shape Rolling
Products:
H, I-beams, rounds,
rails, hexagonal,
channels, angles,
railway, etc.
Metal forming process that involve

forming the work with rolls of a certain
geometry
Case Study: Skew Rolling Process
• can be used to produce discrete, spherical shapes (e.g.
steel balls)
Rolls for I-beams
Tandem Rolling
 Series of mills in
tandem for high
production rates (e.g.
Cu radiator foil from
25 mm to 40 m
thickness)
 Velocity of workpiece
increases at each roll
as thickness
decreases (width is
constant)
 Shape or flat rolling
Rolling Defects
(a) Wavy edges: Strip is

thinner along edges
than centre and edges
buckle.
(b,c) Cracks: ductility of
material is too low
(d) Alligatoring: non-
uniform deformation
during rolling
More information: Kalpakjian Section 13.3.1

Roll Design:
Roll Material
Uses ferrous alloys
1. Steels (< 2%C)
 Roughing stands
 adamites, high chromium
iron (HCr), high speed
steels (HSS)
2. Cast Iron (> 2% C)
 Finishing stands
 chilled cast iron,
spheroidal cast iron, high
Cr cast iron
Roll Design:
Influence of Roll deflection
• The rolled strip tends to

be thicker at its centre
than at edges (crown)
• To overcome this, grind
the roll larger (~ 0.25
mm) in diameter at its
centre than at edges
(camber)
• Use external moment to
compensate
Calculation of Rolling Forces
Roll forces (F) and the total power (P) can be calculated using
the following equations:
L = roll-strip contact length

w = width of the strip
Yavg = average true stress
N = roll speed in rpm
R = roll radius
ho = initial thickness
hf = final thickness of the
strip
Refer to Kalpakjian Section 13.2 for more details and example

Terms used in Rolling
L = bite
= area of contact
Case Study: Rolling
Diameter: 21.6mm Diameter: 28.5mm

Thickness: 1.5mm Thickness: 2.36mm

Case Study: Cold Rolling of Coins
Width: 24mm Width: 29mm

Length: 136mm Length: 34mm
Thickness: 0.18mm (833%) Thickness: 1.7mm (28%)
Questions: Rolling
1. True or False. The rolling process can only produce a
simple, flattened shape profile. FALSE
2. True or False. The rolling process can only produce

continuous shapes. FALSE
3. This type of rolling process is best for producing very thin

metal foils:
a. three-high mill c. cluster mill
C
b. two-high mill d. six-high mill
4. True or False. As the diameter of the work roll decreases,

the rolling load decreases. TRUE
Extrusion
What is Extrusion?
“process of reducing or
changing the cross section
of a metal by forcing it to
flow through a die orifice
under high pressure”
Large deformations without

fracture is possible because
the material is under triaxial
compression (hydrostatic
pressures)
Extrusion Analogies
Typical Products of Extrusion
Rails for sliding doors, window frames, various tubing,

Al ladder, heat sinks
Introduction to Extrusion (Video)
3:01
Three Types of Extrusion
1. Direct extrusion
‘ram is separate from the die’
2. Indirect extrusion
3. Hydrostatic extrusion ‘ram is with die’

Advantages and Disadvantages:
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect Extrusion
requires lower
extrusion loads
since less friction
is encountered!
Disadvantages of
Indirect Extrusion:
a) Difficulty in
supporting extruded
products
b) Lower rigidity of die
Direct Extrusion
Direct extrusion of metal rod Direct extrusion of metal tube
 Billet is placed in a chamber is directly forced through a die

opening by hydraulically driven ram.
 A dummy block is used to protect the tip of the pressing
stem, particularly in hot extrusion.
Indirect Extrusion
 The die carried by a hollow tool stem which moves toward

the billet.
 Advantage: There is no billet-container friction as there is
no relative motion.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
 Fluid fills the

chamber and
surrounds the
billet
 Pressure is
transmitted to
the billet
through the
fluid
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Advantage: Triaxial
compressive stresses
transmitted through the
fluid to the billet
resulting in improved
formability
 Brittle metals may be

extruded
 Castor oils are used
as fluid
Die Design
 Materials : Die steels

 Lubricant : Glass for hot
extrusion; soap or wax for
cold extrusion
For nonferrous For steels
alloys
Design Considerations
 Symmetrical cross
section
 avoid sharp
corners
 extreme changes
in die dimensions
Die Design:
Optimum Die Angle
“Optimum angle depends on work material, billet

temperature, and lubrication…”
Extrusion Defects
(a) Centerbursts (Internal cracking)

 Caused by the state of hydrostatic
tensile stress at the centreline in the
deformation zone in the die.
 To avoid, decrease the die angle,
purification of metals or reduce
extrusion ratio and friction
(b) Pipe
 Oxides and impurities drawn towards
centre of the billet
 To avoid, control friction by using
lubricant, minimize temperature
gradient
(c) Surface cracking

 Extrusion temperature, friction and
speed are too high
 Hot shortness – inhomogeneity causes
local melting and cracks
Extrusion Force
The extrusion force, F, can be
estimated from:
where k = extrusion constant

(determined experimentally)
= combines the strength of material
and frictional forces “Extrusion constant
Ao = area of the billet of different metals
Af = area of the extruded product as a function of T”
is known as the extrusion ratio
More details and example on Kalpakjian Section 15.2

Extrusion Ratio
rx = extrusion ratio
Ao = area initial
Extrusion ratio of 35:1
Af = area final
to 100:1 is done in the
industry!
Effect of Die Orifice Shape on
Extrusion Load
VS
As the die orifice shape becomes more

complex, higher loads are required!
Questions: Extrusion
True or False.
1. Indirect extrusion requires less force than direct
extrusion. TRUE
2. Extrusion cannot fabricate hollow products such as tubes.

FALSE
3. As extrusion ratio increases, the extrusion load

increases. TRUE
4. It is desirable that the die angle be made as high as

possible to minimize extrusion load. FALSE
Drawing
Wire Drawing vs Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing
Wire Drawing
(Wires)
vs. (Sheets)
What is Wire Drawing?
• reducing and
changing cross
sections of long wires
pulling
or rods by ________
them through a die
• principle is similar to
extrusion (‘pushing’)
Drawing
• Normally done at room temperature

• Considerable heat is generated due to deformation,
therefore, cooling may be required
Drawing Series
“Since wire drawing is normally done ‘cold’,

annealing is sometimes necessary between die drawing
operations”
Wire Drawing
Thicker Thinner
 Swift: holds coil of wire ready for drawing

 Drawing block: provides drawing force to pull
wire through die, also accumulates drawn wire
Wire Drawing
 Continuous operation requires a succession of dies

 Speed of wire increases after each die
 Each “drawing block” typically has its own control
Wire Drawing (Video)
Drawing Dies
 Simple design
 Made of tungsten
carbide or diamond
(single or
polycrystalline)
Drawing Load:
Optimum Die Angle
Schematic of
drawing die
Optimum die
angle offers
lowest
drawing load
Area reduction and Drawing
Ratio
RA = reduction in area, %
Ao = area initial
Af = area final
Area reduction is 15– rd = drawing ratio

25%; in larger wires is
20–45%
Questions
True or False.
1. Drawing is often done at elevated temperatures and is
best for making wires. FALSE
2. Drawing dies are often made of low carbon steels.

FALSE
3. As drawing ratio increases, the drawing load increases.

TRUE
From 2015 Exam
Which manufacturing process has most likely been
used to make a low alloy steel I-beam?
(a) Casting
(b) Forging
(c) Extrusion
(d) Deep drawing
(e) Rolling
From 2015 Exam
Which manufacturing process has most likely been
used to make a low alloy steel I-beam?
(a) Casting Produces discrete parts

(b) Forging (not continuous)
(c) Extrusion High extrusion constant k
(d) Deep drawing for steels  more force
(e) Rolling
A sheet-metal forming
process
From 2013 Exam
Steel balls are widely used in cement and minerals
processing industries as milling balls. They can be
produced through various manufacturing processes. Which
of the following processes can NOT be used to produce
steel balls?
(a) Die casting

(b) Extrusion and Drawing
(c) Forging
(d) Skew rolling
(e) Powder metallurgy
From 2013 Exam
Steel balls are widely used in cement and minerals
processing industries as milling balls. They can be
produced through various manufacturing processes. Which
of the following processes can NOT be used to produce
steel balls?
(a) Die casting

(b) Extrusion and Drawing
(c) Forging
(d) Skew rolling
(e) Powder metallurgy
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Engineering Drawing
In this lecture…
I. Introduction to Engineering Drawing
II. The role of engineering drawing in the design process
III. Drawing Standards
IV. Exercises
Part I
Introduction to Engineering Drawing
I. Introduction
What is engineering drawing?
Technical drawing used to define the requirements

for engineering items
views
dimensions
manufacturing aspects
tolerances ?
assembly information
…
But also a language to communicate ideas from one

mind to another
I. Introduction
Why using engineering drawing?
Imagine…
• Trying to describe this component with words only
• Asking someone to reproduce this part from your notes
I. Introduction
“Word language is inadequate for describing the shape,

features, and sizes as well and as concisely as Graphical
language”
?
I. Introduction
• Today, it is common for a part to be designed in one country,

manufactured in another and assembled in a third
• This can be done efficiently with engineering communication via
drawings
A380 by Airbus
I. Introduction

• Fundamental engineering skill
• ‘Language’ of design
• Necessary to be able to communicate, interpret and alter
engineering drawings.
I. Introduction
How Much Is Your Time Worth ?

In a design office, time is your currency. Quotations are
based on the expected time it would take to complete a
design package. It is important to have a thorough grasp on
how long it takes to generate drawings in order to A) win
jobs, and, B) avoid eroding your margin and going out of
business.
Indicative charge out rates**:

• Designer / Draftsman - $100 to $140 / hour (charge out
rate)
• Engineer - $100 - $200 / hour (charge out rate)
**Note: approximate figures used for example only

I. Introduction
Elements of an engineering drawing

The specifications for a component or assembly contained in
an engineering drawing are an important contractual
document with many legal implications.
A drawing includes:
• A descriptive title
• Full representation of the shape of every part of the object
(orthographic projection)
• The size of every part, in figures (dimensioning)
• Explanatory notes giving specifications as to materials,
finish, etc.
I. Introduction
Elements of an engineering drawing
Graphics language
Describes shape using lines and curves
Word language
Describes dimensions, location,

and specifications of an object
Visualization is the ability to mentally picture things that do not exist

I. Introduction
Types of Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawings are divided into two general classes
Detail drawings: complete description of each separate piece, giving its shape,
size, material and finish, what shop operations are necessary, what limits of
accuracy are demanded and how many of each are wanted.
Assembly drawings:
• a drawing of the assembled product, showing the relative positions of the
different parts
• It may give the all over dimensions and distances from centre to centre or
part to part of the different pieces, showing their relation to each other,
usually indicating the different parts by "piece numbers," often enclosed in
circles.
• It frequently includes a "bill of materials," a tabulated statement of all the
parts used, including stock parts such as bolts, screws, etc.
I. Introduction
Example of Detail Drawing

I. Introduction
Example Assembly Drawing

I. Introduction
Evolution of engineering drawings

1980s 1990s
Hand-sketch 2D Computer Generated 2D 2D drawings from 3D

drawings drawings models
Drawings had to be 2D CAD programs sped 2D drawings can be

created manually up the process of generated from 3D
generating drawings models
2D drawing were the 2D drawing were still the 2D models are now being used
sole reference to reference for along with 3D models in the
manufacture a part communicating design design process
Part II
The role of drawing in the design process
II. Drawing & Design process
Life Cycle of an Engineering Drawing
1. Design Conceptualisation
2. Design Modelling
3. Design Analysis
4. Drawing Generation
5. Tolerances, manufacturing considerations
6. Drawing Review Steps in which
7. Manufacturing engineering drawings
are being used
8. Quality Assurance
9. As-Built Drawings
10. Revision Changes
1. Conceptualisation
A concept is developed to meet the design brief, design criteria and
relevant specifications. Conceptualisation processes can include:
• Sketching
• Modelling
• Physical prototyping
This is a reasonably low investment process which forms the basis of

further development.
Without having a concept that addresses all the major requirements of
the design brief you are likely to waste a lot of time and money
addressing issues downstream in your higher investment processes.
“Without a goal you can spend all day running up and down the field
without scoring”
2. Modelling
Technical drawing processes have developed over the years starting on the
drawing board, however these days 2D and 3D Computer Aided Design (CAD)
packages are the norm for generating engineering drawings.
2D and 3D CAD packages still rely on base sketches to generate drawings.

In a 2D CAD process, autographic projects are drawn similarly to how it was
once done on a drawing board.
3D processes take things one step further in that a Base model is created by
extruding 2D sketches to form 3D bodies. Drawing views can then be projected
from the model onto paper space.
A 3D model can serve multiple purposes, and is not necessarily just created for
the purpose of creating drawings – this will be covered later.
2. Modelling
Example – Iron Ore Surge Bin Isolation Gate
3. Analysis
FEA, DEM, CFD are all analysis methods which rely on various data input
streams. 3D models are one of the major inputs to these processes.
Before investing in the generation of manufacturing drawings you need to

verify that your product is ready for manufacture, otherwise you risk having to
conduct subsequent design modifications to get it right.
4. Engineering Drawing
Pictorial views
 Very useful for illustrating assemblies
 Isometric and Oblique representations
4. Engineering Drawing
• Pictorial Vs Orthographic representations
Top view
Front view Side view

5. Tolerances & Manufacturing Considerations
How close is close enough ?

• Tolerances define the limit of a particular parameter of your design.
• The tolerance ranges you assign will determine the process(es) that can
be used to manufacture your product.
• Understand what is critical and what is not critical in your design and
apply tolerance ranges accordingly – this will help you minimise the cost
of your product.
6. Design & Drawing Review

Internal quality assurance process prior to approving the design and proceeding
with manufacture.
Often design reviews are conducted utilising the 3D model in conjunction with
the drawings to provide additional perspective on the content of the drawing.
This is useful for the purpose of:

• Clash detection
• Manufacturing process considerations
• Assembly / construction process considerations
• Checking the range of movement of a part / assembly
It is beneficial to involve your manufacturing partners in the review process

whenever practical to identify opportunities to reduce complexity and cost.
7. Manufacturing
Depending on their manufacturing process, manufacturers can make use of
drawings, models and DXF files to manufacture your product.
Models are commonly used for programming CNC machines, automated
welding equipment, laser cutters, tube benders (the list goes on) to generate
your product. The drawing however still plays a vital role as it is used to confirm
the details that aren’t readily identifiable from a model, such as:
• Thread profiles
• Surface finishes
• Dimensional tolerance ranges
• Hardness
• Process specific instructions
(welding notes and the like)
Before your product is dispatched it usually subject to a Quality Assurance
process.
At this point your product is compared against the drawing to ensure that the
product complies with the requirements you specified.
CMM is a process used to accurately measure your product against your CAD
Model. You have the ability to program the machine to measure specific
dimensions and specify their allowable tolerance ranges. The machine will
provide you with a report of the key dimensions and if they are in or out of
tolerance.
Ultimately even this process relies on the information that you have specified on
your drawing to determine if the product is adequate or not.
Revisions and As-Built Drawings

Changes to drawings are tracked as revisions.
Revisions are typically alphanumeric (A,B,C…)
until they reach the released stage at which
point the drawing goes to rev (0,1,2,3…)
Changes during revisions are tracked using

revision symbols next to the change (typically
the letter or number of the revision, and an
accompanying note in the revision table.
Revision clouds can be used to outline the

particular change on the drawing, however
caution should be exercised when using these….
Part III
Drawing Standards
Why using standards?

• Engineering drawings are a language in their own right
and as in any language certain rules (or standards) must
be followed
• Drawing standards are a set of rules (drawing grammar)
that govern how technical drawings are presented
• Developed set of internationally accepted rules to allow
unambiguous transfer of information across national
boundaries
Australian standards
Standards Australia publish standards related to preparation of
engineering drawings: Engineering Drawing Handbook
AS1000 The International System of Units (SI) and its application
AS1100 Technical Drawing

Part 101: General principles
Part 201: Mechanical engineering drawing
AS1101 Graphical symbols for general engineering
AS1654 Limits and fits for engineering

Orthographic Projections
• The basis of engineering drawing are orthographic projections, built
upon the orthogonal projection of 3D objects onto 2D planes
• Principle of orthographic projections
– Imagine enclosing the object in a transparent box where each
surface of the box represents a projection plane
– Unfolding the box provides the standard views used in
orthographic projections
• 1st & 3rd angle projection
• Projection methods
– First Angle projection is used in Europe and most of the world
– Third Angle projection is used in America and Australia
• Projection symbol
• View presentation
– In practice not all six standard views are needed to fully describe
an object
– Three views are adequate in most situations
– For axially symmetric parts, only two views are required
Presentation of Views | Section Views
• Plane section (standard section view)
Everything that is being directly cut by the plane is hatched.


• Half section view

• Offset section
– Section in more than one planes

• Other section types
– A few others are useful in different circumstances
Presentation of Views | Detail Views

• Auxiliary and detail views
– Objects may have one or more inclined face whose true shape it is
necessary to show in outline. This is done by making an auxiliary
view looking straight against the surface
Drawing Standards
• Drawing scales
– When the object is too large
• Scale 1:X (X>0) for a reduction scale
Drawing Standards
• Drawing scales
– When the object is too small
• Scale X:1 (X>1) for an enlargement scale
Drawing Standards
• Line conventions
Visible line represent features that can be seen in the current view
Dimension line
Extension line indicate the sizes and location of features
Leader line
Hidden line represent features that cannot be seen in the current view
represents symmetry, path of motion, centre of circles, axis of
Centre line
axisymmetrical parts, sections
Drawing Standards
Drawing Standards
• Leader lines
– To show where dimensions or notes apply
– Always end in arrowheads or dots
• Arrowheads touch and stop on a line
• Dots should be within the outline of the object
Drawing Standards
• Representation of the screw thread-external
NOTE:
Inner lines are
Type 2 Lines
(Continuous Thin
Lines)
Drawing Standards
• Representation of the screw thread-internal
NOTE:
Inner lines are
Type 2 Lines
(Continous Thin
Lines)
Drawing Standards
• Specifying Welds on Drawings (AS1101)

Weld all Around Weld on other side
6 30-50
Pitch
Length
Weld on arrow side
20
10
Width of weld 20
6 20-10 =
6 = Weld 6mm fillet

weld this side only
3
6
= Weld 6mm fillet
weld both sides =
Part IV
Exercises
IV. Exercises
Which of these sections is right?

Vote here: apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/86657
(a) (b)
?
(c) (d)
IV. Exercises
Which of these projections is right?

(a) (b)
*in 3rd angle standards
(c) (d)
IV. Exercises
Which of these projections is right?

(a) (b)
(c) (d)
*in 1st angle standards

Additional Reference Material
Drawing Standards
• There are a range of standards published by International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) related to
engineering drawing and serve as a guide for individual
countries to develop their own standards
Drawing Standards
– Hatching is drawn with Type B (Continuous Thin) Lines, equally
spaced at 45º.
– Preferably not less than 4mm Apart
– With very small parts, never less than 1mm
– On adjacent parts, alternate the direction of Hatching.
– Correct Section Line – Type F (Chain Thin)
Drawing Standards
• Australian standards on engineering drawing
• Projection methods
• Presentation of views and sections
• Dimensioning
• Sizes and formats of drawings
• Scales
• Lettering
Drawing Standards
Lines on a drawing provide shape information. Rules for the
use of lines on an engineering drawing cover:
• Line type, i.e. hidden from view, symmetrically placed
• Line thickness,
• Line spacing
• Line density
Written work is controlled by rules and standard practices of

spelling and grammar
Drawing Standards
• Common line types
– 1. Continuous Thick (0.5mm) TYPE A
– 2. Continuous Thin (0.25mm) TYPE B
– 3. Dashed Thin (0.25mm) TYPE E
– 4. Chain Thin (0.25mm) TYPE F

Drawing Standards
• Drawing lettering
Drawing Standards
• Drawing scales
– A ratio between the linear dimension of a drawn representation of
an object and the actual object
– Applicable when object is either large or small
– Designation of a scale consists of the word “Scale” followed by the
indication of its ratio
• Scale 1:1 for full size
• Scale X:1 (X>1) for an enlargement scale
• Scale 1:X (X>0) for a reduction scale
– Drawing scale is commonly inside the title block
• First and Third Angle Projection
– Projection systems are commonly known as first angle projection
and third angle projection
– One system falls neatly in the first quadrant and the other in the
third quadrant
In 1st Angle Projection the object is placed

in the First Quadrant
Vertical Plane is behind the object and
the Horizontal Plane is underneath the
object
In 3rd Angle Projection the object is placed
in the Third Quadrant
Vertical Plane is in front of the object
and the Horizontal Plane is above the
object
construction lines
Top view
Front view
Side view Front view

Presentation of Views
• Presentation of views and sections
– Orthographic projections
– Section views
– Auxiliary views
– Detail views
• Presentation of views
– For orthographic projection views, the most critical part of the
layout is the selection of the front view
– Front view should show:
• The most basic profile
• The fewest hidden lines
• The most stable position
• Projection views often need to show features inside the
object, which are marked by hidden lines.
• In some cases this can be confusing
Cutaway views or sections are
often used in conjunction with
orthographic projections to
clarify the object’s geometry.
The section view on the left
provides a much clearer view
of the part by revealing the
hidden features.
• Principles of section views
All surfaces cut by the hacksaw are

drawn with cross hatching lines
Surfaces that are not cut are left
blank
• Conventions for section views
 Show all the visible edges in the section view as in example B
below.
 Do not section any elements that are not continuous solids about any
given axis of the part
 A ribbed object is correctly sectioned in A below. If ribs were
sectioned as in B, it would be impossible to distinguish the object from
the cone-shape part on the right
Welding Symbols
A fillet weld on arrow side,

welded all round on site.
Fillet weld
Weld position is in
relation to this arrow A v-butt weld on the other
and where it points side in relation to arrow,
to on the drawing of welded all round.
the part. V-butt weld
The weld position is in relation to the arrows circled in red. For the top one, it shows a
fillet weld on the same side as where the arrow is pointing to on the drawing of the
part. For the bottom one the v-butt weld is on the opposite side to where the arrow is
pointing on the part. If the weld symbol was shown on both sides of the line then it
indicates that the weld need to be welded on both sides.
Storage
Most organisations who generate their own models and drawings
utilise a PDM (Product Data Management) system to store their CAD
files. The benefits of such a system include:
• Organised, secure data storage

• Structured and easily traceable model and drawing hierarchies
• Improved revision control
• Improved change management control
• On-line access to drawings (Mobile data availability)
• The ability to create structured file lifecycle management workflows
• Improved document control
Storage
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Machining



Engineering…)
Products



Engineering…)
Products
Outline
• Fundamentals of cutting
• Tool materials and cutting fluids
• Typical machining operations
– Turning
– Milling
• Grinding
• Case Study: Titanium machining for the F35
• Kalpakjian: Chapters, 21-27
30/03/2016
Machining Definition
Mechanical Machining is a collection of material-working processes in
which power-driven machine tools, such as saws, lathes, milling
machines, and drill presses, are used with a sharp cutting tool to
mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry.
The three principle machining methods:
Drilling Turning Milling
E.M. Trent, P.K. Wright, Metal Cutting, 4th edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA, 2000
5
Turning
“The work material is held in the chuck of a lathe and
rotated. The tool is held rigidly in a tool post and moved at a
constant rate along the axis of the bar, cutting away a layer
of metal to form a cylinder or a surface of more complex
profile.”
Turning
6
Milling
“In this operation the cutting action is achieved by rotating the tool
while the work is clamped on a table and the feed action is
obtained by moving it under the cutter.”
7
The ‘Cutting’ Process
‘Cutting’ is a shearing process – a tool acts as a wedge to
generate localised shear stress in the work-piece
Machining “butter”
The ‘Cutting’ Process
The material plays a big role on how the chip forms
Some materials will have a very small shear zone, making material removal easier. Others have a larger
shear zone (deformed zone), which requires higher cutting force.
Some materials tend to form serrated chips – segments formed by adiabatic shear. Other materials will form
continuous chips – shear throughout the chip (note this also depends on the cutting speed)
Tool Terminology
Rake (the top)
Flank (the side)
Cutting occurs on the rake,

but the flank (relief) face also
experiences wear
Tool Geometry
The cutting tool geometry (rake angle) is also critical
Positive rake angle gives a sharper tool, reduces
cutting forces and helps to form continuous chips.
But reduces the strength of the tool and the tip
can break away
Negative rake angle makes the tool more blunt,

increases the strength of the tool, can increase
friction and can improve the surface finish
Continuous Chips Discontinuous Chips
The choice of tool design is strongly

influenced by the material properties
(both work-piece and tool). Some
materials need positive and some need
negative rake angle. The machining
parameters are also important.
UQ Poll
http://apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
In machining operations it is more desirable to produce

chips that look like:
A B C
Breaking Chips
• Recutting swarf (the chips) is inefficient – it increases tool
wear, can damage the work-piece (poor surface finish)
and is a safety hazard (‘bird’s nest’). It is also difficult to
store long continuous chips.
‘Chip Breakers’ can be used to mechanically break up the

chip. These can be grooves designed into the tool or can be
clamped on.
UQ Poll
In which situation would a chip breaker be used during

machining?
a. When machining ductile metals which produce continuous
chips.
b. When machining very soft materials, such as pure aluminium
or pure copper.
c. When machining annealed steels which produce built up chips.
d. When machining brittle materials which produce discontinuous
chips.
e. Breaking down the chips when they have cooled down to room
temperature after machining.
Production Issues in Machining
• Machining produces a lot
of heat
• Heat softens the tool and
accelerates tool wear
leading to poor component
quality and cost
Therefore, coolants should be used
to remove excess heat
16
Temperatures in Cutting
• Energy dissipated in shear
zone & at tool-chip interface
• Relatively cool work piece
• Hot chip
• Hot tool
• Maximum temperature
located ≈ halfway up the
tool
• High temperatures in tool
• Tool needs substantial
strength at high
temperatures!
Requirement for Cutting Tool Materials
• Cutting tool is subjected to:
– High temperature
– High contact stress
– Rubbing along tool-chip
interface
• Requires:
– Hot hardness
– Toughness & impact strength
– Thermal shock resistance
– Wear resistance
– Chemical stability
Brittle materials can be used by good
tool design (protected cutting edge) • See Tables 22.1~22.3
Typical Cutting Tool Materials
• Used to make the entire tool

– High speed steel, including Mo and W steels: Various carbides
act as hardening phase
• Used as insert
– Carbides:
• WC: Powder Metallurgy to produce 6~16%Co based composite
materials
• TiC: Powder Metallurgy to produce Ni-Mo based composite
materials
– Alumina (Al2O3) based ceramic
– Cubic boron nitride (cBN) – 2nd hardest
– Diamond – the hardest
• Coated tools: on tool or insert
Improvements in tooling developments have significantly improved machining productivity

Carbide Insert
Multiple cutting
points on each
insert (worn
inserts can be
flipped)
8 cutting
points on
this insert
Cubic Boron Nitride/Diamond Insert
• Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride hardest known

material
• Polycrystalline diamond: small (synthetic) crystals
fused at high-pressure + high temperature
• Very expensive, so typically only the tip of the tool
that does the cutting is made of this material
Coated Tool
• Tools are coated with hard thin layers of
wear resistant materials, e.g TiN, TiCN,
Al2O3, TiC (~ 2 to 15 µm)
• Coatings can reduce friction
Methods:
• Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
• Physical vapour deposition (PVD)
The coating should have:
• High hardness and density
• Chemical stability
• Low thermal conductivity
• Good bonding
Limitations of Coatings
Coatings can be a great way to improve the tool performance,
but they are only effective as long as they remain intact:
This is a high end coated WC-Co insert rated for machining

“Superalloys”. The WC-Co tool (Hardness=1550) is coated
with TiC (Hardness=2085) and the TiC is coated with Al2O3
(Hardness=3200). After only 5 minutes of cutting a hardened
steel (Hardness=450), the coatings have worn through, which
causes accelerated local wear of the exposed WC-Co tool
Limitations of Coatings
• The process of adding a thin layer onto your tool decreases the
tool’s ‘sharpness’ – sometimes making it ineffective for the
cutting operation
uncoated coated
Both tools above have a 0° Rake angle, but the uncoated

tool is much sharper than the coated tool (the coating
increases the tool’s nose radius). This becomes more
important as the tool’s rake becomes more negative.
Increasing the tool’s nose radius can effectively turn a Nose

sharp ‘negative’ rake angle tool into a blunt positive radius
angle tool (depending on the depth of cut used)
Improvements in Machining Time
• Better tools decrease machining time (improve productivity)
• Significant effort in R&D
• Tool needs a relatively small amount of material
• Can afford expensive materials (diamond) and exotic manufacturing methods
CVD, PVD
• Time is money: typical machine cost is $150-200/hr so even a small
improvement in productivity is significant. Expensive $200 inserts (i.e. CBN)
can lower overall cost compared to a $25 carbide insert if machining time is
reduced
Case Study
Advanced Machining Technologies for titanium alloys used
on the Joint Strike Fighter
UQ Poll
Which of the following is NOT typically a consequence of

allowing temperatures to rise to high levels during
machining?
a. Tool wear will be accelerated due to high temperatures
b. High temperatures will cause dimensional changes in the
workpiece, thus reducing dimensional accuracy
c. Excessively high temperatures in the cutting zone can induce
thermal damage and metallurgical changes to the machined
surface
d. High temperatures will soften the workpiece making cutting
easier and extending tool life
Laser Assisted Machining (LAM)
• Different work-piece materials behave differently to different tooling
and machining conditions
• While LAM in Ti has a negative effect on tool life, LAM in hardened
steels can double tool life and reduce cutting forces by >30%
Laser beam is Conventional LAM

focused ahead of
the cutting tool
laser
Conventional Milling Laser Assisted Milling

BAE Systems Starrag BTP 5000
200tons, $10M
Predicting Tool Life
Taylor tool life equation (Flank wear):
F.W. Taylor (1890’s) from machining
of steels.
VTn = C
• V = cutting speed
• T = time (minutes) to develop a
certain flank wear land.
• n is an exponent that depends on
the tool and workpiece materials Determined
and cutting conditions experimentally
• And C is a constant
30
Worked Example – Tool Life
Kalpakjian – Ch.21, p. 577, Example 21.2
Using the Taylor equation for tool life and

letting n = 0.5 and C = 120, calculate the
percentage increase in tool life when the cutting
speed is reduced by 50%.
31
Tool Life – Solution
Taylor tool life equation, VT n = C
Since n = 0.5 and C = 120, VT 0.5 = 120
If we denote V1 as the initial speed and V2 as the
reduced speed, then V2 = 0.5 V1
simplifying,
1
= =4
0.25
∴ Tool life is increased by around 300% when the

cutting speed is reduced by half.
32
Chatter (Vibration)
• Machining systems are not completely rigid, consequently, there are deflections in both
tool, machine and work-piece.
• During machining this causes chatter, a resonant phenomenon where the machine and/or
work-piece vibrate.
• Chatter can be amplified by uneven surface associated with prior machining.
• Chatter damages the work-piece, accelerates tool and machine wear (and is very noisy).
Chatter is a self-excited vibration. It results from the interaction between the oscillation of the tool and the waviness in the
surface. When the oscillation and waviness are in harmony (far left), cutting force is constant. This is a sweet spot. The worst
case (far right) is when oscillation and waviness move precisely opposite to one another (180° out of phase).
Minimising Chatter
• Use as rigid tool and machine as possible
• Use tools that will excite vibration as little as
possible (variable helix, angles, dimensions etc.)
• Machine at frequencies that best limit vibration
• Dampen the system (tune the tools)
• Some materials and part geometries are more
prone to chatter (such as thin walls in titanium
which has a low elastic modulus) Variable helix end mill
Using rubber to dampen chatter

Instrumentation – Process Monitoring
Force Dynamometer Accelerometers Microphone
35
Minimising chatter
• This commercial system uses sensors to detect chatter then
automatically adjusts spindle speed to move it to the stable region
The Grinding Process and
Grindability
Abrasives
Classification of abrasives
– Conventional abrasive: Al2O3 and SiC
– Super-abrasive: cBN and Diamond
Characteristics of abrasives
Abrasive particles are irregularly shaped
– High hardness often with a negative rake angle
– High friability (the ability of abrasive grains to fracture (break

down into smaller pieces)
• Self-sharpening effect
• Affected by shape and size
Abrasive size – identified by a grit number

– Higher grit number corresponds to finer grains
Bonded-Abrasives (Grinding Wheels)
• Each abrasive grain removes only a very small
amount of material at a time
• High rates of material removal can be achieved
when large number of these grains act together
• Done by using bonded abrasives
Grinding Wheel Wear
• Attritious – the sharp edges of the abrasive wear (dull) through
physical and chemical interaction with the work-piece (e.g. SiC and
diamond is chemically reactive with Fe, so they wear faster than
Al2O3)
• Bond Fracture – the bond between abrasives is critical: too strong and
dull abrasives cannot dislodge, too weak and the abrasives dislodge
easily
• Friability – abrasives should fracture at a moderate rate so that new
sharp edges are produced continuously (dull abrasives generate
excessive heat)
Bonded-Abrasives (Grinding Wheels)
• Bonding materials – act as supporting post or braces
• Porosity – essential to provide clearance for produced
chips and cooling
• Grinding wheels can not be used with no porosity
Common types of Superabrasive wheels

grinding wheels
Surface Grinding
Cylindrical Grinding
• The external cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of
workpieces are ground
• Rotating cylindrical workpiece reciprocates laterally
along its axis to cover the width to be ground
• Capable of grinding rolls with large diameters
Centreless Grinding
• A high-production process for continuously grinding
cylindrical surfaces
• Workpiece is supported by a blade
• Parts with variable diameters can be ground by
centreless grinding called infeed or plunge grinding
UQ Poll
Why is LAM (or coolants) beneficial for some

material/tool combinations and not for others?
a. Different work-piece materials have different physical properties (e.g.
strength, hardness, ductility and tendency to soften at high
temperatures)
b. Some tools are more sensitive to heat than others; similarly some
tools are susceptible to thermal shock
c. Different work-piece materials have different chemical properties
(e.g. reactive at high temperatures)
d. Tool’s wear by different processes (i.e. the dominant failure
mechanisms such as diffusion, abrasion, adhesion, oxidation etc.
vary from workpiece/tool combinations)
e. All of the above
From 2014 Exam
Using the Taylor equation for tool life and letting n = 0.5 and C = 150, what is
the percentage reduction in tool life if the cutting speed in a machining operation
is doubled?
Taylor equation, VTn = C, where:
– V = cutting speed
– T is the time in minutes to develop a certain flank wear land.
– n is an exponent that depends on the tool and workpiece materials and
cutting conditions
– C is a constant
a) 10%
b) 50%
c) 75%
d) 100%
e) 150%
Example 23.1 Material-removal Rate and Cutting Force in Turning
A 150mm-long 12.5-mm-diameter 304 stainless steel

rod is being reduced in diameter to 12.0 mm by
turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N=400 rpm,
and the tool is travelling at an axial speed of 200
mm/min.
Calculate the cutting speed, Material-removal rate,

cutting time, power dissipated and cutting force.
Example 23.1 Material-removal Rate and Cutting Force in Turning
A 150mm-long 12.5-mm-diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in diameter to 12.0 mm by turning on a lathe. The
spindle rotates at N=400 rpm, and the tool is travelling at an axial speed of 200 mm/min. Calculate the cutting speed, Material-
removal rate, cutting time, power dissipated and cutting force.
Solution: The cutting speed is the tangential speed of the workpiece. The maximum cutting speed is at the outer diameter, ,
and is obtained from equation:
/
H = IJK L Actual time to cut , Eq. (23.2) .= = 0.7511
./ *
F ./ *
Max cutting speed, G = = 15.7 m/min Taking an average value for stainless

Cutting speed at the machined diameter, steel at 4 W.s/mm3 (Table 21.2)
F . *
G= = 15.1 m/min * >*
power = = 128 W

12.5 & 12.0 = = 60 N. m⁄min
Depth of cut, % = = 0.25 mm
2

Feed, )= = 0.5 mm/rev The cutting force is the tangential
*
Eq. (23.1a) or Eq.(23.1b) force exerted by the tool. Power is Dissipated power
the product of torque, T, and the
= 7680 N. m⁄min
rotational speed in radians per unit
Eq. (23.1a) Material-removal rate time:
DE
= = 3.1 N. m ,
= 12.25 0.25 0.5 400 F *
Since , = ?@ ABC ⁄2 3.1 1000
= 1924 mm ⁄min = 2 10 m ⁄min ?@ = = 506 N
12.25/2
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Surface Treatment
JEFFREY VENEZUELA
Quick Review
Kalpakjian: Chapter 34


Extrusion Other Processes (Sheet Metal

forming, Surface
Engineering…)
Products
Content of Lecture
SURFACE TREATMENT
(Surface Modification Techniques)
MECHANICAL NON-
MECHANICAL
THERMAL THERMO- PLATING IMPLANT

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING
My experience with Surface Treatment…
Carabiner
Microstructure of Anodized
Aluminum
Why do SMT?
 Control friction, reduce
adhesion and improve
lubrication
Diamond-like Locking pins coated

carbon coated with CrN to improve
tools lubricity
 Improve resistance to
wear, erosion and
indentation
Shot peening
gears
 Improve fatigue resistance

Why do SMT?
 Improve resistance to
corrosion and oxidation
Coronary stents are coated with

drug-infused polymers to
prevent rapid cell proliferation
 Prevent biological
growth
Zn-coated
(galvanised)
iron sheet
Why do SMT?
Hardfacing can rebuild
damage shafts
Roller
burnishing
 Modify surface texture
 Rebuild surfaces Anodised Al
 Impart decorative features

Mechanical Surface Treatments
CLASSIFICATION OF SMT
SURFACE MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
MECHANICAL NON-
MECHANICAL

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING
Mechanical Surface Treatments
“the application of
mechanical forces to
plastically deform the
surface…
…this induces
residual compressive
stresses”
“improves mechanical Peen hammer creating

texture on copper disc
properties at the
surface…”
Why is residual compressive
stress good for the material?
Q: What type of stress propagates a
crack and cause fracture?
A: Tensile stress
Q: What stress counteracts a tensile stress?
A: Compressive stress
APPLICATION OF CONCEPT
“By inducing a RCS at the surface, an
applied tensile stress will be neutralised
and prevent crack propagation!”
IMPLICATION: RCS improves mechanical properties

(e.g. fatigue resistance, fracture toughness)
Examples of Mechanical ST
 Peening
• Shot peening
• Laser shock peening
• Water jet peening
Shot peening
• Ultrasonic peening
 Roller Burnishing
 Shock Hardening
Steel shots
Shot Peening
Shot Peening
 workpiece surface is impacted

repeatedly with shot (steel, glass or
ceramic balls)
 Shot diameter: 0.125 to 5 mm
 Process causes compressive

residual stresses on the surface
which improve the fatigue life of the
component by delaying the initiation
of fatigue cracks
 Typically used on shafts, gears and

springs
Peening Techniques
“…classified
according to the
type of external
influence that
Laser peening
deforms the metal
surface…”
Water jet Ultrasonic impact

peening peening
Mechanical Surface Treatment
 Roller Burnishing
“hardened rollers are used
to cold work surface
imperfections to reduce
surface roughness”
Explosive
Hardening
 Shock Hardening
“…shock waves produce
atomic-scale defects in the
material's structure that
strengthens the metal”
Non-Mechanical Surface
Treatments
MECHANICAL NON-
MECHANICAL

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING
“Case Hardening”
• best for steels
• improves hardness, wear resistance
Understanding steel properties
Pearlite Soft
Slow cool
Heat (austenite)
Steel Quench
< 0.3% C  Strength
Fe + C(<2%)
Strong
Martensite
> 0.3% C  Strength
Parameters to Consider in
Case Hardening
Case Depth
Hard surface
 aka depth of hardening
 the thickness of the
hardened layer on a
specimen
Soft, tough core
Effective Case Depth
 depth up to a further
point for which a
specified level of
hardness is maintained
(50 HRC)
Thermal:
Differential Heat Treatment
“Surface hardened by thermal means”
 Flame hardening
 Induction hardening 1. Heat
 Laser Beam hardening the part
 Electron beam hardening
“classified
according to
type of heat 2. Quench
source”
Flame Hardening
Induction Hardening
Microstructural changes during DHT
Austenite is formed at the
surface during heating
AUSTENITE
PEARLITE
(soft)
Controlled heating
Quench
MARTENSITE
PEARLITE
Hard martensite phase is formed at (soft)
the surface after quenching.
Hardness Profile after Induction
Hardening
Induction
hardened gears
Typical Case
Depth in Induction
hardening:
1 to 10 mm
For which steel is the thermal
technique appropriate?
“Martensite is significantly stronger at
carbon content > 0.3% C…”
< 0.3% C
Steel > 0.3% C Thermal technique is best

Fe+C for steels with carbon
content > 0.3% C
Thermo-chemical:
Carburizing and Nitriding
“Surface is hardened by adjusting the chemical
composition of the surface ”
Process Steps in carburising:
1. Put metal in a sealed furnace
2. Heat in a carbon-rich
environment
3. Allow C to diffuse up to
a certain depth
4. Quench (Oil)
Carburizers
“One can do pack,

liquid, or gas
carburizing”
Gas carburisers
Vacuum gas
carburisers
For which steel is the thermo-
chemical technique appropriate?
“Since martensite needs
carbon content > 0.3% C to be considered strong…”
Thermo-chemical
< 0.3% C Techniques
Steel > 0.3% C Thermal

Fe+C Techniques
“Thermo-chemical techniques is best for steels with

less than 0.3% C (0.1 to 0.3%) as this can used to
adjust the concentration of carbon at the surface”
Microstructural changes during
Carburizing
Austenite is formed, and
carbon diffuses into the
AUSTENITE
(0.3% C)
CARBON
steel.
Controlled heating
{
Carbon-
enriched area Quench
MARTENSITE
(>0.3% C
PEARLITE
Hard martensite (>0.3% C) phase is (<0.3% C)
formed at the surface after
quenching.
Hardness Profile after Carburising
Carburised gear
Typical Case
Depth in
Carburising:
up to 1.5 mm
Comparison of Carburising
and Induction Hardening
Surface hardening of 8 tons of steel
(2,667 pcs; 30 mm x 300mm).
Case hardening depth is 2mm and 57-62 HRC.
Carburising Induction
16MnCr5 42CrMo4
(0.14 to 0.19%C) (0.38 to 0.45%C)
Duration of
process
Heating 14 20/ s per piece
Diffusion 18
Hardening 10
Tempering 4
46 h 15 h
Price, AUD 2160 240
Diffusion-based surface treatment
process
Process Metals Injected Procedure Source of
hardened Element strengthening
Carburising Low carbon Carbon Heat at 870- Hard
steel (0.08 to 950oC in C-rich Martensite
0.3%) environment
(pack, liquid, gas)
+ Quench
Nitriding Nitriding steels Nitrogen Heat at 500- Nitrides

(Al, Cr, Mo); 600oC in
SS; tool steels ammonia gas
Carbonitriding Low carbon C, N Heat at 700- Hard

steel 800oC in Martensite +
ammonia and nitrides
carbonaceous gas
+ Quench
Boronizing Steels Boron Metal is packed Borides (better

with boriding wear resistance
mixture(boron than other
carbide powder)
then heat at
techniques)
900oC
Lecture Questions
1. True or False. Flame hardening has better control of the
heat source than laser hardening.
2. True or False. Carburising is best for

steels that have low calcium content.
Lecture Questions
3. True or False. Shot peening is

best for improving fatigue strength.
4. True or False. Mechanical surface

treatments improve the strength and
corrosion resistance of the surface of a
metal.
5. True or False. Carburised steel also

has a hard martensitic case similar to an
induction hardened steel.
MECHANICAL NON-
MECHANICAL

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING ‘Inject
Atoms at
surface’
Painting Electroplating Hardfacing Thermal Cold Vapor

Spray Spray Techniques
(CVD + PVD)
‘Liquid’ ‘Liquid + ‘Molten
Electricity’ metal’ ‘Molten ‘Solid
metal + powder + ‘Gas’
pressure’ pressure’
Painting
“the practice of applying

paint, pigment, color or
other medium to a
surface”
“improves aesthetics and

other properties (e.g.
corrosion resistance,
Paint consists of:
weather resistance)”
(Binder, pigment and
additives) + (Solvent)
Method of application
Brush
Spray gun
Roller
Dip
Case Study: Antifouling paints
 Red layer: Antifouling paint to

prevent barnacles, algae, slime etc.
 “can improve fuel efficiency by 10-
12%”
Electroplating
“process that uses
electric current to reduce dissolved
metal cations in an electrolyte to form a
thin metal coating on a substrate”
Electroplating Set-up:
Plating Zinc on Copper
Anode (+) Cathode (-)

“consists of metal
“consists of the
that you want to
substrate”
deposit”
DC Power
source
“supplies
necessary
energy to
drive process”
Electrolyte
(metal salts) + (acid) + (water)
The Mechanism of Plating
When current is supplied:

i. Anode : dissolves (oxidation)
ii. Cathode : supplied electricity reduces metal and deposit is formed
(reduction)
Copper Electroplating
Cathode: Metal Substrate
Cu+2 + 2e- Cu
Anode: Copper
Cu  Cu+2 + 2e-
Electrolyte:
CuSO4 + H2SO4 + HCl +
Additive (e.g. Cu Gleam CLX)
Operating Parameters:
10-30 Amps per square
foot (ASF)
Electroplated products
Cu plating in PCBs (also

Au, Ag, Pt, Ni)
Cr-plated
products
Ni-plated
products
Electroplating set-ups
Lab-scale Industry scale
“The process is
easily scalable to
industrial level”
Other Types of Plating:
Brush Plating and Electroless Plating
Brush Plating
Electroless Plating
“localized areas or
“is a non-
entire items are plated galvanic plating method
using a brush saturated that involves several
with plating solution” simultaneous reactions
in an aqueous solution”
Electroless (auto-catalytic) plating
“essentially this is
electroplating without
the use of external
electrical power”
Electrolyte:
(Metal ions) + (Reducing Agent) + (Additives)
e.g. (Ni+2) + (Sodium Hypophosphite)
Surface of the immersed metal

catalyses the reduction reaction!
Understanding Passivity in Metals
Aluminium
VS.
Steel
Titanium
Stainless
steel
• The ‘oxide’ layer can be used to protect
the metal from further corrosion
Anodising
 Electrolytic passivation
process to artificially
increase the thickness of
natural oxide layers on
metal parts (Al, Ti)
 Improves corrosion
resistance, wear properties
and colouring
Aluminum oxide
Anodising vs Electroplating
“…similar to electroplating Anodising electrolyte

set-up, except that the consist of sulfuric acid,
workpiece is now the ANODE” chromic acid or
phosphoric acid.
Galvanising
“process of applying a protective zinc coating
that covers the steel (Fe-based) and prevent
corrosion”
The galvanised coating provides

outstanding abrasion resistance.
Galvanized products
“The presence of
zinc spangles is a
good indicator of
galvanizing”
Why is Zn good for coating Fe?
“Zinc is a sacrificial anode

to iron (steel)…”
“such that Zn protects Fe even when

coating is damaged and both are
exposed to air…”
Hot Dip vs Electro galvanising
VS
Hot dip galvanising:

Uses molten Zn (+Pb,Al)
Electrogalvanising:
Uses electroplating
process
Hot Dipped vs Electro Galvanising
Better corrosion Better appearance

resistance Better control of
More robust deposit thickness
http://www.galvanizers.co.in/blog/difference-between-galvanized-vs-hot-
dip-galvanized-metal/
Hardfacing
“hard metals (Co-, Ni- and CrC alloys) deposited by fusion
welding…”
Mill roll
Disc plough
Bucket Ground boring tools
Thermal Spraying
 “involves applying various
materials (metals, ceramics
and polymers) using a spray
gun heated by an oxyfuel
flame, electric arc or
plasma”
 Spray parameters:
• Spray velocities of 50 to
1000 m/s
• Temperatures up to
8000C
 Applications where good

wear and corrosion
resistance are required:
aircraft engine components,
storage tanks, rocket motor
nozzles, car engine parts
Cold Spray
 cold powder is projected at high velocity on the surface
 No melting is involved, i.e. heating temperature is below
the melting point of feed metal
 Much higher velocities – sonic (kinetic metallization) or
supersonic (conventional cold spray)
 Can produce metal or composite coatings.
Vapor deposition
“process in which materials in a vapor state are
condensed through condensation or chemical
reaction to form a solid material”
Two Methods:
Physical VD Chemical VD
Vapor deposition processes usually take place within a vacuum chamber.
MECHANICAL NON-
MECHANICAL

CHEMICAL AND ATION
COATING
Ion implantation
“a low-temperature
process by which ions of
one element are
accelerated into a solid
target…” Schematic of ion
implantation
system
“…thereby changing the

physical, chemical, or electrical
properties of the target.”
Applications of Ion Implantation
for Surface Treatment
Nitrogen in Tool Steels and

Gears
“increases fatigue life, hardness, toughness,
and tensile strength”
Carbon or Nitrogen implanted in Ti

“modifies surface composition; improves wear, corrosion
resistance, and biocompatibility
Thank you for
Listening…
Reverse Engineering
What is Reverse Engineering
“Reverse engineering is the process of discovering the

technological principles of a device, object, or system
through analysis of its structure, function and operation.”
Eilam, Eldad & Chikofsky, Elliot J. (2007). Reversing: secrets of reverse

engineering. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3.
Reverse Engineering a Toaster
Tragedy in the news today
Failure Investigations
• Reverse Engineering closely related to forensic failure
analysis – What went wrong and how do we prevent it
from occurring again?
The aircraft was originally equipped with Pratt & Whitney jet
engines, specifically made with pack-aluminide coated turbine
blades to prevent oxidation of the base metal. However, during the
plane’s lifetime, the turbine blades were replaced with different
blades that had a different coating and base metal. As a result of
the replaced turbine blade not meeting specification, it corroded,
cracked and caused engine failure.
Industrial Espionage Reverse Engineering
18th Century Porcelain

Reverse Engineering a Pump
Reverse Engineering the Pump
Item Description
No.
1 Front Flange
2 Housing (body)`
3 Rear Cover
4 Drive Gear
5 Idle Gear
6 Bearing Block
7 Bush Bearing
8 O-ring Seal
9 Locating Pin
10 Bolt
11 Spring Washer
12 Shaft Seal (oil seal)
13 Snap ring (circlip)
14 Pressure Seal
Pressure Backup
15
Ring
16 Lock Nut
17 Woodruff Key
18 Lock Washer
Reverse Engineering the Pump
Item Description
No.
1 Front Flange
2 Housing (body)`
3 Rear Cover
4 Drive Gear
5 Idle Gear
6 Bearing Block
7 Bush Bearing
8 O-ring Seal
9 Locating Pin
10 Bolt
11 Spring Washer
12 Shaft Seal (oil seal)
13 Snap ring (circlip)
14 Pressure Seal
Pressure Backup
15
Ring
16 Lock Nut
17 Woodruff Key
18 Lock Washer
BEARING BLOCK SHAFT SEAL MOUNTING FLANGE

How can we tell how these parts are made?
How do we find out:

• What material is the bearing block made from?
• How it was made?
Is it metal? If so, what kind of metal?
Was it cast, forged, machined, rolled, 3D printed etc.?

Bearing Block
How was this metal made?

a) Casting
b) Forging
c) Machining from wrought billet
d) 3D printing
e) I would be guessing if I picked A,B,C or D
Mounting flange
Microstructures
• Examining the ‘microstructure’ tells us information about
what material it is and how it was made
• The microstructure contains clues – ‘forensic evidence’
Bearing Block
These holes tell us that the manufacturing

process creates porosity.
Machining from wrought billet
Casting, Powder Metallurgy, 3D printing..
The microstructure is consistent throughout
The presence of these ‘intermetallics’

indicate a solidification sequence – not formed any other way
Understanding Cast Microstructures
• Quite distinctive and can be easy to identify if the
solidification sequence is known
• We use phase diagrams to understand the solidification
sequence
Phase diagrams
Phase diagrams
• A phase diagram shows the relationship among
temperature, composition and the phases present in a
particular alloy system at equilibrium
Liquid + Solid Lead
Liquid + Solid Tin
Solid Lead (β phase)
Solid Tin (α phase) Eutectic point
Solid mixture of Tin + Lead

(α +β phase)
Phase diagrams
• What happens during equilibrium solidification of an alloy
of: 80% Lead – 20% Tin
Phase diagrams
• What happens during equilibrium solidification of an alloy
of: 26.1% Lead – 73.9% Tin
Phase diagrams
• What happens during solidification of Al-5%Si alloy?
Aluminium-Silicon
The large dendrites suggest a

casting process. A close view of
the eutectic phase shows fine
silicon particles as well as other
intermetallic particles that formed
during the last stage of
solidification
Aluminium-Silicon
This microstructure is similar to
the last, except very large blocks
are visible.
The blocks are not found in

localised regions like the other
intermetallic particles were.
The ‘blocks’ are actually Si particles.

This alloy is ‘hypereutetic’ meaning it
contains more Si than the eutectic
composition. The 1st solid to form is the
primary silicon with the remaining liquid
solidifying via the eutectic reaction
Titanium-boron
This material is Ti-0.5%B. The clue that it is a

cast/solidified microstructure is the dendritic pattern
made visible by the small white particles (TiB). The
phase diagram shows that solid titanium has almost
no solubility for Boron solute. Consequently, TiB
forms via the eutectic reaction.
Additional Resource
• A link to the flash learning materials is available below.
http://www-
g.eng.cam.ac.uk/mmg/teaching/phasediagrams/index4.html
Blackboard has a link to very useful TLPs (Training &

Learning Packages) which will help you understand
microstructures in Steels and Cast irons:
http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/microstructural_exam/index
.php
Kalpakjian ‘Manufacturing Engineering and Technology’

has a section devoted to phase diagrams.
Effect of Cold Working on Microstructure
Cold working changes the microstructure:
Flow lines in the

material become
horizontal
Due to plastic deformation, the grains are squashed. They

elongate in one direction and become narrow in another
Microstructure during deformation
Die
What happens if we take a
textured microstructure and
plastically deform it?
Die

Microstructure during deformation
Die
Die
The barrelling causes the flow lines to bulge outwards more at the
centre than at the top and bottoms (flow restrained by friction at the die)

Evidence of deformation
A1 Housing
Pallet A
This highly textured (directional)

pattern is created by mechanical
deformation
This shows the etched microstructure of the longitudinal section at a higher magnification. The different
grains are clearly visible and elongated, and there are many second phase particles aligned in the directio
Coins on a train track

Rolling
Diameter: 21.6mm Diameter: 28.5mm

Thickness: 1.5mm Thickness: 2.36mm

Legal note: these are
not real currency, they
are fake coins
Cold Rolled
Width: 24mm Width: 29mm

Length: 136mm Length: 34mm
Thickness: 0.18mm (833%) Thickness: 1.7mm (28%)
Can you see any rolling defects?

Evidence of deformation
Directional Properties
• Strength depends on
grain size!
• Can have increases in
strength in directions
required!
How was this metal made?

a) Casting
b) Forging
c) Machining
d) 3D printing
e) I would be guessing if I picked A,B,C or D Shaft Seal
No evidence of solidification
Round and grains and lack of deformation

suggests a recrystallising heat treatment was
performed
This hides the tell tale signs – difficult to know
Shaft Seal
Reverse Engineering the chemistry
How can we determine what type of material it is
(i.e. its chemical composition)?
What Hollywood has taught us….

What Hollywood has taught us…
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
What is a coin made from?

What is a coin made from?
cps/eV
16
14
12
10
C Ni
Cl O Cu Cl Ni Cu
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
keV
Spectrum: Point
Element AN Series
Net unn. C norm. C Atom. C Error
[wt.%] [wt.%] [at.%] [%]
------------------------------------------------------
Chlorine 17 K-series 2528 6.23 7.44 5.35 0.2
Copper 29 K-series 2292 35.97 42.97 17.22 1.2
Oxygen 8 K-series 2181 16.89 20.17 32.12 2.4
Carbon 6 K-series 829 16.15 19.29 40.92 2.8
Nickel 28 K-series 754 8.47 10.12 4.39 0.3
------------------------------------------------------
Total: 83.72 100.00 100.00

Spectrum: Point
Element AN SeriesNet unn. C norm. C Atom. C Error

[wt.%] [wt.%] [at.%] [%]
-------------------------------------------------------
Copper 29 K-series 6152 60.59 63.70 39.28 1.9
Nickel 28 K-series 2848 19.71 20.72 13.83 0.6
Carbon 6 K-series 902 10.88 11.44 37.34 1.8
Oxygen 8 K-series 652 2.86 3.01 7.37 0.5
Silicon 14 K-series 155 0.29 0.30 0.42 0.0
Potassium 19 K-series 71 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.0
Sulfur 16 K-series 70 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.0
Chlorine 17 K-series 48 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.0
Nitrogen 7 K-series 42 0.48 0.50 1.40 0.2
-------------------------------------------------------
Total: 95.11 100.00 100.00
Spectrum: Point
Element AN Series Net unn. C norm. C Atom. C Error

[wt.%] [wt.%] [at.%] [%]
-----------------------------------------------------
Copper 29 K-series 7382 74.38 76.69 75.24 2.4
Nickel 28 K-series 3324 22.61 23.31 24.76 0.7
-----------------------------------------------------
Total: 96.99 100.00 100.00

Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
Pallet A This photo shows a longitudinal section of the housing. The specimen has been etched in dilute Kell
to show the grain structure. Notice that the structure is severely directional.
A1 Housing
025
3600
3200
2800 Al
2400
Counts
2000
Cu
1600
Mn
1200
O Mn
800
C Mg Mn Cu Cu
400
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
keV
Above is an edx spectrum of the housing. Only the Kα peaks are labelled, so that you can see the elements tha
constitute the alloy.
ws a longitudinal section of the housing. The specimen has been etched in dilute Kellers etch
in structure. Notice that the structure is severely directional.
025
00
00
00 Al
00
00
Cu
How else can we determine how
something is made?
Size and Shape
Component Analysis
The function and shape of a component will determine
how it is manufactured and the properties required.
Wire
Tube Extrusion
Stock shape Bar Drawing
Function 2D shapes Sheet Rolling
+ Plate
Shape
Net shape Casting
3D shapes Forging
Machining
Sintering
This profile 2D section is a simple shape,

Likely produced during extrusion
Segregation
• Since the solute solubility in the solid is often less than
the solubility in the liquid, chemical concentration
gradients develop
How are glass fibres made?
Drawing through very fine dies (can be as small as 4µm)
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/the-making-of-glass-fiber
Reverse Engineering
Worked Example 1
Inlet and exhaust valves from a from a 4

stroke motor
What is the function of the machine/part
• How Stuff Works "Internal

Combustion“
• Shape of the part

Combustion Engine Operation
1. The piston starts at the top, the intake
valve opens, and the piston moves down to
let the engine take in air and fuel.
2. Then the piston moves back up to

compress this fuel/air mixture. Compression
makes the explosion more powerful.
3. When the piston reaches the top of its

stroke, the spark plug emits a spark to ignite
the fuel. The charge in the cylinder explodes,
driving the piston down.
4. Once the piston hits the bottom of its

stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the
exhaust leaves the cylinder.
Inlet Valve vs Outlet Valve
Operating Conditions
Inlet and exhaust valves are precision components used for sealing the
combustion chamber controlling the gas exchange process in internal
combustion engines.
Intake valve: runs cooler and washed with fuel vapours which tend to
rinse away lubrication on the valve stem. So wear resistance may be more
important than high temperature strength or corrosion resistance.
Exhaust valves: run much hotter than

intake valves and must withstand the
corrosive effects of hot exhaust gases and
the weakening effects of high
temperatures.
What properties are needed
Inlet valve Exhaust valve
• Strong • High strength at high
• Wear resistant temperatures
• Good fatigue strength • Corrosion resistance
• Stiff • Good fatigue strength
• Suitable coefficient of • Stiff
thermal expansion • Suitable coefficient of
thermal expansion
• Wear resistance
Microstructure reflects the processing
• Inlet valve • Exhaust valve
Carbon Steel – hardened and forged White Cast Iron

How is it made?
Shape factor – types of manufacturing processes

Inlet valve Exhaust valve
• Start with drawn bar • Casting - a high
stock tolerance method such
• Hot forging - heading as investment casting
• Machining- turning, as machining is
grinding difficult. Temperatures
high ~1200˚C
• Heat treatment
• Fine grinding to
• Final tolerance grind tolerance
Alternative materials and methods of
manufacture
• As the valve stems need different properties to the faces,
different materials may be used for both parts , joined by
welding
• Use of hard wearing and corrosion resistant layers on the
faces of the valves allows longer life for the intake valve
and possibly less expense on the outlet valve.
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Tolerance, Fits, and Surface Finish
Just to gauge your prior knowledge of tolerance and fits,

would you say that you have:
a) Complete knowledge – you can recognise, understand

and interpret dimensional and geometric tolerances on
engineering drawings and know how to assign fits
b) Understand the principles of tolerances and fits, but not
completely sure how to read/interpret/assign them
c) Heard about tolerances and fits but have limited
knowledge in the area
d) No prior knowledge of tolerance or fits
Limits, Fits and Tolerances
• In this lecture,
– Size Tolerancing
– Fits and Limits
– Case Study: Piston assembly
– Geometric Tolerancing
– Surface Finish Specifications
Further Reading:
Geometric Tolerancing: AS1100.101-1992 (from SAI Global in library – search

“SAI Global Standards Australia”) – online
Tolerances & Fits: AS1654.1-1995
Engineering Drawing Handbook (Standards Australia)
Other books in library
Hydraulic pump
Interchangeability and Tolerancing
• Manufacturing and Interchangeability
– Parts design and manufacturing in widely separated localities
– Mass production
– Individual parts brought together and assembled into products
• Need to fit together properly
– Interchangeability is essential
– Interchangeable manufacturing achieved by a size control system
30,000 parts for a single car Five million parts in a B-747

• Interchangeability and Tolerancing
– Impossible to manufacture a part to an exact size, but very close to, the
degree of accuracy depending on the functional requirement
– A system of tolerances is necessary to allow for the variations in
accuracy during manufacture and still provide for interchangeability and
correct functioning of the part
– Tolerancing is dimensioning for interchangeability
– A tolerance is the exact limit of variation that is allowed within the size of
a dimension, specific form or location of individual features of a
component
– A tolerance is the difference between the upper and lower limits of a
dimension
∆ d = d max − d min
Too tight tolerance High manufacturing cost dmin

The greater the tolerance, the cheaper the manufacturing process dmax
Too large tolerance Part may not function as expected
• Key points
– Why do we want a part’s size to be controlled by two limits?
• It is impossible to manufacture parts without variation
– If a feature’s size is toleranced, it is allowed to vary within limits.
– Tolerancing enables an engineer to design interchangeable or
replacement parts.
– Caters for imperfect manufacturing processes
– The stated limits are a form of quality control
– When dimensioning any feature provide
• Basic nominal dimension
• Permitted variability (tolerance)
One of the golden rules of engineering design is “always specify as

large a tolerance as is possible without sacrificing quality”
• Choosing the correct tolerance for a particular application
depends on:
– Design intent (end use) of the part
• Functionality
– length of engagement, bearing load, speed, lubrication,
temperature, humidity, and material.
– Cost
– How it is manufactured
Olympic competitor requires precision
equipment manufactured to very tight
tolerance. Expense is of no concern.
Equipment at show/carnival does not
require same level of precision and
must be affordable (coarse tolerance)
Three methods of Tolerancing
• Limits of size:
Both limits of size specified. The maximum limit (upper limit of size)
is placed above dimension line, while the minimum limit (lower limit
of size) is placed below dimension line
• Bilateral tolerance:
Specifies the basic size followed by the limits of tolerance above
and below the basic size. The upper and lower deviations have
the same value, but opposite signs
• Unilateral tolerance:
This method specifies the basic size followed by an allowable
variation in one direction only. Hence, the variation in size can
occur above or below the basic size. In the hole-basis system,
the lower deviation of the hole is zero
Three methods of Tolerancing
Tolerancing Standards
• Standards required
– Make it possible to manufacture parts at different times and in
different places that still assemble properly
– Establish dimensional limits for parts that are to be
interchangeable
• Manufacturers make parts and also purchase other parts (e.g.
bolts, nuts)
• The standards agencies are
– American National Standards Institute (ANSI) / (ASME)
– International Standards Organization (ISO)
– Standards Australia
– …
• International Tolerance grades (IT Grade)
– When designing mechanical components, a system of
standardized tolerances called International Tolerance grades
are often used
– IT Grades designate groups of tolerances such that tolerances for
a particular grade have the same relative level of accuracy but
vary depending on the basic size, the magnitude of the tolerance
zone is the variation in part size
– These Grades range from IT0 to IT16. The smaller grade numbers
specify a smaller tolerance zone
Example: A shaft of nominal diameter 25 mm is
• IT Grade and size tolerances going to be manufactured, and the IT grade is
required to be IT7. Determine the tolerance on the
shaft.
• Some important definitions when discussing shaft and
hole limits
Terminology
BASIC SIZE (nominal size)
This is the size about which the limits of a
particular fit are fixed. It is the same for both
“shaft” and “hole”
TOLERANCE
Tolerance is defined as the difference between
the maximum and minimum limits of size for a Allowance
hole or shaft. It is also the difference between the

upper and lower deviations
ALLOWANCE
Allowance is the difference in the sizes of mating
parts. It is the difference between the largest
shaft and smallest hole (i.e. Maximum Material
Condition)
• Some important definitions when discussing shaft and
hole limits
Terminology
LIMITS OF SIZE
Limits of size are the largest and smallest sizes
acceptable for a component (Max. & Min. size,
also known as upper and lower limits of size).
The limits of size are obtained by applying the
tolerance to the basic size.
The Maximum Material Condition (MMC) occurs Allowance
when external feature (shaft) is at the upper limit

of size, and when an internal feature (hole) is at
the lower limit of size. I.e. condition when most
material exists
The Least Material Condition (LMC) occurs when
external feature (shaft) is at the lower limit of
size, and when an internal feature (hole) is at the
upper limit of size
• Graphical representation of shaft and hole tolerance
Hole Shaft
50.008 50.000
50.000 49.992
Hole Shaft
50.025 49.975
50.000 49.950
• IT Grades: Machining and Applications
Fits and Limits
• The simplest machine involves the fitting together of
several parts for the purpose of design and production
• A fit between two parts to be assembled can be defined as
the difference between their sizes before assembly.
• In other words, FIT is the general term to signify the range
of tightness or looseness resulting from the application of
a specific combination of allowances and tolerances in the
design of the mating parts
Fits and Limits
• Three Categories
– Three main fits depend on the relationship between the tolerance
zones of two mating parts
• Clearance Fit
• Transition Fit
• Interference Fit
Fits and Limits
• Clearance fits
– An internal member fits in an external member (as a shaft in a
hole) and always leaves a space or clearance between the parts
– Relative motion between shaft and hole is always possible
– Clearance fits range from coarse or very loose to close precision
and location
– The minimum and maximum clearances
The minimum clearance occurs at the
maximum shaft size and the minimum hole
size (i.e. at MMC)
The maximum clearance occurs
at the minimum shaft size and the
maximum hole size (i.e. at LMC)
• The parts can be assembled by hand because
the hole is always larger than the shaft
Fits and Limits
• Clearance Fits
– Application
Internal running clearance for a bearing can

affect performance in specific applications.
Less clearance can help low speed and
heavy loads; more clearance can benefit high
Piston and cylinder sleeve
speed or high temperature applications
Fits and Limits
• Interference Fit
– The internal member is larger than the external member such that
there is always an actual interference of material
– Relative motion between the shaft and hole is impossible
– This interference is the allowance, and in an interference fit it is
always negative
– Minimum and Maximum interferences
The minimum interference occurs at the

minimum shaft size and maximum hole size
(i.e. LMC)
The maximum interference occurs at the

maximum shaft size and minimum hole size
(i.e. MMC).
Fits and Limits
• Interference fits lever on shaft
– Applications
bushes in bases
Fits and Limits
– Interference fits - Applications
The
manufacturing
process may be
related to the
combination of
the use of
“interference-fit”
fasteners and
the loads being A process in which a fastener
applied when had been deliberately forced
the wing skin is into a small hole in a way that
attached to the was calculated to add to the
wing strength of the join, for which
the grade of alloy used was
wrong
The Airbus A380 wing cracks: an engineer’s perspective

Fits and Limits
• Transition Fit: may result in either a clearance or
interference condition.
• A pure transition fit occurs when the shaft and hole are
exactly the same size. This fit is theoretically the boundary
between clearance and interference and is practically
impossible to achieve, but by selective assembly or
careful machining methods, it can be approached within
very fine limits.
Practical transition fits result when the tolerances
are such that the largest hole is greater than the
smallest shaft and the largest shaft is greater than
the smallest hole.
Relative motion between shaft and hole is
possible when clearance exists but impossible
when interference exists.
Fits and Limits
• Clearance fit
– provide running performance with suitable lubrication
• Loose running fit
• Free running fit
• Close running fit
• Sliding fit
• Interference fit
– create an internal stress that is constant through size ranges
• Locational interference
• Medium drive fit
• Transitional fit
– used for location purposes
Specifying Fits and Limits
• Fits are specified by using
the:
– Fundamental deviation
(letter)
– IT# (International Tolerance
Grade #).
• When specifying the fit:
– The hole = upper case letter
– The shaft = lower case letter
H11/c11
H11/c11 – “Loose running fit for wide commercial tolerances or allowances

on external members”
Specifying Fits and Limits
• Fits are specified by using
the:
– Fundamental deviation
(letter)
– IT# (International Tolerance
Grade #).
• When specifying the fit:
– The hole = upper case letter
– The shaft = lower case letter
H7/g6
Clearance Fit: H7/g6 – “Sliding fit not intended to run freely but to move
and turn freely and locate accurately”
Fits and Limits
• Hole-basis system
– The hole is considered a fixed size and the shaft size is varied to
give various types of fit
– Also known as the unilateral hole basis system because the hole
tolerance is unilateral (tolerance from basic size and up)
The hole basis system is most commonly

used because
• Easier to produce standard holes by
drilling or reaming and then turning the
shaft to suit the fit desired.
• Measurements can also be made more
quickly and accurately on shaft sizes
than on hole sizes
Fits and Limits
• Shaft-basis system: Shaft size is considered a fixed
size and the hole size is varied to give various types of fit
– In some cases, a shaft basis system may be desirable.
• i.e. when driving shaft has a number of different parts fitted to
it, it is preferable to give the shaft a constant diameter and bore
out the various parts to give the required fit for each.
The largest diameter of the shaft is

used as the basic dimension from
which the tolerance limits are applied
This system is used only in those

applications where shafts come in
standard sizes
Fits and Limits: Worked Example
• determine the shaft and hole limits of size for:
– hole-basis system
– a close running fit
– a basic diameter of 49 mm
– use a preferred size
Basic
diameter
ø49mm
hole
49.039
49.000
Shaft
48.975
48.950
Fits and Limits
• Determine the lower limit of size on the shaft:
– Drive pulley and shaft assembly
(shaft = Ø40)
– The required fit is H7-h6.
• Determine the lower limit of size for the shaft with a basic
size ø40mm, H7-h6 fit (i.e. shaft at Least Material Condition)
A) 40.160
B) 40.016
C) 40.000
D) 39.984
E) 39.975
Fits and Limits
A) 40.160
• Determine the shaft and hole limits:
B) 40.016
– Drive pulley and shaft assembly(shaft = Ø40)
C) 40.000
D) 39.984
E) 39.975
Ø40 H7=+25 upper; 0 lower
I.E.:
Max limit of size of Hole: 40+.025 = 40.025
Min limit of size of Hole: 40–0= 40.000
Ø40 h6 =-16 lower; 0 upper

I.E.:
Min limit of size of Shaft: 40-.016 = 39.984
Max limit of size of Shaft: 40–0 = 40.000
Fits and Limits
• Determine the shaft and hole limits for:
– hole-basis system
– a location transition fit for
accurate locations
– a basic diameter of 57 mm
– use a preferred size
CASE STUDY: Piston-Connecting Rod Subassembly
The core of the engine is the cylinder with
the piston moving up and down inside the
cylinder. We will be focusing on the
following parts in this case study:
Connecting Rod:
Serves to bridge the Piston to the Crankshaft
and transfer energy. It must be “loosely”
connected so as to allow for changing angles
as the Piston moves up and down in its
housing.
In order to function, these
critical engine components
Piston: must be assembled with the
Vital and literally pivotal role in the reciprocating right kinds of fits that allow or
engine. A very simple cylindrical component machined to restrict movement and degrees
a precise tolerance that fits it to the Piston and Bushing. of freedom as are
required. Correct tolerances are
Bushing: crucial.
Usually copper, Bushings improve the rotational
performance and reduce wear resistance of the small
end bore of the connecting rod. http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine2.htm
Consider the example of two pairs of fits between three
components. The bushing goes into the connecting rod bore,
and the piston pin is assembled into the bushing:
Note the green and red upper and lower dimensions around
F OCUS AREA
the basic size. We need to know these limits
Connecting Rod Bushing Pin

1 1 2
2
± Max
± Max
± Max
± Min
± Min
± Max
± Min
± Min
Ø 44
Ø 44
Ø 41
Ø 41
O.D
I.D
87
TWO CRITICAL FITS:
1 Bushing within Connecting Rod (Bore)
2 Pin within Bushing (Bore)
Which type of fit is needed? Think about the interacting functionality between the components
Connecting rod to bushing fit

Should this be a:
(A) Clearance fit,
(B) Interference fit, or
(C) Transition fit
For Bushing and Connecting rod, we
want no movement (interference fit)
What interference fit is most suitable? Do we want a light

interference or a heavy interference?
a) H7/p6 (light interference)
b) H7/s6 (medium interference)
c) H7/u6 (heavy interference)
Bushing – Connecting Rod fit
• The bushing is made from copper (soft ductile metal) and
the connecting rod is typically made from aluminium or
steel
• It is not going to be possible (or necessary) to heavily
press soft copper into the connecting rod
• The bushing just needs to remain in the located place (no
movement), so a light interference is most suitable and
there is less chance of damaging the bushing or the
connecting rod.
• H7/p6 (light interference) is most suitable:
“Locational interference fit for parts requiring rigidity and
alignment with prime accuracy of location but without special
bore pressure requirements”
Bushing to pin fit

Should this be a:
(A) Clearance fit,
(B) Interference fit, or
(C) Transition fit
For Bushing and Pin, we need relative
motion, so we need a clearance fit.
What clearance fit is most suitable? Do we want a ‘loose’

clearance or a ‘tight’ clearance?
a) H11/c11 (loosest)
b) H9/d9
c) H8/f7 apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
d) H7/g6 (tightest)
Bushing – Pin fit
• We need free movement, but it can’t be too loose (this may cause side-
to-side movement)
• H7/g6 is “not intended to run freely” so it is too tight for this application
• H9/d9 or H8/f7? Considering that this is a precision part, it is probably
more suitable and safer to go with the ‘tighter’ of the two – H8/f7. There is
still adequate clearance for lubricants and it will run freely but remain in a
firm position (less slop)
H8/f7: “Close running fit for running

on accurate machines and for
accurate location at moderate
speeds and journal pressures”
Excessive clearance will allow too much rotation

CHOOSING THE CORRECT FIT:
Bushing within Connecting Rod (Bore)

Interference fit of H7/p6. 1
Pin within Bushing (Bore)

Run fit with a clearance of H8/f7. 2
These fits are suitable because together,

they make the Bushing sit firmly inside
the Connecting Rod bore hole when
provide enough clearance for the Pin to
rotate freely. Also, the clearance gap
allows for easily maintained lubrication
during engine operation.
Now that we have the correct type of fit chosen, we need to ± MAX
“convert” the fit designation into numerical form. i.e. what are: ± MIN
Limits of Size for Connecting Rod-Bushing
Basic size is 44mm
± Max
± Min
Ø 44
Connecting Rod
+ 25 µm upper limit ;
+ 0 µm lower limit
Connecting Rod size:
44.025mm upper limit
44.00mm lower limit
Bushing
+ 26 µm lower limit
External Bushing size:
44.026mm lower limit
Quick Poll: Is H7 the connecting rod tolerance or the bushing tolerance?
(A) H7 is connecting rod, p6 is bushing (B) H7 is bushing, p6 is connecting rod
Limits of Size for Bushing-Pin
Basic size is 41mm
Bushing
+ 0 µm lower limit
Internal Bushing size:
Pin
- 25 µm upper limit ;
Ø 41
- 50 µm lower limit
Pin size:
Quick Poll: Is H8 the bushing tolerance or the pin tolerance?
(A) H8 is pin, f7 is bushing (B) H8 is bushing, f7 is pin
So, referring back to the original slide, we can now apply our numerical
dimensions and tolerances to the model, with full confidence that the parts will be
fitted together as tightly as we need them to be:
Connecting Rod Bushing Pin
± MAX
± MIN
± MAX
± MIN
87
Ø 41 + 0.039
Ø 44 + 0.025 + 0 Ø 41 – 0.025
+ 0 2 – 0.050
1 2
Ø 44 + 0.042
UQ Poll: The convention used + 0.026
here is an example of: 1
(A) Unilateral Tolerances
(B) Bilateral tolerances
(C) Limits of Size
Geometric Tolerancing
During World War II,
US manufactured and
shipped spare parts
overseas for the war
effort. Many of these
parts, even though
they were made to
specifications, would
not assemble. The
military recognized
that defective parts
caused serious
problems for military
personnel
• After the war, a committee representing government,

industry, and education spent considerable time and effort
investigating this defective parts problem; this group
needed to find a way to ensure that parts would fit and
function properly every time
• The result was the development of geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T)
• What happened?
– They were all in the tolerance region, and fit perfectly
– But …
Conventional tolerance system is not enough
If we specify that
the axis of the pin
should be 90° to the
back plate, then this
would solve the
problem
This is geometric
tolerancing
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
• Unlike dimensional tolerance that concerns itself with size control,
Geometric Tolerancing concerns itself with shape control.
• GD&T is a symbolic language used to specify the size, shape, form,
orientation, and location of features on a part, reflects the actual
relationship between mating parts
• GD&T communicates design requirements, which identifies all
applicable reference features, and the features being controlled by
these reference features
• A properly toleranced drawing is a picture that not only communicates
the size and shape of the part but also tells a story that explains the
tolerance relationships between features
Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing ensures interchangeability

Basic concepts of Geometric tolerancing
• Geometric tolerances are specified according to functional
requirements: Use it only if it is needed, if not do not as it adds to the
expense of manufacture, inspection requirement and clarity of the
drawing.
• Depending on the feature to be toleranced and the way in which it is
dimensioned, the tolerance zone will be one of:
– The space between two parallel lines
– The space within a circle or between two concentric circles
– The space within a cylinder or two co-axial cylinders
– The space between two equidistant surfaces or planes
– The space within a sphere
Tip: Useful Library Resources with interpretation examples

AS1100.101-1992 (from SAI Global) - online
Engineering Drawing Handbook (Standards Australia)
Other books in library
various websites e.g. www.emachineshop.com - (search “geometric” and
definitions/rules/examples/diagrams appear)
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing
• Geometric tolerancing specifies the tolerance of geometric
characteristics. Basic geometric characteristics include:
Geometric Tolerancing Symbolic structure
leader
Datum symbol
A datum is the origin from which the

location or geometric characteristics of
features of a part are established
datum
Flatness
• A flatness tolerance is used to control the flatness of a
surface. The tolerance zone is a specified space
separating two parallel planes within which the surface to
be controlled must lie.
Cylindricity
• A cylindricity tolerance specifies a tolerance zone consisting of an
annular space between two co-axial cylinders having a difference in
radii equal to the specified tolerance.
The surface of the

part must fall within Big cylinder has
the shaded region, radius 0.03mm
between the two larger than small
cylinders cylinder. Both are
Pass co-axial.
Cylindricity
• A cylindricity tolerance specifies a tolerance zone consisting of an
annular space between two co-axial cylinders having a difference in
radii equal to the specified tolerance.
The surface of the

part must fall within Big cylinder has
the shaded region, radius 0.03mm
between the two larger than small
cylinders cylinder. Both are
Fail co-axial.
Perpendicularity
• Perpendicularity is the condition of a surface, plane or axis which is at 90º to a datum
plane or axis (squareness)
• A perpendicularity tolerance is used to control:
1) A line with respect to a datum line
2) An axis with respect to a datum plane
Perpendicularity cont.
• A perpendicularity tolerance is used to control:
3) A surface with respect to a datum axis
4) A surface with respect to a datum plane
Position
• A position tolerance is used to control the location of a feature by limiting its deviation
from a specified true position:
Tip: look for the ‘ø’ symbol. If
1) A hole axis
present use a cylinder. If
2) A surface absent, use the parallel planes.
It is helpful to draw a
tolerance diagram in
order to graphically
represent the
interpretation of the
toleranced feature. You
can read about these in
the Engineering Drawing
Cylindrical tolerance region (ø=0.05mm)
Handbook, AS1100.101-
1992 and other
resources
50 50 75
Position
1) A hole axis
represent the
1992 and other
resources
Within the tolerance region PASS

Position
1) A hole axis
represent the
1992 and other
resources
Outside of the tolerance region FAIL

Position
1) A hole axis
2) A surface
Position (Concentricity)
• A concentricity tolerance is used to control a condition in which two or more features
such as circles, spheres, cylinders, cones or hexagons are required to share a common
centre or axis
When assigning tolerances, keep in your mind how it will be measured.

Some things are inherently more difficult…
Note: The dedicated concentricity tolerance is occasionally used. However, often the position
symbol is used to control axis position
Concentricity
• Concentricity is complex and used to establish a tolerance
zone for the median points of a cylindrical or spherical
feature The black lines are
imaginary lines
created by
measuring
equipment. The
median point of
these lines are
shown to fall within
the tolerance zone
“relative to Datum A (axis of part), all

median points of opposing elements on
this cylindrical surface must lie within a
cylindrical tolerance zone of ø 0.5mm”
Example: bullet concentricity
In competitive target shooting, accuracy and precision is produced by having the
tightest possible tolerance on your ammunition (i.e. consistency).
This means that the bullets should all be the same weight, contain the same
amount of power, same length of cartridge, same bullet seating depth, the same
brass thickness…the list goes on…(precision rifle shooters are real perfectionists)
Any serious competitor “hand-loads” their own ammunition to maximise consistency
and ‘tune’ their ammunition to their rifle. They have greater control over important
things such as muzzle velocity and ballistic properties
Example: bullet concentricity
For maximum consistency the bullets must be aligned straight with the case
Misalignment:
Misalignment: 0.006inch = 0.15mm
0.001inch = 0.025mm
Aligning the axis of the case Misalignment creates poor accuracy

and the bullet gives best results
How do we apply the tolerance?
To align the bullet to the case, we could specify a Position tolerance on the axis
The axis of the bullet must be contained within a

Ø0.025 A
cylindrical tolerance zone of Ø0.025mm that is
coaxial with the axis of the case, datum A
But how can I measure the

position of each axis (at home)?
We could specify a concentricity tolerance on the axis
All median points of opposing elements on the bullet

Ø0.025 A
must be contained within a cylindrical tolerance zone
of Ø0.025mm that is coaxial with the axis of the case,
datum A
But this is even harder to measure

We could use a “run out” tolerance
Runout tolerance is used to control the location of a circular
part relative to its axis (differs from circularity which controls
the overall roundness)
It is much easier to measure
Each circular slice must have less than 0.1 run out
Specifying a run out tolerance is best
Runnout must not exceed 0.025mm measured

Ø0.025 A
normal to the datum axis at any point along the bullet
This is something that can be

easily measured to check if each
bullet is within tolerance
Measuring runout
More about measuring tools in

next week’s Metrology lecture
Test your knowledge
Interpret the following drawing and draw a tolerance diagram:
Ø0.05 C-D
C D
• Did you get something similar to this? vote using UQ Poll
A – Yes B - No
The axis of the middle section of the shaft must lie

within a cylinder 0.05mm diameter which is co-axial
with the common datum axis of the ends C and D
Position (Symmetry)
• A symmetry tolerance is used to
control a condition in which one
or more features are
symmetrically disposed either
side of a centre line (axis) or
centre plane (median) of
another feature which is
specified as the datum
Note: The dedicated symmetry

tolerance is occasionally used.
However, often the position symbol
is used to control axis position
(the symmetry tolerance is similar

to concentricity – the median points
must lie within a tolerance region)
Geometric Tolerance: Circularity
• A circularity tolerance specifies the width of an annular tolerance zone, bounded by two
concentric circles in the same plane within which the circumference of the feature must
lie
Interpret the following drawing:
Ø 0.04 A
a) The right hand end of the part must be perpendicular to the axis of the shaft
b) The axis of the right hand end part must be perpendicular to the vertical
surface at the left hand end, datum A
c) The axis of the right hand end part must lie between to parallel planes
separated by 0.04mm that are each perpendicular to the vertical surface at
the left hand end, datum A.
d) The axis of the right hand end part must lie within a cylindrical tolerance
zone of diameter 0.04mm that is perpendicular to the vertical surface at the
left hand end, datum A.
Lets construct a tolerance diagram
D) The axis of the right hand end part

must lie within a cylindrical tolerance
zone of diameter 0.04mm that is
perpendicular to the vertical surface at
Axis of right the left hand end, datum A
hand end part
must lie within 90°
this cylindrical
region
ø 0.4mm
Cylindrical tolerance region

0.04
mm
Datum A Axis of right hand end part

Datum A
Side view
• The wording can be vary (particularly describing different
features), but the main points are the same
Parallelism
• Parallelism is a condition of a surface or axis which is equidistant at all points from a datum
plane or axis.
• A parallelism tolerance is used to control the orientation of features related to one another by
an angle of zero degrees
Parallelism
• Parallelism is a condition of a surface or axis which is equidistant at all points from a datum
plane or axis.
• A parallelism tolerance is used to control the orientation of features related to one another by
an angle of zero degrees
Angularity
• An angularity tolerance is used to control angular relationships of any angle between
straight line (axes) or surfaces with straight line elements such as flat or cylindrical
surfaces
Interpret the following:
a) The inclined surface of the part must lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone of
0.06mm that is angled at 30° to the bottom surface, datum plane A
b) The inclined surface of the part must lie between two parallel planes separated
by 0.06mm that are each angled at 30° to the bottom surface, datum plane A
c) The axis of the hole in the part must lie within a cylindrical tolerance zone of
0.06mm that is angled at 30° to the bottom surface, datum plane A
d) The axis of the hole in the part must lie between two parallel planes separated
by 0.06mm that are each angled at 30° to the bottom surface, datum plane A
Interpretation
B) The inclined surface of the part must lie between two
parallel planes separated by 0.06mm that are each angled at
30° to the bottom surface, datum plane A
0.06mm
Inclined surface of part

30°
Datum Plane A
Geometric Tolerance: Straightness
• A straightness tolerance may be used to control
1) Straightness of a line
Geometric Tolerance: Straightness
• A straightness tolerance may be used to control
2) Straightness of an axis in a single plane
3) Straightness of the axes of solids of revolution
Special symbols
This symbol indicates Maximum Material Condition is
applied to toleranced feature. It means that the geometry
tolerance only applies when that feature is at maximum
material limit of size. It means that if the feature
concerned is at a size less than MMC or equal to LMC,
then the geometry tolerance can be increased by an
amount equal to the difference between the actual size
and the maximum material limit of size
MMC Condition
• Consider that this shaft must fit into a hole. The
straightness of the axis is required to make sure that it fits
With this hole size it will fit

MMC Condition
• But, if the shaft is NOT at MMC, the straightness tolerance
can be increased the part will still fit:
At LMC, the size of shaft is 24.939, so there is 0.041 clearance.
The axis of the shaft can bend by up to 0.041 and it will still fit
E
A
B
C
D
A drawing of a piston-pin-conrod system is shown below with five geometric
tolerances marked (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e) specified on the figure. Please select
which geometric tolerance defines the flatness of a surface (vote on UQ poll a-e)
Surface Finish Specifications
• Surface texture is the variation in the surface including
roughness, waviness, lay and flays
• Roughness describes the finest irregularities in the
surface
• Surface finish and
manufacturing
Surface finish symbols
Standard Surface Finish
From Engineering Drawing Handbook – Standards Australia

• Machining and Surface Texture
3.2 3.2
Surface Roughness Machining of Machining of

of 3.2 µm Surface is Surface (removal
(Machining Optional) Required of material) is
Prohibited!
• Presentation of the surface finish
All surfaces are to be

machined. A value can
be added as necessary. Typical Drawing with
Surface Roughness
3D Scanning &
Printing
Hype & Reality
Qubic
www.qubic.com.au
Current Developments
Technology
Workflows
Reality
Research
What Can Be 3D Scanned?
• Convert real object
into 3D computer
data.
Scan almost anything:
• Buildings
• Insects
• People
• Manufacturing
• Underwater
High End 3D
• Precision devices
• Limited manufacturers
• Incremental
• Technological jumps
• Quality Assurance
• Medical, aerospace
• Accuracy 0.01 - 0.1mm
Lower cost
• Under $10,000
• Large number of devices
• Wide range of quality
• Hype
• Confusion
Applications
Macquarie University http://elsi.ltc.mq.edu.au/~skcdev/3d/library.php
• Ancient history museum

• Australian history museum
Applications
NGA
• Papuan timber
Carvings
• Aboriginal art
Applications
Museum
• Custom fit
packaging
Applications
• Inspection
• Medicine
• Science
• Visualisation
• Simulation
• Anthropometric data
• Reverse Engineer
• Customised Manufacturing
• Forensics
• 3D Print
Applications
• Biomechanics /
Anthropometry
– High detail measurements of
body shapes
– Spatial analysis
Applications
• Medicine
– In surgery measurements
– 3D printed anatomical
models
– Plastic surgery
Applications
• Inspection
– Validate parts
before value adding
– Wear analysis
– Inspect 3D printed
parts
3D Scan
Applications
• Reverse Engineer
– 3D shape data
where none exists
– Spare parts
Why Scan / Digitize?
• Reduce problem solving times and provides
clear insights into complex spatial issues
• Make decisions using true 3D data instead of
‘gut feel’ with complex 3D measurements
• Permanent record of an object
• Simpler and higher impact communication
Technology Overview
Laser
– Non contact
– High to low accuracy
– Ideal for highly detailed
objects, complex freeform
surfaces, or complete surface
geometry
– Arm lasers, ‘full dome’ long
range, low cost
– Nikon, Zeiss, Precitrack
Technology Overview
Touch Probe
– Very high accuracy
– Best suited for capturing
basic features and points.
Flat planes, hole centres,
cylindrical objects, discrete
point measurement, cross
sections
– Arm and wireless systems
– Nikon, Precitrack
Technology Overview
Structured Light (white, blue, green, IR)
– High accuracy
– Cleaner data than laser due to
significantly less noise with high
end systems
– Narrow operating parameters
– Indoor scanning
– For highly detailed objects,
complex freeform surfaces, or
complete surface geometry
– Dynamic 3D scanning (scan
objects / people in motion)
– Solutionix, Rangevision, LMI
Technology Overview
Handheld / Portable
– Fast
– Mobile
– Access difficult areas
– Artec, Einscan, Thor 3D
Technology Overview
Stereo vision / photogrammetry
– Use standard cameras (DSLR
best)
– Multiple cameras or angles
– High texture/colour quality
– Scaling and surface issues
– Agisoft, Reality Capture
Technology Overview
Computed Tomography / MRI
– X-ray
– See through entire object
– Holes and cavities scanned
– Limited size and materials
– Good accuracy and detail
– 3D metal print verification
(Nikon CT)
Technology Overview
Low Cost Devices
– Structured light & laser
– Lower quality components,
especially optics
– Variable/inconsistent
performance
– Avoid rotary point lasers
– David SLS, Rangevision Smart,
Einscan-S
Technology Requirements
Surface Preparation
• Transparent
• Translucent
• Dark
• Shiny
Spray to create light colour matt
surface for scanning
otherwise noise / errors will
be high or no data scanned.
• Some high end lasers / blue
light can scan dark, shiny
surfaces
Post Processing Scan to CAD
• Geomagic Studio/Wrap
• 3D scan data requires some
type of cleaning before use.
Amount of cleaning a factor
of scan quality.
– Noise
– Holes
– Alignment
– Extract edge data
– Remove anomalies
• Output file format depends
on final use
• Polygons, points or NURBS
Post Processing
• Scan to CAD DesignX
• Output parametric 3D
objects to
– Solidworks
– Inventor
– CATIA
– Creo
– NX
• 3D fluid dynamics
• 3D stress analysis
Post Processing Free
• Free programs:
– Meshlab
– Cloudcompare
• Low cost
– Leios
Post Processing - Inspection
• Certified software
– Compare two or more
objects against each other
with a colour map
– 2D & 3D section
comparisons
– Report output in Acrobat,
HTML or Word
– View reports worldwide
– Trend analysis to analyse
groups of objects
Post Processing
• Visualisation
– Load objects onto the web
or into PDF documents as
interactive 3D objects in
colour from 3D colour
scanners.
• Making
– Make an object with 3D
printers or CNC mills to
touch and feel without
disturbing the original
Workflow
Scanned object Automatic/Parametric

NURBS
Scanned object
Scanned object Manual CAD modelling

Claims & Definitions
• Accuracy
– Different brands use
different definitions
– Claims can be deceptive
– VDI 2634 accepted
independent standard for
some scanner types
– Overall accuracy usually
distance between
reference objects
Terminology
• Noise
– Scan data roughness
– Amount of noise depends on
scanner type and user
techniques
– White light generally has
smoothest raw data but this
depends on brand
– Can destroy fine details in
downstream smoothing
– Check what smoothing is
done of ‘raw’ scan data
Terminology
• Resolution
– Comparable to digital
camera megapixel
– Higher resolution =
sharper detail and
less pixilation
– Sharp edges become
a faceted ‘radius’
– High noise & high
resolution = poor
detail
Reality
Low cost vs. performance?
• Potential in any low
cost device
• Ignore the hype (fastest,
most accurate, the only
one…,)
• Beware: Colour hides
poor geometry
Reality
Low cost vs. performance?
• Ease of Use
• Repeatability
• Accuracy
• Benchmark to high end
scanners
• No accuracy
Reality
The Human Factor –
Ease of Use / Repeatability /
Accuracy
– Enclosed box and camera
type point and scan
systems the simplest to
learn with high
repeatability
– Handheld systems
generally require more
skill and is less repeatable
between different users
Reality
•Different definitions for
accuracy
•Independent accuracy
claims preferred – not
internal test methods
•User skill critical
•Price ≠ Quality
• Noise destroys detail
•Look past ‘pretty’ marketing
images / movies
•Multiple Scans = Error Some scanners are accurate in the centre of a
stackup scan view, but inaccurate on the periphery
Research
• Determine general needs and
output
• Choose what is appropriate
• Repeatability & Validity
– Test scanners on known part
• Ask for specification
definitions
• Obtain certificates if required
• Create own benchmark test
with low cost scanner
• Test software
Research
• Low end scanners for:
– Proof of concept
– Accuracy to 0.5mm for better
quality systems
– 5mm or worse accuracy for
low quality systems
• High end scanner for:

– Manufacturing, wear analysis
– Medical
Live Scanning
3D Printing – Current State
• Decreasing costs
• New technologies
• Lower cost printers
improving
• New materials
• Lack of understanding
3D Printing
• Resin 3D printers
– Castable to metal
– Plastic like
– Ultra smooth & high detail
– High speed
– UV curing and degradation
– Jewellery, dental
3D Printing
• Resin 3D printers
– UV light projector, UV LED
panels, ‘inkjet’ heads + UV
light
– Low to high cost
– Post print support removal,
wash, cure.
– Formlabs, DWS XFAB, Roland
– Objet, 3D Systems Projet,
Prismlab, Envisiontec
DLP – DLP smaller build areas
– LED, SLA and inkjet larger
build areas
3D Printing
Inkjet
3D Printing
SLA
3D Printing
• Powder 3D printers
– Full colour (CMY/CMYK) inkjet
style, laser, heat
– True colour gradient mixing in
3D
– Plaster, ceramic, food, plastic
powder, metal, many more
– Complexity is free
– Self supporting builds
3D Printing
• Powder 3D printers
– Production & medical
– Diverse materials
– Reuse materials (30-95%)
– No physical supports
– Sinterit, Sintratec
– HP, 3D Systems, EOS,
Renishaw, ExOne, SLM,
Blueprinter
Binders + Powder (Plastic, Plaster, Metal)

3D Printing
Laser sinter (metals, plastics)

Electron beam, others
3D Printing
Heat sinter
3D Printing
HP Print Process
3D Printing
• Specialised 3D printers
– Medical
– Electronics
3D Printing
Choosing a Printer
List requirements
Choose the right

materials
Choose the most

appropriate printer
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Engineering Metrology and Instrumentation

Engineering Metrology & Instrumentation
• In this lecture
– Engineering Metrology
– Traditional Measurement Technologies
– Advanced Measurement Technologies
– Machine Vision
Engineering Metrology
• Engineering metrology
– Measurement of dimensions: length, thickness, diameter, taper
angle, flatness, profiles, and others.
– Approach
• Post-process inspection: traditionally
– Measurement made after part has been produced
• In-process inspection: Today
– Measurements are being made while part is being
produced on machine, also called online or real-time
– Dimensional tolerance
• There will be errors of size in any machined work piece, actual
dimension will be different from nominal dimension
• Errors should be within certain given limits by tolerances and
determined by the dimensional measurement to guarantee the
product quality
Engineering Metrology
• Measurement standards
– Linear measure-inch, foot, yard, meter
– Standards kept by governments; Meter=1,650763.73 wavelengths
Kr.
– Sensitivity or resolution
• Smallest difference in dimensions that the instrument can
detect or distinguish
– Precision
• Degree to which the instrument gives repeated measurements
of the same standard
Conventional Measuring Technologies
– Line-graduated instruments
• Linear measurement
• Angle measurement
• Comparative length measurement
– Geometric features measurement
• Straightness
• Flatness
• Roundness
• Profile
• Screw threads & gear teeth
– Optical contour projectors
– gauges
• Measuring Tape and Ruler

• Vernier scale
– An additional scale allows a distance measurement to be read more accurately
than directly reading a uniformly-divided straight scale
– Sliding secondary scale used to indicate where the measurement lies when it is in
between two of the marks on the main scale
Vernier scale
• How to read a vernier scale
UQ Poll http://uq.net.au/uqpoll/uqmbermi
What is the reading shown on the Vernier scale below?
a) 29 b) 19.9 c) 20.8 d) 19.2 e) 9

• Micrometer
micrometer screw gauge, a device
incorporating a calibrated screw used widely
for precise measurement of small distances
• Micrometer
– Direct readings can be made to within 0.001 mm
• Dial indicator
– A spring-loaded spindle, or a plunger, that is connected to a dial.
Once the spindle or plunger moves, the dial shows indication as to
a measurement
Measuring
concentricity
• Three uses of dial indicators:
(a) roundness, (b) depth, and (c) multiple-dimension gauging of a part

• Gauges
– Identifies any device which can be used to determine the size or
shape of an object
• Feeler gauges, a tool used to measure gap widths, mostly the
clearance between two parts
• Pitch gauges, Used to determine internal and external thread
forms
• Fixed gauges
(a) Plug gauge for holes with GO and NOT GO on opposite ends. (b) Plug gauge with
GO and NOT GO on one end. (c) Plain ring gauges for gauging round rods. Note the
difference in knurled surfaces to identify the two gauges. (d) Snap gauge with
adjustable anvils.
(a) Schematic illustration of the operating
principle for an air gauge. (b) Three
types of plugs used for air gauging. The
gauge on the right is an air snap gauge.
(c) A conical head for air gauging; note
the small air holes on the conical surface.
Source: (b) Courtesy of Mahr Federal
Inc. (c) Courtesy of Stotz gauging Co.
• Measuring a big object
Gauges installed in front section of vehicle
UNIVERSAL GAUGE MEASURING SYSTEM, Chief Automotive Technologies

• Height gauge
– a measuring device used either for determining the height of
something, or for repetitious marking of items to be worked on.
• Measuring Straightness
Measuring straightness manually with (a) a knife-edge rule and (b) a dial
indicator. Source: After F. T. Farago.
• Measuring Flatness
(a) Interferometry method for
measuring flatness using an optical
flat. (b) Fringes on a flat, inclined
surface. An optical flat resting on a
perfectly flat workpiece surface will
not split the light beam, and no
fringes will be present. (c) Fringes
on a surface with two inclinations.
Note: the greater the incline, the
closer together are the fringes. (d)
Curved fringe patterns indicate
curvatures on the workpiece
surface.
• Measuring Roundness
(a) Schematic illustration of out-of-roundness (exaggerated). Measuring

roundness using (b) a V-block and dial indicator, (c) a round part supported on
centers and rotated, and (d) circular tracing. Source: After F. T. Farago.
• Measuring Gear-Tooth Thickness and Profile
Measuring gear-tooth
thickness and profile
with (a) a gear-tooth
caliper and (b) pins or
balls and a
micrometer. Source:
Courtesy of American
Gear Manufacturers
Association
• Optical Contour Projector
A bench-model horizontal-beam contour
projector with a 16-in. diameter screen with
150-W tungsten halogen illumination.
Source: Courtesy of L. S. Starrett
Company, Precision Optical Division.
Advanced Measurement Technologies
• Automation of dimensional measurements

– Apart from manual measuring tools, physical objects can be
measured using 3D scanning technologies like
• Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs)
• Laser Scanners
• Structured Light Digitizers
• Industrial CT (Computed Tomography) Scanning
– Measuring techniques can be divided into two broad categories:
• Contact measurements
– physical contact is made between the object and the
measuring or gauging instrument
• Non-contact measurements
– no physical contact is made
• Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

– A 3D device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics
of an object.
– Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving
axis of the machine.
– Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, amongst
others.
– A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and
displays these readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM

– CMMs include three main components:
• The main structure which include three axes of motion
• Probing system
• Data collection system
– typically includes a machine controller, desktop computer
and application software
– A 3D device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics
– Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving
axis of the machine
– Reads in six degrees of freedom and displays these readings in
mathematical form
• Coordinate-Measuring Machine for Car Bodies
A large coordinate-measuring
machine with two heads
measuring various dimensions
on a car body. Source:
Courtesy of Mitutoyo Corp
• Optical 3D scanners
– Categorized into two technological groups
• Lasers and structured lights
– Scanner has a camera to accurately texture map the object
through a triangulation mechanism
• When the light hits the object and is reflected back to a
camera, a measurement is taken that calculates depth
– When hundreds of thousands of these
measurements are taken per inch of
object, the resulting scan data provides a
picture of the part’s shape
– All 3D scanners are designed to render
the actual surface area of an object into
electronic form known as a “point cloud”
– The scan data can then be used to
create CAD/CAM models
– Laser scanner
• Utilize infrared light-emitting diode lasers
• Shines a laser beam onto the surface of an object, and the reflection
of that beam on the object’s surface is captured by a camera
– Structured light scanners
– Utilize a “white light” source such as halogen or LEDs to project a
pattern of pixels that deforms when it strikes the target surface
– Several patterns of alternating dark and light bars with different
spatial frequencies and orientations are projected onto the
subject
– Two cameras take pictures of the patterns, and the system
computes the deviation of the bars with respect to a flat reference
to determine depth information
• Interior measurement
– What do you do when asked to measure something that cannot be
reached?
– Cutting part with a saw to expose the feature is a common practice
• induces error that can be larger than the tolerance allowed
• low efficiency process
– Two alternatives
• Computerized Tomography (CT)
• Cross-Sectional Scanning (CSS)
• Industrial computed tomography (CT) scanning

– A process which uses X-ray equipment to produce 3-dimensional
representations of components

– X-ray radiography is a 2D shadowgraph of a 3D object
• grey-level map based on the physical density or changes in the
thickness of the part along the direction of the X-ray
– 2D image has useful information about inside details of the part,
limited in providing exact depths and locations of the inside
features

– Moving source & detector capture multiple projections (P1, P2,
P3), each image carries a piece of information about object
– The different slice images of the part can be reconstructed from
the collected projections

– 1st generation of CT scanners invented by G. Hounsfield, earning
him the 1972 Noble Prize in medicine, took 9 days to produce a
single slice image
– With today's processors and powerful reconstruction software, CT
scanning is now a vital part of daily diagnostic medical practice
and a powerful tool in many different areas of industry



– a casting with porosity
• Cross-sectional scanning process
– Parts are encased in plastic resin
– When resin cures the encased part is mounted on the platform of a
milling machine
– Cutter mills away an ultra-thin layer
– Optical scanner captures the newly exposed 2D profile
– The milling and imaging process is repeated until the encased part
is fully consumed
– The collection of 2D images is then post-processed to generate a
cloud of points that fully describes the 3D shape of the entire part
• Cross-Sectional Scanning
Machine Vision
• Machine vision refers to the industrial application of vision technology
– Describes the understanding and interpretation of technically obtained
images for controlling production processes
– Evolved into one of the key technologies in industrial automation, used in
all manufacturing industries
– A machine vision system is comprised of
• image acquisition or image generating device
• a processing unit
• low level and high level software
– The ultimate task of a machine vision system
• Automation of machines by visual information, mainly automated
quality inspection and automated machine guidance
Machine Vision
• Applications
– Inspections of welded seams
Machine Vision
• Applications Deflectometry is very
similar to the way a
– Automotive human operator
inspects shiny
surfaces like a
finished car body for
defects. An industrial
robot is used for
the mechanical
positioning of the
sensor head which
consists of a screen in
combination with a
camera (Fraunhofer
IOSB)
Tyre uniformity inspection are two of

several 3D inspection steps during
tyre production (Images: LMI)
Industrial Scale Co-ordinate
Measurement Systems
Coordinate Measurement is done during the production cycle for every
• Applications produced part (in-line measurement). Such a station traditionally often
consisted of several hundred 3D sensors. Today the task is mainly
– Automotive executed with the sensors mounted on robots (Image: Volkswagen).
3D Inline measurement is one of the highest volume applications for 3D

technologies in the automotive industry
(Image right: Volkswagen Images left: Edixia)
Machine Vision
• Applications
– Aerospace
Triangulation based sensors are used for guidance of

the riveting machines in aircraft and helicopter
production (Image: Brötje Automation)
Machine Vision - Example
• Can Inspector is a system for flaw detection of can double seams using machine
vision.
• This in-line quality control system for can seams, checks 100% of production.
• A state-of-the-art machine vision system, with 6 synchronized cameras, is responsible
for inspecting in-line the can double seams, that is, checks out 100% of production in
real time, without perturbing the production rate. The can seam defect inspection is
carried out at up to 600 cans/min. and it is capable of detect the small defects.
• Detectable defects:
• Vee, lips and burrs.
• Droop.
• Dents.
• False seams.
• Incomplete seam.
• Damaged edges.
• Knocked down flanges.
Machine Vision
• Advantages
– Inspection of the total production
• Machine vision quality control can be used to inspect each of
the parts produced instead of random sampling of the lots
– Repeatability
• Each inspection is performed under the same conditions, thus
ensuring repeatability
– Consistency
• Automated inspection feature avoids the subjectivity of humans
and fatigue, so each piece has a consistent level of quality
relative to all others
Machine Vision
• Advantages
– Reduced costs
• quality control at the end of the production process for the
reduction of costs, customer will receive defect-free products,
avoiding returns and improving the company image.
• Inspection with a camera at intermediate points in the production
process enables early detection and allows removal of defective
parts before assembly, thus avoiding the complete rejection of
the end product.
• Benefits due to the relocation of human resources previously
used to ensure product quality
Non-Destructive Testing
• NOD
Engineering Metrology & Instrumentation
• Trends in measurement
– high speed and high accuracy / reliably
– Interior and exterior of objects
– New sensors and portable devices
• Optical
– Environment lighting and reflecting features of the surface
• Non-optical
– Utilize energy forms including various electrical fields, radiation,
and ultrasonics
– Data processing
• Millions of data points to compute imaging
– 1917 J. Radon, Australian mathematician published a paper, from
a purely mathematical standpoint, showing how to reconstruct a
function from its projections data, which opened the window to a
new and valuable imaging technique
• Fast computers to process the huge numbers of calculations and the
introduction of faster algorithms
• Point cloud to CAD model, i.e. surface and solid models
• Questions from the lecture
– List the manual dimensional measuring tools used everyday in a
machining shop
– Which technologies are suitable for measuring a large object (up
to a few meters)?
– List the measuring technologies which can measure the interior
features of an object
– Which measuring technologies utilize optical technology, and
which utilize energy technologies?
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Joining
Outline
• Classifications of joining processes
• Oxyfuel gas welding
• Arc welding Fusion
• Electron beam and laser welding Welding
• Weld quality and defects
• Friction welding
• Resistance welding Solid State Welding
• Mechanical Fastening
• Brazing and Soldering
• Kalpakjian: Chapters, 30, 31.4 and 31.5, 32

Classifications of Joining Processes
Joining
• Joining is an all-inclusive term

covering processes such as welding,
brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding,
and mechanical fastening.
• Why joining?
– Some component shapes cannot be made
as a single piece
– Cheaper
– Equipment needs to be taken apart
(disassembly & reassembly)
– Require different properties
– Transportation
Joining - classification
Joining
• Adhesive bonding:
– A join process, in which parts or components are joined by
adhesives – “glue”.
• Mechanical fastening:
– Components can be joined or fastened in such as way that they
can be taken apart later – bolts, screws, nuts and rivets.
• Brazing:
– Filler metal is placed between the faying surfaces, then heated
until filler is molten, but components do not melt.
• Soldering:
– Using low melting temperature, fillers metals.
Fusion-welding Processes
Fusion welding
• Always melts some of the metals being joined thereby

ensuring a good interface
• Protection of the molten metal is required – to stop
reactions with atmosphere
• Often also needs filler metal
• Needs “heat” sources to melt the metal:
flame, arc, electron beam or laser beam, kinetic energy
Video – Types of Fusion Welding
9/05/2016
Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding
• Heat required to melt the metal at faying

surfaces is generated by electrical arc between
the work pieces and the electrode.
• The workpiece can be either anode (positive) or
cathode (negative).
• Electrode can be consumable or
nonconsumable.
• Filler metal is used.
• Shielding is required to protect the liquid metal.
Video – Arc Description
9/05/2016
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
• Tungsten electrode not
consumed – thus easier to
have constant arc
• Filler similar to metals
being welded
• Inert gas for protection
• Widely used for Al, Mg, Ti,
refractory metals, thin
sheet
• DC power or AC power
can be used
• Also known as “tungsten
Nonconsumable electrode inert gas” (TIG) welding
Example: Titanium welding
• Titanium is extremely reactive and high purity argon
cover-gas is necessary to prevent contamination and
liquid metal fires.
• Typically GTAW (TIG) welded
High quality aerospace components

are typically TIG welded in an argon
9/05/2016
TIG welded Titanium part purge chamber

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• Also known as “manual metal arc” (MMA) or STICK

welding, consumable electrode.
• Electric arc is generated by touching the tip of a coated
electrode against the workpiece.
• Heat from the arc melts the electrode tip, its coating and the
base metal in the faying surface.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
• The electrode coating deoxidizes the weld area and

provides a shielding gas to protect the melt and base metal
from oxygen in the environment
• Molten metal = base metal + electrode metal + substances
from electrode coating (reactions of flux & weld pool)
• Current: AC or DC, 50 ~ 300 A
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
• Automatic feed of consumable bare weld wire

• Flux is supplied separately
• Arc is struck underneath flux – current: 300~2000 A
• Automatic process – continuous, high productivity
• Need to pay careful attention to control
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
• Also known as MIG

welding
• Weld area is shielded by
inert gas, Ar, He, reactive
CO2 and their mixture
• Consumable bare
welding wire has
automatic feed
• Good control of melting,
consumable welding wire
and transfer of molten
metal to weld pool
• Popular for welding thin
sheets
Electrode for arc welding
• Electrode is classified according to strength of the deposited weld metal,

current (AC or DC) and type of coating – see Table 30.0.
• Coating – Silicate binder + oxide, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys,
cotton cellulose, wood flour.
• Deposited electrode coating or slag on the weld must be removed after
each pass of welding to ensure a good weld.
Electron beam welding (EBW)
• Heat is generated by narrow focused electron beam

through converting the kinetic energy of electrons into heat
• Very small weld bead
• Vacuum is required
• Thickness up to 150 mm
• More expensive
Laser beam welding (LBW)
• Laser beam can be focused onto a very small area, high

energy density and deep-penetrating capability
• Beam can also be shaped
• Vacuum is not required
• No X-rays are generated
• Good quality welds, particularly for deep and narrow joints
• In automated systems, require minimal
operator skill
• Suitable for Al, Ti, steels, Cu, alloys
Laser beam welding (LBW)
Comparison of (a) electron-beam weld and

(b) gas tungsten arc weld.
Detail of Gillette Sensor razor

cartridge, showing laser spot welds.
Weld Quality
Weld consists of Three zones
• Base metal
• Heat affected
zone (HAZ)
– Microstructure and
properties change
• Weld metal
(fusion zone)
– Re-solidification
During Welding a Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) often

forms. What are the consequences :
a) The mechanical properties in the weld and HAZ are

different compared to parent
b) Grain growth in the HAZ makes dislocation motion harder
c) There is no difference between the parent metal and the
HAZ
d) The grain size in the weld is smaller than the grain size in
the parent
e) The size of the HAZ is only defined by the size of the weld
pool
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• The microstructure and properties of the HAZ depend on:
– The rate of heat input and cooling
– The temperature to which this zone was raised
– The original microstructure, properties, metal forming process,
heat treatment process, etc
– Base metal physical properties
• What will happen in the HAZ?
– Recrystallization of cold worked metals
– Precipitation
– Forming of untempered martensite through a process that is
similar to quenching. Dangerous! That is why high carbon and
high alloy steels have low weldability
Weld Defects
Porosity
• Causes
– Gases released during melting of the weld area, but
trapped during solidification
– Chemical reactions
– Contaminants
• Prevention
– Proper selection of electrode and filler metals
– Preheating the weld area or increasing heat input
– Proper cleaning
– Reducing welding speed to allow time for gas to escape
Slag inclusions
• Causes
– Flux and/or oxides are trapped in the weld zone
• Prevention
– Cleaning the weld bead surface using wire brush (by
hand or electrically powered) for every welding pass
– Providing sufficient amounts of shielding gas to protect
from oxidation
– Redesign the welding process
Incomplete fusion and penetration
• Causes
– Poor welding operation
• Prevention
– Preheating, increasing heat input
– Cleaning the weld area before welding
– Reducing the travel speed during welding
Solidification cracking
• Occurs in weld deposits during cooling
• Occurs predominantly in weld centreline or between
columnar grains/dendrites
• Aggravated by:
– Coarse columnar grains – high energy welds (eg submerged arc)
give largest grains
– Abrupt changes of grain growth direction, particularly at weld
centreline with high welding speed
– Large amount of low melting point material for segregation between
dendrites (FeS, low MP eutectic…)
– High joint constraint leading to high strains
• For weld with high constraint
• Shrinkage strain increases as
solidification progresses
• “Last” solidification at centreline &
between large dendrites
• Lots of “last solidification” for “dirty”
steels (e.g. high S, P)
• Solidification cracking occurs if
strength of “last solidification” cannot
withstand shrinkage strain
• Solidification cracking occurs during
solidification, (i.e. weld is hot)
Lamellar tears – in base metal
• Solidification of weld produces high tensile stresses on short transverse
direction
• Particularly occurs for welds with high restraint
• Rolled sections with significant impurity content (e.g. S & P) &
segregation giving poor short transverse ductility & toughness
• Occurs during cooling of weld
σT
Transverse strain
σL Weld orientation
Poor ductility
through thickness
σT < σL
Lamellar tears
Cracks along banding in

microstructure
Solid-State Welding Processes
Solid-State Welding
• No liquid or molten phase is present in the joint

• Clean - Interface must be free of oxide films,
residues, metalworking fluids, other
contaminants
• Diffusion – higher temperature is required
• Pressure
• Relative interfacial movement
– Break up oxide films and generate new surface
– Generate heat
Friction welding
• Heat is generated through friction at the interface between

two components
• Involves high speed movement of one piece (another is
kept still)
• Once welded,
moving stops
• Wide range
of materials
• Highly
automated
Video – Inertia Friction Welding Demo
9/05/2016
Friction stir welding
Both components to be joined do not move

Heat is generated through friction by rubbing two
contacting surfaces
Resistance welding
• Heat is produced by means
of electrical resistance
across the two components
to be joined.
H = I2Rt
• Widely used in assembly &
fabrication
• Form a weld nugget
between two sheets
• Autos: one issue is that weld
is NOT continuous
• Current: 3000 ~ 40,000 A
Choose the most suitable joining technique to join

sheet metals on the outside surface of aircraft wings
a)Contact Adhesives
b)Flush Riveting
c) Arc Welding
d)Nuts and bolts
e)Zip tie
Mechanical Fastening
Advantages:
• Ease of manufacturing.
• Ease of assembly and transportation.
• Ease of disassembly, maintenance, parts replacement, or repair.
• Ease in creating designs that require movable joints such as hinges,
sliding mechanisms, and adjustable components and fixtures.
• Lower overall cost of manufacturing the product.
Example:
• Riveting
– The most common permanent or semi-permanent mechanical joining
method.
9/05/2016
Video-Pop Riveting
9/05/2016
Video-Flush Riveting
9/05/2016
Other Fastening Methods:
• Metal Stitching and Stapling
– Similar to stapling of papers, suitable for joining thin metallic and
nonmetallic materials
• Seaming
– Folding two thin pieces of materials together. The tops of beverage
cans, containers for food.
• Crimping
– No fastener is needed. Can be done with beads or dimples. Metal caps
are fastened to glass bottles by crimping.
• Shrink and Press Fits
– Assembling die components and mounting gears and cams onto shafts.
When the components are designed properly, this process results in
high joint strength.
Brazing and Soldering
(lower temperatures than fusion welding)
Brazing
• Filler metal placed between interfaces of faying surfaces is melted

• Components (base metal) not melted (below solidus temperature)
• Liquid-solid-state bonding process
9/05/2016
Brazing
• Heat applied externally

• Joint clearance required
• Molten filler moves into
interfaces by capillary
action
• Use of flux essential – prevents oxidation and removes
oxide films
• Surfaces to be brazed must be clean and free from
contaminants
• Intricate, lightweight shapes of dissimilar metals can be
joined rapidly
9/05/2016
Brazing Capillary Action
9/05/2016
Soldering
• Filler metal (solder) melts at eutectic point of solder alloy

• Traditionally tin-lead alloys
• Important solder characteristics:
– low surface tension
– High wetting capability
9/05/2016
Soldering
• Heat sources: soldering irons, torches or ovens

• Closely fitting or closely placed components
• As in brazing, solder fills joint by capillary action
• As with brazing, fluxes are used
9/05/2016
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
• OFW:
– Any welding process that uses a fuel gas combined with
oxygen to produce a flame that is used as the heat
source to melt the metals at the joint
• Oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW)
– Uses acetylene as gas fuel
Oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW)
• Flame types
a) Neutral flame: C2H2:O2 = 1:1, used for welding
b) Oxidizing flame: Excess O2, no good for welding, but
can be used for cutting
c) Carburizing flame: Deficiency of oxygen, used for low
heat welding and case hardening of steels
Oxyacetylene gas welding (OAW)
• Filler metals
– Used to supply additional metals to the weld zone
– Rod or wire
– Coated with flux, which is to retard oxidation through
generating a gaseous shield – dissolves and removes
oxides
Flame cutting
• Oxidizing flame –
when there is
excess oxygen
• Used for flame
cutting of steel
• Some melting from
flame energy
MECH2305
Manufacturing
“Sheet Metal Forming”

JEFFREY VENEZUELA
Quick Review
Kalpakjian: Chapter 16



Engineering…)
Products
Sheet making vs Sheet forming
VS.
Cold rolling to Sheet metal forming

produce sheets process
Sheet metal
forming
products
Content of Lecture
Basic sheet forming
 Shearing
 Bending
 Stretch forming
 Deep drawing
 Stamping
Advanced sheet forming

 Multipoint sheet forming
 Incremental sheet forming
Definition of Terms
Plates
(> 6 mm)
Sheets
(0.2 to 6 mm)
Foils
(< 0.2 mm)
Sheet metal forming
“manufacturing
process where the
desired shape is
achieved through
_________________
plastic deformation or
_______
cutting of a flat
metal sheet”
Wood Steel
Classification of SMF
Bending
Plastic
Deep Drawing
deformation
Stamping
Multipoint sheet
SMF forming
Incremental
sheet forming
Fracture Shearing
Characteristics of SMF
1. Versatile (shape
of products and
processing)
2. Applied stress > Yield

stress; causing the
material to plastically
deform
3. Often done at room
temperature…
4. A certain amount
springback (elastic
deformation) occurs
after forming
“Strain hardening creates
strong products”
Springback
“Springback is a
major issue in
sheet metal
forming”
5. consider “Anisotropy refers to

ANISOTROPIC properties being
behaviour when directionally-dependent”
working with sheets
VS
Isotropic Anisotropic
(marshmallows) (eggs)
Microstructure of steel sheet
“ANISOTROPY Steel
in sheet metal”
Wood
Anisotropy is the result of

the grain structure in the
cold-rolled sheets
Applications of SMF
 Automotive industry
e.g. doors, hoods, fenders
 Aircraft industry
e.g. wings, fuselage
 Home appliance industry
e.g. sinks, cooker hoods, freezers
 Food industry
e.g. cooking pots, canned goods
 Construction industry
e.g. corrugated sheets, gutter channels
Shearing
“piece of sheet metal

is separated by
applying a shear force
to cause the material
to fracture
________”
Example of Shearing:
Blanking
removes a
blank or slug
(useful piece)
from a large
sheet
may leave
scrap that will
be discarded or
recycled
Why use shearing force?
Ultimate Shear
Material
Strength = f(UTS)
For most
Steels 0.70*UTS metals, ultimate
Ductile Iron 0.9*UTS shear strength
Wrought Iron 0.83*UTS is lower than the
Cast Iron 1.3*UTS UTS
Aluminums 0.65*UTS
Structure of the Sheared Metals
Metal yields
Metal is cut
Metal fractures
http://www.custompartnet.com/wu/sheet-metal-shearing
Microstructure of the Sheared Metal
Shear structures
Deburring
Burr tool
Important Parameters in Shearing
 nature of metal (type, thickness)

 punch clearance
 speed of punching
 shape of the die and punch
 lubrication
Force needed for Shearing
Fshear= shearing force

UTS = ultimate tensile strength
T= thickness
L = total length of sheared edge
*For round hole of diameter D, L =*D
Shearing Clearance
Shearing clearance, c, is
the distance between the
punch and the die
c = at
a = allowance
t = stock thickness
Shearing Clearance
“Optimum is 2-10% of sheet

thickness…”
“Clearance too small…

large energy required because
of more redundant work,
ragged edge”
“Clearance too large:

tendency for sharp projections
(burrs)”
Examples of Shearing Operation:
Conventional and Fine Blanking
Conventional Fine
Examples of Shearing Operations:
Blanking vs Punching
Examples of Shearing Operations
SLOTTING LANCING
PIERCING TRIMMING
Examples of Shearing Operations
NIBBING
NOTCHING
Bending
“…force is applied to a piece of sheet
metal, causing it to bend at an angle and
form the desired shape”
Video of Bending operation
Bending :
Press brake
“a common machine tool

for bending sheet metal”
Examples of Bending operation
Examples of Bending operation
Force needed for bending
Fbending = maximum bending force

Y = shear strength
T = thickness
L = bending length For V-die bending:
W = die opening
k = 0.3 wiping die
= 0.7 for U-die
= 1.3 for V-die UTS = ultimate tensile strength
Die opening, W
Bend Allowance, BA
“After bending, the

final length is different
from the initial length
of the material…”
“To maintain tight

tolerances in the bent
arms, then you should
be able to predict Lo
by determining BA “If variation is not
compensated, then final
product will not have
right dimensions”
Bend Allowance
“Refers to the length of the neutral axis or
the arc length of the bend”
Lb = (R + kT)
Lb = bend allowance
 = bend angle (radians)
R = bend radius
T = thickness
k = a constant ranging from
0.33 (R<2T) to 0.5 (R>2T)
Force Distributions on the Bent
Sheet
If bent beyond
a limit, cracks
can occur…
In which
portion are
cracks likely to
form?
Answer:
“Tensile section”
Sheet cracking during bending
Most cracks appears on the tensile section

of the bent piece…and its rare to find
both sides fractured”
Minimum bend radius, Rmin
“the radius at which a crack

appears on the bent metal” Bend
radius, R
r = tensile reduction A metal with r = 50

in area (%) gives an Rmin=0…
T = thickness
What does Rmin=0
“Rmin indicates mean?
the bendability”
Bending:
Factors affecting Rmin
1. Type of Metal
2. Sheet thickness
3. Temperature
Rmin
expressed in
terms of
sheet
thickness, T
Bending:
Factors affecting Rmin
4. Anisotropy of the sheet
Bending along
the grain Bending against
the grain
Bending axis should be perpendicular to the

grain direction (rolling direction)
Bending process:
Stretch Forming
Stretch forming
“process in which a piece of

sheet metal is stretched and
simultaneously over a
bent _____________
die in order to form large
contoured parts”
Applications of Stretch Forming
 Aerospace (Aircraft skins, cowls and air
frame components)
 Marine and ship-building industry (e.g. boat

and ship hulls along with various other
components)
The Tracker Tundra

18’s aluminum hull
is made via
stretch forming
“…cannot produce parts with sharp

Aircraft fuselage contours or with re-entrant corners”
made via stretch
forming
Deep Drawing
Deep Drawing
“process in which a punch forces a flat

sheet metal blank into a die cavity forming
a deep part”
Deep Drawing products
Deep Drawing:
Aluminum Beverage Can
“Products of the
different stages of
beverage can fabrication”
Important Process Parameters
in Deep Drawing
 Properties of sheet
(UTS, T)
 Blank diameter, D0
 Punch diameter, Dp
 Clearance, c
 Punch radius, Rp
 Die corner radius, Rd
Punch force, Fmax  D0 

Fmax  D pT (UTS )  0 .7 
D 
 p 
Defects in Deep Drawing
1. Wrinkling
• Can be reduced or eliminated if
blank holder is appropriately loaded
Deep Drawing:
Draw Beads
 control the flow of the blank into the die cavity
 reduce the required blank holder forces
 useful for drawing box-shaped and non-symmetrical
parts (e.g. rectangular dish)
Defects in Deep Drawing
2. Earing
• Caused by planar anisotropy of the
sheet
• Can be reduced or eliminated
through control of the material and
rolling processes
Stamping
Stamping
“a process that use dies to transform flat metal sheets
into shapes”
“To create three-

dimensional shapes, a
flat sheet of metal is
inserted into a die and
then a mechanical or
hydraulic press is
activated to create
the object…”
Stamping process video
Stamping Machines
 Metal stamping machines

punch and shape metal
sheets
Stamping press
Die
Progressive stamping dies
“Dies than can

perform punching, coining,
bending, etc. in a series of
stations… typically
combined with an
automatic feeding system”
Product of a 13-
die series
Stamping
 Developed as a mass
production technology for the
production of bicycles around
the 1890’s
 Technology played an
important role in making the
system of interchangeable
parts economical
Major Drawback in Stamping
 Heavy press machine required

 Extremely expensive die sets
“For single or small volume production, conventional
stamping is unpractical and uneconomical”
Stamping Dies for Automotive Side Body

Product of Conventional stamping:
Automotive body panels
 An automotive plant today produces some

40~50 critical panels per model of car, that
require some 100~150 dies
 ~$0.5M cost of tooling per panel
 ~$20M investment
Rubber forming and Hydroforming
“uses a thick rubber

pad to form sheet
metal over a positive
block”
Rubber forming and Hydroforming
“similar to rubber
forming except that
the pressure over
the rubber is applied
using a fluid”
Multi-point forming
“Conventional stamping dies are replaced

by a pair of opposed matrices of punch
rods with hemispheric ends”
Conventional Solid Die Multi Point Recreate Die

Multi-point die
Multi-point Forming Die
“By adjusting the height

Pin Art Impression Toy
of each punch rod, a
multi point die is
generated”
Multi-point forming
“the continuous
surface of a
conventional die is
approximated by the
envelope surface of a
punch matrix…”
Advantages of MPF
 Flexible & reconfigurable
 Cavity shape of MPF dies change efficiently and rapidly,
allows a single set of die to manufacture many parts of
varying shape
 20-30 minutes to change from shape to shape
 Small machine can form large component
1 2 Forming 4 5 6
area
Disadvantages of MPF
 Shape limitation
 Resolutions (10mm, 20mm,
30mm, etc)
 Punch configurations
 Removing marks
Case study #1: Use of MPF for
Fabricating High Speed Train Panels
 Conventional: needs 50-80 sets of press tool and at
least 6 months to fabricate
 MPF: 2 weeks to make all the panels

Case study #2: Use of MPF in Forming
Trusses for the Beijing Olympic Stadium
“The Beijing Olympic Stadium is built
with 36 km of unwrapped steel, with a
combined weight of 45,000 tonnes…”
Case study #2: Use of MPF in Forming
Trusses for the Beijing Olympic Stadium
 Conventional: At least 2 days to make one piece by
bending and heating
 MPF: 1 hr to make one segment; needed just 4 months

to form all the beams (16-70mm thick steel)
Flexible forming:
Incremental Sheet Forming
“process in which complex 3D shapes are
formed from a sheet metal using a simple
moving tool”
“…process consists of
highly localised plastic
deformation at the
tip of the tool as it
moves along a pre-
determined design
path”
Incremental Sheet Forming
Formed shape
Tool wraps the sheet

metal around a plug
Plug
with a desired shape
Incremental Sheet Forming video
Advantages of incremental sheet
forming (ISF)
 “No need for multiple,

complex and product-
specific dies”
VS
Advantages of incremental sheet
forming (ISF)
 “The size of the

part is limited only
by the size of the
machine…”
“forming forces
are low due to a
small contact zone
and incremental
step size”
ISF Prototyping
“…can be uniquely implemented for highly customised, one-off
products resulting in affordable, rapidly delivered prototypes or
low batch size parts”
A couple of weeks to
prototype new design vs
12 months using
conventional approach
Applications of ISF
Applications of ISF
• Flying bridge mould
Flexible forming
Flexible forming
Flexible forming
• Scanning faces
Flexible forming
Questions
1. ___________ is the elastic recovery of a metal sheet
after plastic deformation.
2. In this process, conventional stamping dies are replaced

by a pair of opposed matrices of punch rods
a. Incremental sheet forming c. Shearing
b. Multi-point forming d. Stamping
3. True or False. Shearing clearance is the distance

between the punch and the die
4. This product is best done by:
a. Extrusion
b. Deep Drawing
c. Forging
d. Stamping
e. Stretch forming
5. This product is best done by:
a. Extrusion
b. Deep Drawing
c. Shape rolling
d. Stamping
e. Stretch forming
Answers to Questions
1. springback
2. b
3. true
4. b
5. e
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING…
MECH2305
Manufacturing
Ceramics, Glass, Composites and Polymers

Outline
• Today I want to give you a broad introduction to the
materials properties of ceramics, glass, composites and
polymers.
• From this, you can use your knowledge developed
throughout the course to consider how these materials
can be manufactured.
Interested students can find detailed information

about these materials and manufacturing
processes in the textbook
Ceramics
Which statement broadly describes ceramic materials:
a) Ceramics are hard and brittle

b) Ceramics are soft and ductile
c) Ceramics are very tough
d) Ceramics have high thermal and electrical conductivity
e) Ceramics have low melting points
Why are ceramics so hard and brittle?
• Answer: the way the bond
Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic
elements with covalent or ionic bonds
Due to ionic and covalent chemical bonds => directional
In metals: In ceramics:
Metallic bond Covalent bond Ionic bond

Remember back to the metals lecture:
• Atoms arrange themselves in ordered structures (crystal
arrangements)
Remember the Lego example?
• When a stress is applied to the crystal, the

bonds break and reform (Slip)
Remember back to the metals lecture:
• Atoms arrange themselves in ordered structures (crystal
arrangements)
Remember the Lego example?
• When a stress is applied to the crystal, the

bonds break and reform (Slip)
• This is easy to do because the bonding has
no direction (the atoms are all similar)
• Metals are ductile for this reason
But Ceramics have ionic or covalent bonds (or mixture)
+ - + - + - + - If we try to
- + - + deform by slip,
- + - +
the similar
+ - + - + - + - charges will
- + + + repel
- + - +
Ionic Bonds – bonding between: (+) cation (left side of period table)
(-) anion (right side of periodic table)
Na+ Cl-
But Ceramics have ionic or covalent bonds (or mixture)
Covalent Bonds – Sharing electrons. The bonds are directional and form a framework that
resists deformation
If we try to deform by
slip, the strong network
of covalent bonds will
resist
Slip is extremely difficult in ceramics due to the ionic and covalent

bonds. Consequently, ceramics have poor ductility.
However, due to these bonds ceramics are very hard and strong.
Properties of ceramics
• Ceramics are brittle, have high strength, high stiffness
(modulus) and hardness at elevated temperatures
• Low thermal and electrical conductivity
• Sensitive to flaws, defects, surface or internal cracks
• Lack impact toughness and thermal-shock resistance due
to lack of ductility
• In tensile stress situations they may be compressively
prestressed
• Strong bonds = high melting points
Ceramics
How do we make ceramic products?
Ceramics
• We generally shape ceramics when they are not in their
fully hardened state – it is difficult to shape them otherwise
• Often we start with a fine granular or power form, then mix
it with a binder and form it into the desired shape
Example: Bricks
• Rocks and clay are crushed into a fine powder
• Water is mixed and acts as a binder
• The bricks are extruded and cut to size
• Dried in a furnace to remove moisture then fired in a kiln
Processing Ceramics
Stages:
1. Production of fine powders
2. Compaction of fine powders into “green body” (mix with binder)
3. Shaping of green body (can include machining)
4. Sintering of shaped green body into solid fused part (heating in the
furnace)
5. Finishing to size (e.g. sharpening knives)

Processing Ceramics
Producing the ‘green body’
Processing Ceramics
Sintering
• Particles coalesce by solid state diffusion and chemically
bond together.
• Driving force is reduction of surface area.
• Large particles are formed at expense of smaller ones and
the porosity of the compacts decreases.
Ceramic knives
Glass
What happens if glass is hit with a hammer?
Glass
Think about window glass. Can it

be bent at room temperature?
a) No – glass cannot be bent

because it is too brittle
b) Yes – glass can bend because it
is elastic
What is glass?
Glass is a liquid:
a) True
b) False
What is glass
• An amorphous solid with the structure of a liquid
• Formed by cooling at a rate too high for crystals to
form (supercooled)
• Many different types of glass:
Soda-lime glass, Lead-alkali glass, Borosilicate glass,
Aluminosilicate glass, 96%-silica glass, Fused silica glass
Properties of Glass
• Glass is regarded as perfectly elastic and brittle
• Glass contains considerable defects (micro-cracks) that
reduce its strength by two to three orders of magnitude
and make it brittle.
• Low thermal and electrical conductivity
• Optical properties of glasses can be modified by varying
their composition and treatment
• Mechanical properties are controlled by surface flaws
Processing glass
Glass bottle production – glass blowing
• Parison formed by
mechanically pressing
gob of glass in mould
• Parison blown into final
shape in finishing mould
Processing Glass
Sheet glass production
Rolled glass:
Molten glass formed between rollers
– Requires high viscosity
Float glass:
Molten glass “floated’ off on bath of molten Tin
Cooled slowly and annealed to remove stress – Requires low
viscosity glass
Float Glass
Processing Glass
Laminated glass
• Glass fractures into fine sharp
shards
• Can keep the pieces together by
laminating glass with thin plastic
sheets
• Usually Poly vinyl butyral (PVB)
– Tough, good bonding, does not
discolour with age.
Processing Glass
Tempered glass
• About 4x stronger than regular glass
• Sheet of glass warmed (below
softening point ~620°C)
• Cooled to room temperature in air
jet or in oil
• Surface cools quickly and becomes
rigid (glassy) • Surface flaws in compression
• Centre cools less quickly, wants to • Need higher applied stresses

to bring flaws into tension
contract but is restricted by rigid and cause fracture
surface
• As the centre tries to contract it
brings the surface into compression
Fe-Fe3C phase diagram
• Remember that the
properties of metals can be
changed depending on the eutectic
crystal phases produced
during heat treatments and
cooling rates?
• Martensite (B.C.T structure)
– formed by quenching from
Austenite (F.C.C structure) eutectoid
makes it hard and brittle VS
ferrite (B.C.C structure) Ferrite
which is soft and ductile
formed during slow cooling
• Diffusion of atoms controls
what structures form steel cast iron
iron
Using the same principle, we can produce “metallic glass” by quenching from the
liquid region at extremely fast cooling rates. Solidification is too fast for diffusion to
occur and we get an amorphous (non-crystalline) structure (a glass).
What Hollywood has taught us…
The T-1000 from Terminator 2. An unstoppable shape shifting liquid metal terminator
Metallic Glass
Metallic Glasses have the structure of a ‘liquid metal’ i.e.
random
Due to deformation of the crystalline metal, energy is

absorbed so there is less bounce
Left: Metallic Right: Ordinary

Glass (Stainless Stainless Steel
Steel) (crystalline)
Composites
What is a composite?
Materials composed of two or more micro- or macro-
constituents that differ in form, chemical composition
and properties and which are essentially insoluble in each
other.
– Each constituent is present in reasonable proportions (over
5%).
– The constituent that is continuous and is often (but not
always) present in greater quantity is termed as matrix, the
others are referred to as reinforcements
Fibre reinforced composites
• Fibre reinforced composites contain
fibres (usually hard stiff material, e.g.
glass) in a matrix (usually a ductile
material, e.g. polymer)
• This gets the best of both worlds and can
produce a lightweight very stiff and
strong material.
• The composite properties can be
estimated using the ‘rule of mixtures’:
theThe
Example: sum of each
stiffness individual
of fibreglass component
(40% glass) can be determined by
Stiffnessfibreglass = (Stiffness
multiplied Resin xvolume
by their Volumeresinfraction.
) + (Stiffnessglass x volume glass)
Stiffnessfibreglass = (3 x 0.6) + (70 x 0.4) = 29.8 GPa
Fibre reinforced composites
• Fibre reinforced composites have an
advantage that if designed correctly,
crack sizes are limited to less than the
critical size for brittle fracture.
• Cracks are arrested at the interface
(prevented from growing further)
• Weakness: highly anisotrophic
(properties are directional)
• Normally, the strength and stiffness
along the fibre direction is much
higher than directions perpendicular
to the fibre direction.
Composites
• Composites don’t need to be continuous fibres, they also
include particles of different shapes (whiskers, round
particles, short fibres, continuous sheets etc.)
• Different matrix materials: polymer, metal, ceramics.
Ceramic Matrix Composite

steering flaps on NASA X-38
Titanium-Boron Metal
Matric Composite
connecting rod and
valves
Strength to weight
Applications
Application of Composite Materials
Aircraft structural components - Fuselage
Airbus A350 XWB

Pre-impregnated fibre reinforcement (Prepreg)
Application of ATL and AFP
CF/Epoxy JSF inlet duct
Composite fuselage of the Hawker

Beechcraft Hawker 4000 business jet Boeing 787 Fuselage
Prepreg lay-up
Definition: A process wherein the application of prepreg (pre-impregnated
reinforcement with B-stage resin) resin and reinforcement is done by hand onto a
suitable mold surface. The resulting laminate is then vacuum bagged to cure in
oven or autoclave.
Starting material: Prepreg Prepreg cutting machine
Autoclave
Labor Intensive - Prepreg Hand Layup
The A400M, the new Airbus Military – A400M Composite Element

airlifter of the 21st century
Autoclave (furnace)
Pressure inlet
N2
Hot air
Thermocouple
Part with Vacuum

vacuum
bag
Flexible
vacuum
line
Temperature: ~180 oC
Pressure: up to 7 bar
Former student project
The motherboard consists

of an accelerometer,
gyroscope and
a Bluetooth transceiver. It is
being used to control two
micro servo's at the back of
the plane to control the
pitch and yaw of the plane
when in flight.
Polymers
Chapter 7 in the text book
Polymers
• Polymers are long molecule chains
• Covalent bonds in the carbon backbone, but can also have
other bonds (van der Waals) between chains
• At a basic level, they are made up of repeating ‘monomers”
Why are some polymers ductile?
If we apply a stress, the coiled polymer chains simply ‘de-coil’
Becomes…
Polymer structures
Polymers can have different properties depending on their structure
These are the most ductile
and the lowest strength
These are the most brittle

and highest strength
A) Linear Polymer
B) Branched Polymer
C) Cross Linked Polymer
D) Network Polymer
Thermoplastics and Thermosets
• We generally think of plastics as
something that can melt easy
Polymers that can be heated and
melt are known as
THERMOPLASTICS
• However some cross linked or
network polymers cannot melt.
When heated they simply burn.
This is due to the strong covalent
cross links permanently ‘locking’
the structure. Polymers that cannot
melt are known as THERMOSETS
Crystallinity
• So far we have considered amorphous polymers – long
chains randomly intertwined
• It is possible to introduce crystalline regions
• Crystallinity increases density, strength, stiffness, hardness
and more resistant to solvents and heat.
Crystallinity
• High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Vs Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
HDPE LDPE
Squash Balls are made of rubber
How would you describe a squash ball:
a) Squash balls are highly elastic (springy)
b) Squash balls are brittle (glassy)
c) Squash balls are undergo significant plastic deformation
d) Squash balls are both brittle and elastic
e) Squash balls are very hard and weak
Glass Transition
• Polymers are characterized by a temperature below which the mobility of
the molecules sharply decreases
• This is the “glass transition temperature”
• The material becomes brittle and glassy because the long chains cannot ‘de-
coil’
• However, above the glass transition temperature the chains can de-coil, so
the polymer is ductile and ‘rubbery’
Why is glass transition important?
Polymers are used in a wide

variety of applications
across a wide service
temperature range
Processing Polymers
• Extrusion, Injection Moulding, Blow Moulding
Processing Polymers
• Extrusion, Injection Moulding, Blow Moulding
Environmental problems
On average, we
use plastics for
12minutes
before discarding
them, where
they can take
500 years to fully
break down in
the environment
There is a clear need for functional biodegradable polymers

The ability of a polymer to ‘breakdown’ depends on the bonding of the chains –
if they are hard to break → tend not to break down
If they are easy to break → tend to break down
Long chains are harder to break down

The ability of a polymer to ‘breakdown’ also depends on the packing of the chains
if they are Ɵghtly packed (high density) → harder to break down
If they are loosely packed → tend to break down easier (absorb water and microbes more easily)
Biodegradable plastics
• Can be made from plant based sources (e.g. corn starch)
rather than petroleum
• Microbes can break the chains down much more easily
lecture (MECH2305)
Pb-free soldering for micro-

electronic interconnects
Kazuhiro Nogita
Professor/ Director
Nihon Superior Centre for the Manufacture of Electronic Materials,
School of Mechanical and Mining Engineering,
The University of Queensland
Today’s talk
1. Eutectic solidification for solder alloys

a) Fluidity
b) Microstructures
2. Lead-free solders for electric vehicles
Soldering Processes
Hand
Soldering
Soldering
Process
Machine
Soldering
Hand Soldering
Video provided by Nihon Superior Co. Ltd. R&D center
Process in which components are mounted on a circuit board, then individually

soldered, joint by joint until the assembly is completed.
Wave Soldering
http://www.iupui.edu/~ecet360/lesson14_wave/wave1.jpg
Asahi GW-21 @ Nihon Superior R&D Centre
Wave soldering at 250ºC, 3-4 second contact time

Wave Soldering
Wave soldering at 250ºC, 3-4 second contact time

Bridging Fluidity
Poor fluidity Good fluidity
During wave soldering, it is important that the alloy is able to

flow easily to fill joints, adequately cover all connections, and
for excess solder to drain away leaving suitable fillets
Sn-Pb phase diagram
Temperature (°C)
Pb Sn composition (wt%)
Sn
Traditional solder alloys
http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/impress/text/education/Solidification/Phase_Diagrams.html
Sn-Pb phase diagram
http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/lessons.html
Sn-Pb phase diagram
Temperature (°C)
Eutectic
Sn
Eutectic = Low melting temperature
Sn-Pb phase diagram
Temperature (°C)
Traditional Sn37Pb solder
Sn
Eutectic = Low melting temperature
Max. Fluidity Length Measurements
Ragone method
(1956)
Fluidity = the ability of molten metal to flow before being

stopped by solidification *
*i.e. Castings by J. Campbell
Eutectic microstructure = Better fluidity
Solidification Mode
Planar
Maximum Fluidity Length
Equiaxed
L Toyota Professor M. C. Flemings, MIT

(Pb) “Solidification Processing”
(Pb)+(Sn) Mcgraw-Hill College (June 1974)
Pb Sn
Sn-Pb phase diagram
Temperature (°C)
Traditional Sn37Pb solder
Sn
Eutectic = Better fluidity
Why Pb-free solders?
Why Pb-free solders?
• Traditional Pb-containing solders are prohibited for use

in the EU by RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances)
after 1st July 2006.
• Currently there are exemptions in the regulations for

certain applications such as medical devices, photovoltaic
systems or vehicles (transportation).
• Pb-containing solders in vehicles in the EU had been regulated

after Jan 2011 by ELV (End of Life Vehicles) guidelines.
SN100C® (Sn-0.7wt%Cu-0.05wt%Ni+Ge)
>5
SN100C® (patented in 1999) is preferred because
of its excellent fluidity and its reliability in service
under conditions of thermal cycling, vibration,
impact loading, and high current density.
Bridging Fluidity
During wave
soldering, it is
important that the
alloy is able to flow
easily to fill joints,
adequately cover all
connections, and for
excess solder to drain
away leaving suitable
fillets
Sn-0.7wt%Cu Sn-0.7wt%Cu
-0.05wt%Ni
SN100C® (Sn - 0.7wt%Cu - 0.05wt%Ni) is preferred
because of its excellent fluidity
Materials Transactions, Vol. 46, No. 11 (2005) 2419-2425
Current phase diagram of Sn-Cu alloy system
http://www.metallurgy.nist.gov/phase/solder/solder.html, 2003.
Current phase diagram of Sn-Cu alloy system
Pb-free
solders
Current phase diagram of Sn rich Sn-Cu6Sn5
Sn-0.7wt%Cu ??
227ºC Liq + η-Cu6Sn5 (Hexagonal)
Sn+η-Cu6Sn5 (Hexagonal)
Temp. (ºC)
186ºC
Sn+η’-Cu6Sn5 (Monoclinic)
Cu
Eutectic Sn-Cu6Sn5
Sn-0.7wt%Cu
Max. Fluidity Length Measurements
Ragone method
(1956)
Fluidity = the ability of molten metal to flow before being

stopped by solidification *
*i.e. Castings by J. Campbell
smoother and more-planar solidification front, as there
opposed to the mushy columnar or equiaxed solidi- for 5
Max. Fluidity Length Measurements the
izati
stud
solde
Th
been
of Sn
decr
Sn-0.7wt%Cu+xNi drite
In N
laths
were
conta
BestFig.
fluidity range:
12. Average 400ppm
fluidity to 800ppm
length versus NiforinSn-0.7Cu-xNi.
Ni content Sn-0.7Cu-xNi into
Journal of Electronic Materials, 37, 1 (2008) 32-39
Bridging Fluidity
Sn-0.7wt%Cu Sn-0.7wt%Cu-0.05wt%Ni
SN100C® (Sn - 0.7wt%Cu - 0.05wt%Ni) is preferred

because of its excellent fluidity
Sn-0.7Cu Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Ni
Trace
Ni
Sn dendrite
Hypo-eutectic microstructure Eutectic microstructure
Sn dendrites have disappeared with Ni addition

Microstructure and fluidity
66 Gourlay, Nogita, Read, and Dahle
Ni content (wt%)
at Cu content (wt%)
Fig. 7. Comparison of the isothermal section at 268!C with the lit-
C
erature. (a) Past experimental studies on the Sn-rich half at 220!C
e
and 240!C. Dashed lines are tie-lines, solid lines are phase bound-
e
aries. (b) Very Sn-rich corner showing calculated isothermal sections
%.
Microstructure of
at 240!C and 250!C from Refs. 2 and 35 overlaid on the measured
I.
isothermal section.
h
d
SN100C is
e “Eutectic”
tie-lines, although we have no data in the tie-
triangle itself. The tie-triangle of Lin et al. has a
e lower Cu composition in (Ni,Cu) Sn than both
our most rather than
3 4
d Cu-rich (Ni,Cu) Sn tie-line and the tie-
3 4
s triangles of Refs. 19 and 20. Figure 7a also contains
which C “Hypo-eutectic”
s tie-lines from the literature; only literature data for
5 , C , and CL 0 are near-linear have been
IMC
t used. Our measured (Cu,Ni)6Sn5 tie-lines are in
t good agreement with the data of Lin et al.17 and
t Schmetterer et al.20 (Fig. 7a). Thus, although a
e different technique has been used in this study, the
n results produce a similar isothermal section to pre- Journal
Fig. 10. Typical microstructures from Sn-Cu-Ni maximum fluidity of Electronic
length Materials,
samples. Dashed 39the(1)
lines show (2010) of56-69.
composition each sample on the
fluidity map. 17,19,20
Current phase diagram of Sn rich Sn-Cu6Sn5
Sn-0.89wt%Cu
227ºC Liq + η-Cu6Sn5 (Hexagonal)
Sn+η-Cu6Sn5 (Hexagonal)
Temp. (ºC)
186ºC
Sn+η’-Cu6Sn5 (Monoclinic)
Cu
Eutectic Sn-Cu6Sn5
Sn-0.89wt%Cu
Solidification samples show a tendency
for shrinkage defects
Sn-Cu Sn-Ag-Cu Sn-Cu-Ni
SC07 SAC0307 SAC107 SAC305 SCN+P SN100C
Appearance
Shrinkage Shrinkage Shrinkage Shrinkage Shrinkage Smooth

Close up
Cross section
500μm
In-situ Observation of Solidification by
Synchrotron X- Ray Source
X-Ray Detector
X-Ray
Furnace
(heating/cooling
at specified rate)
Sample
(Thin Sheet)
Details of the Cell
BN frame
Plate-like solder alloys
Al2O3 plate
Melting
Cooling down
(constant rate)
Al2O3 spacer Solidification

Sample
(10x10x0.1)
Optical microscopy
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, accepted 2013

Real-time observations
10K/min
20K/min
furnace 50K/min
100K/min
SPring-8
cell(mold)
ring
detector
vacuum chamber
Sample
Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, accepted 2013

SPring-8 synchrotron (8 GeV)
Circumference: 1486m
http://www.spring8.or.jp/en/
@ SPring-8 BL20B2
Sn-0.7Cu Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Ni
Trace
Ni
Sn dendrite
Hypo-eutectic microstructure Eutectic microstructure
Sn dendrites have disappeared with Ni addition

Flip chip ball grid array (FCBGA) Packaging
Heat spreader Chip Solder Adhesive
Underfill Bump
Solder Ball
Substrate
Die
Solder
Solder
Cu Substrate
Substrate
Surface Mount Assembly
Placing Heating entire
Stencil-printing
component on assembly (reflow
solder paste board soldering)
General process of Surface Mount Assembly
Example of Surface Mount Assembly Line

Surface Mount Assembly for reflow soldering
Reflow : Reflow profile
Peak soldering temperature
210-235℃ for standard devices
236-256℃ for Pb-free devices
C)
Temperature (
Soak
Soak Reflow
Reflow Cool
Cool down
down
Max time 2 min Max time 85 sec Max gradient -4 C/s

Suggested gradient -2 C/s or less
Preheat
Preheat
Max time 4 min, max gradient 2.5 C/s
Time (seconds)
Sample position and cell setup
Vent
Sample
Beamline: BL20XU
Energy: 23 keV
Resolution ratio: 0.48 μm per pixel
Exposure time: 120 ms per frame,
20 frame per s.
Heating rate: 0.33K/s
Cooling rate: 0.33K/s
Observations were conducted in stages of reflow soldering

including preheat, flux activation, reflow and undercooling.
In-situ soldering process observations for paste solders
Sn-0.7Cu SN100C (Sn-0.7Cu-0.05Ni)
Cu6Sn5
Large Cu6Sn5 growth Suppression of Cu6Sn5 growth

Ni suppress Cu6Sn5 growth and Cu desolations from OSP substrates
Journal of Electronic Materials, 45 (2016) 154-163.
https://youtu.be/IagNqx7v458
Today’s talk
1. Eutectic solidification for solder alloys

a) Fluidity
b) Microstructures
2. Lead-free solders for electric vehicles
Background
- Traditional Pb-containing solders are prohibited for use in EU by
RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) after 1st July 2006.
- Currently there are exemptions in the regulations for certain applications such
as medical devices, photovoltaic systems or vehicles (transportation).
- Pb-containing solders in vehicles in EU had been regulated by ELV (End of
Life Vehicles) guideline.
We need to develop Pb-free solders for Vehicles

Specifically for Electric Vehicles and high temp use
Brief history of the WSC
1987 World Solar Challenge
1999 3rd Place UQ "Sunshark" (AUS) average speed 71.68 Km/h
2007 20 years anniversary World Solar Challenge,

Green Fleet Technology class, NZ-eco Ultracommuter
2009 10th event: Global Green Challenge

The World Solar Challenge – for purely solar-powered
vehicles
The Eco Challenge – for environmentally friendly production
and experimental vehicles
2013 Pole position and 7th place Team Arrow “Arrow1” (AUS)
average speed 68.71 km/h
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Ggc_root.png
Global Green Challenge 2009
The concept of the Deep Green Research project
To design a car suitable for city driving that has minimal impact on the
environment.
To use an existing car body that already complies with the Australian
safety requirements for a passenger vehicle.
All attention could be focussed on replacing the petrol-fuelled

internal combustion engine and its mechanical drive train with a
battery-driven electric motor.
Deep Green Research Electric Car Project
Brisbane
QLD Govt. Nihon Superior City Council
Funding
Deep Green Research Electric Car
Motor Pb-free Solder

Controller
Ultramotive
Technologies Tritium Nihon Superior
Ex UQ Sunshark solar car team Current UQ industry research
Deep Green Research Electric Car
Let’s try to use Pb-free solders for our own EV!
Vehicle body – Honda Civic 2008
Mr. Michael Gutteridge, Director of Deep Green Research, won a QSEIF grant and for less
than $200k constructed what is arguably one of the world’s most advanced electric
vehicles to demonstrate an ICE to EV conversion kit.
Started with a standard Honda Civic

Battery – Management System
Cut out part of the floor to fit 108 90AHA lithium ion phosphate batteries
33 KWh battery
Motor - The Ultramotive Technologies
Fitted Ultramotive Technologies Pty. Ltd. ironless motor and transaxle/gear box
utilising original front wheel drive differential and drive assembly
Ultramotive Technologies Pty. Ltd.

Controller - Tritium
Fitted Tritium Pty. Ltd. Wavesculptor 200 controller and battery management system
Tritium is poised to become one of the biggest suppliers
of high voltage car chargers in the US.
Pb-free Solders – Nihon Superior
Over 15 billion circuit boards soldered with SN100C®

Pb-free Solders – Nihon Superior
Max Max
Soldering Current Temp.
Soldering Parts Details Solders
Condition during during
racing racing
Motor litz wire terminations SN100C4 Dipping 210A 90C
Inductor litz wire terminations SN100C4 Dipping 210A 85C
Motor controller gate drive board SN100C Hand n/a 55C
Motor controller DSP board Sn37Pb Hand n/a 55C
BMS through-hole components (110 boards) SN100C Hand n/a 45C
BMS surface-mount components (110 boards) Sn37Pb Paste Reflow n/a 45C
Precharge / BMS master Sn37Pb Hand n/a 45C
Driver controls SN100C Hand n/a 45C
Fan/Pump driver SN100C Hand n/a 45C
SN100C® was used concurrently with Sn37Pb in a range of locations throughout the
vehicle and both alloys performed without incident for the duration of the ECO-
challenge. This concurrent testing was performed to demonstrate that the quality
of SN100C® solder is, at worst, equivalent to that of the older generation of Pb
containing alloys.
Results of Pb-free solder joint after racing
Max Max
Failure
Soldering Current Temp.
No. Parts Soldering Parts Details Solders after
Condition during during
racing
racing racing
1 Wire Motor litz wire terminations SN100C4 Dipping 210A 90C No
2 Wire Inductor litz wire terminations SN100C4 Dipping 210A 85C No
3 Motor Controller Motor controller gate drive board SN100C Hand n/a 55C No
4 Motor Controller* Motor controller DSP board Sn37Pb Hand n/a 55C No
5 BMS BMS through-hole components (110 boards) SN100C Hand n/a 45C No
6 BMS* BMS surface-mount components (110 boards) Sn37Pb Paste Reflow n/a 45C No
7 BMS* Precharge / BMS master Sn37Pb Hand n/a 45C No
8 Driver controls Driver controls SN100C Hand n/a 45C No
9 Fan/Pump driver Fan/Pump driver SN100C Hand n/a 45C No
TMS2018 annual meeting @ Phoenix, AZ, USA
Dr Kuehmann, Vice-President of Materials Engineering at Tesla and SpaceX


https://electrek.co/2016/02/24/apple-alloy-expert-tesla-spacex/

104km/h Record Driving
Speed limit: 110km/h
360km on Single Charge
Tesla Roadster Breaks EV World Record: 313 Miles on Single Charge (501 KM)
http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/10/tesla-roadster-electric-car-world-record-313-miles-single-charge.php
•To have the car road registered

•104km/h speed record
•360km range from a 33kWh pack
•The most energy efficient over 1300km
•Demonstrated Pb-free solders for EV
•To have the car road registered

•104km/h speed record
•360km range from a 33kWh pack
•The most energy efficient over 1300km
We have come a long way
•Demonstrated since
Pb-free the for EV
solders
Award
Modified Production Class – Small Car (Electronic) Award

Achievements
– To actually make the start line!

– To have the car road registered
– 360km range from a 33kWh pack
– 104km/h speed record
– Won our class (Small Car (Electronic) Award)
– Drove the most energy efficient car over 1300km
– Demonstrated Pb-free solders for EV
EV
$46 for 3000km ($0.17/kWh) -85Wh/km (0.9L/100km energy eq.) from a
car weighing the same as a Commodore
Engine -102Wh/km from Pt Augusta to Adelaide
$500 for 3000km ($1.4/L) CBD i.e. 225-250km range
-129Wh/km for Adelaide urban cycle at peak
hour including climbing up into the hills
Recharging
We charged from local businesses, including remote workshops,
bakeries, roadhouses, wrecking yards and even a wood yard.
World Solar Challenge 2013
Team Arrow is a Queensland based team that aims to show the rest of the world what
can be done with homegrown expertise, true Queensland grit and local support.
Soldered using SN100C lead-free solders
Specifications of the “Arrow1”
Desin&of&Veichle Mr&J.&Amsler,&Dr&M.&Greaves
Weight 180=220&kg
Hight 1,150&mm
Length 4,496&mm
Width 1,792&m m
Solar&Cell&area 6&m2
Solar&Cell&efficiensy 22.8%&(Gochermann&Solar&Technology)&
Li=ion&cell&number 429
Li=ion&cell&capasity 5&kWh
Motor&peak&power 15&kW
Motor&peak&torque 50&Nm
Motor&Controller WaveSculptor22&(Tritium&Pty,&Ltd.)
Electonic&interconnects SN100C&Pb=free&solder&(Nihon&Superior&Co.&Ltd.)
A list of soldered joints in the vehicle
No. Parts Soldering0Parts0Details Solders
Motor0controller0gate0
1 Motor0Controller SN100C
drive0board
Motor0controller0DSP0
2 Motor0Controller SN100C
board
BMS0through>hole0
3 BMS SN100C
components0(1100boards)
BMS0surface>mount0
4 BMS SN100C
components0(1100boards)
5 BMS Prechage/0BMS0master SN100C
6 Driver0controles Driver0controles SN100C
7 Fan/Pump0driver Fan/Pump0driver SN100C
8 Photo0voltiac0cell Cell0terminates Sn37Pb

Darwin Hidden Valley racing circuit
The first solar car records at Hidden Valley racing circuit
Challenger
World Class
Solar Challenge 2013 Challenger Class Final Results
Final Results - Sunday 13 October 2013
Position Team Name Team Number Class Country Total Time Speed
km/h
1 Nuon Solar Car Team 3 Challenger The Netherlands 33hrs 3min 90.71
2 Tokai University 1 Challenger Japan 36hrs 22min 82.43
3 Solar Team Twente 21 Challenger The Netherlands 37hrs 38min 79.67
4 Stanford Solar Car Project 16 Challenger USA 39hrs 31min 75.86
5 Solar Energy Racers 15 Challenger Switzerland 40hrs 13min 74.54
6 Punch Powertrain Solar Car Team 8 Challenger Belgium 40hrs 28min 74.08
7 Team Arrow 30 Challenger Australia 43hrs 38min 68.71
8 Blue Sky Solar Racing 77 Challenger Canada 45hrs38min 65.71
9 University of Michigan 2 Challenger USA 45hrs 55min 65.29
10 Onda Solare 9 Challenger Italy 48hrs 25min 61.92
Teams which have trailered their vehicles

Total Solar Distance
UWS Solar Car 13 Challenger Australia 2891
Kanazawa Institute of Technology Yumekobo Solar Car Project 48 Challenger Japan 2564
EAFIT-EPM Solar Car Team 5 Challenger Colombia 2505
Kogakuin University Solar Vehicle Project 88 Challenger Japan 2450
KUST 82 Challenger South Korea 2013
SunSPEC 28 Challenger Singapore 1676
ITU Solar Car Team 34 Challenger Turkey 1613
Ecole de Technologie Superieure 92 Challenger Canada 1530
Sun Shuttle 80 Challenger China 1398
Jonkoping University Solar Team 46 Challenger Sweden 1301
ITS Solar Car Racing Team 32 Challenger Indonesia 748
UMP Solar 17 Challenger Malaysia 616
Teams which have withdrawn from the Event
Cambridge University Eco Racing 12 Challenger United Kingdom

Official Launch of the Arrow STF at The Cube, QUT on 21st September 2017
Arrow STF – World Solar Challenge 2019
Acknowledgements
Academic and Government Industry
Synchrotrons
Opportunities for further studies
[MECH4304] Net Shape Manufacturing
[MATE7013] Advanced Manufacturing
[MECH4590]
Advanced Manufacturing in Practice
New Colombo Plan
“Advanced Manufacturing in Japan – Creating
Opportunities for Australia's Future Engineers”
3D Printing

Some of the media headlines
The 3D printing Hype

Overview
• Overview and Demonstration of 3D printing
• Introduction to some of the main printing technologies
• Limitations and Advantages

What is 3D printing?
3D printing, (Additive Manufacturing; Rapid Prototyping) is
a process for making a physical object from a three-
dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many
successive thin layers of a material.
Y
2D paper printer uses a
stepper motor to move a X
print head along the X
axis to linearly deposit
ink on a piece of paper.
The paper moves a
small step along Y axis
and the print head
completes another line
along the X axis

3D printing, (Additive Manufacturing; Rapid Prototyping) is
a process for making a physical object from a three-
dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many
successive thin layers of a material.
Now instead of ink what if we used a

plastic, metal, ceramic (or other material),
and also added a Z axis component
This is the basis for 3D printing


• 3D printing has been around for decades, now it is
becoming affordable
• New technology developments allows us to print in new
materials, wider size range, faster, higher quality
minutes to print Seconds to print
Hours/Days to print
1984 – world’s first working 3D printer Minutes to print
Technology affordability
Officeworks $3 printers
Early Printers “purrrfectly priced” for under $700

http://regmedia.co.uk/2012/11/15/85_pcworld_okidata_large.jpg
In the news

The power of 3D printing is in skipping time consuming, laborious and
expensive processing steps otherwise encountered
In the news

The power of 3D printing
3D printing skips the expensive and time consuming

traditional steps and gives the end user the ability to turn
ideas into reality quickly and affordably
It is a powerful tool for designers and product development

Flow Hive – Australian invention
• Australian father and son bee-keepers developed a cleaver way to harvest
honey
• 3D printing allowed them to skip time-consuming and prohibitively expensive
manufacturing processes and develop prototype designs.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s1U4eDyT9Ms
General Principle
1. Software takes input CAD data and creates slices
2. Feed stock (polymer, metal, ceramic) in the form of

sheets, wire, powder with binders or liquids are deposited
and built up layer by layer
3. Deposited material is fused by curing, melting or sintering

using UV light, heating, laser, electron beam, electrical
arc, plasma etc.
AM Classifications

Additive Rapid Prototyping
Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM)
• The gantry robot-
controlled extruder head
moves in 2D along X-
and Y- directions
• The table moves up and
down.
• The plastic filament
provides liquid material
that is deposited onto the
table in layers.
Is the filament used in FDM a:
A) Thermoplastic polymer
B) Thermoset polymer
Stereolithography (SLA)
• A UV beam (laser) is focussed
on surface and moved through
the desired shape in the x-y
plane.
• The UV beam cures (hardens)
the liquid-acrylate polymer.
• The platform is lowered a small
amount to cover the part with
another layer of polymer.
• The process builds up a 3D
object in a number of slices.
Liquid polymer is cured by • The part is removed, cleaned

laser beam and oven cured.
A number of proprietary polymers have been developed, but typical

mechanical properties range from:
Tensile strength 30-80MPa, elongation at failure 3-15% HDPE is typically about
30-40MPa and up to 1000%
Stereolithography
Stereolithography (SLA)
Produced by SLA, in 4 minutes
Micro-3D printing Length = 285µm

Vienna Institute of Technology
27/04/2020
Digital Light Projection (DLP)
• Similar to Stereolithography (SLA), except
instead of a laser scanning and curing the
UV sensitive resin, a projector is used to
cure an entire layer at once.
• Very high resolution and relatively low cost
DLP Video
27/04/2020
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=snOErpOP5Xk
Carbon 3D (commercial DLP printer)
Interested students should watch “What if 3D printing was 100x faster” – TED talk
27/04/2020
https://www.ted.com/talks/joe_desimone_what_if_3d_printing_was_25x_faster?language=en
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Powders are sintered
by laser beam
• A thin layer of powder is deposited by roller from powder feed cylinder onto surface of part
build cylinder
• A laser traces pattern over surface, sintering the powder, in the trace, into a solid
• Other powder remains un-sintered.
• The table is lowered, the process is repeated, again building up a solid in slices.
• Most commonly uses polymer powders but metal & ceramic also possible.
Metal Additive Manufacturing
• Similar concept to polymers, except higher temperatures
are required
• Selective Laser Melting: same concept as SLS, except
the laser actually melts the metal powder and fuses it
• Other heat sources are used, including electron

beam, Tungsten Arc, Plasma etc.
• Powder and wire feed stocks can be used
Titanium 3D printing (SLM)

SLM is ideal for making complex components
Take a close look, what do you notice about these components?

3D printed titanium “BIKE OF THE FUTURE”
Maurice Garin – winner of 1903 Tour de France
27/04/2020
http://www.flyingmachine.com.au/3d-printed-titanium-bike-of-the-future/
“BIKE OF THE FUTURE” ???
The ‘bike of the future’ is a

marketing – it is the same bike
we have always had, just some
of the parts are 3D printed.
Designers have NOT utilised

the fundamental concept of 3D
printing: complexity is free
27/04/2020
Complexity is free!
3D printing is for complex components that are
difficult or impossible to manufacture by other
‘traditional’ methods
Design and 3D printing go hand in hand
That’s not a 3D printed bike, THIS is a 3D printed bike
Note the design of

this bike frame: it
fully utilises 3D
printing and is
impossible to
make any other
way
James Novak – industrial designer Griffith University

3D printing for artistic design

3D printed dress and jewellery

3D printing for artistic design
27/04/2020
3D printing in aerospace – improved design
3D printing technology means that designs are not constrained by traditional

manufacturing routes
3D printing
Engineers designing components are allows us to
constrained by the manufacturing change the
process: it must be manufacturable! design rules and
manufacture
“impossible
designs”
3D printing in aerospace – improved design
3D printing technology means that designs are not constrained by traditional

manufacturing routes
Airbus A350 Bracket
Traditionally made by machining, the

design features are ‘fixed’ as a
consequence of subtractive • Define attachment points and loading conditions
manufacturing limitations • Throw away design rulebook- greater geometric
possibilities with AM
• Undertake structural optimisation (FE Modelling etc)
• Utilise internal ‘bamboo’ like structure
• 30-55% weight reduction, up to 90% material saving
and up to 90% less energy required
• Reduced lead time
A350 has more than 1000 3D printed parts

Directed Energy Deposition
• Powder or Wire Feedstock is feed into melt pool
generated by a directed heat source (laser, plasma arc,
electric arc, electron beam etc.)
• Many types available – they sometimes go by many
names. For example:
Blown Powder AM also know as: laser metal
deposition (LMD), direct metal deposition (DMD), laser
solid forming (LSF) laser engineered net shaping (LENS).

Wire Arc AM (WAAM)
Principle: use conventional welding source (GTAW or MIG)
with wire feedstock to build 3D components
Advantages: Cheap and Fast (very high deposition rates)
Photo credit: Cranfield University http://waammat.com

Application of WAAM
24 kg Ti outboard landing gear rib for Bombardier (Cranfield)
Williams, S.W., Martina, F., Addison, A.C., Ding, J., Pardal, G., Colegrove, P., 2016. Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing. Materials Science and Technology 32, 641-647.
Electron Beam AM

MX3D Printed Bridge Update 2018
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STAHy6hTP14
What can be 3D printed
• Scanned objects

FDM Vs SLS
0.15mm step 0.1mm step

FDM Vs SLS
FDM requires support structures

• Complex, moving parts – no assembly required
• Parts that can not be manufactured any other way

• 3D printers are useful for printing replacement parts for
everyday objects or obsolete parts no longer in production
“Any antique car part can be reproduced with these machines — pieces of
trim, elaborately etched and even scrolled door handles. If you have an
original, you can copy it. Or you can design a replacement on the computer,
and the 3D printer makes it for you” - Jay Leno
Jay Leno’s 1907 Steam car is back

on the street because he used 3D
printers to produce an incredibly
rare slide valve (D-valve)

Large 3D printed polyurethane forms to

be filled with concrete and used in
construction
Potential Replacement for Humvee,

printed in 14 weeks
Printing glass in Sahara desert with sand

‘ink’ and solar powered 3D printer


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=blyUdESHr-g
This 3D Printer Builds 3-Bedroom Houses In 24 Hours

• 3D printers are being used to print food
3D printed chocolate 3D printed candy

Biological 3D printing under
development (organs & tissue)

Medical Devices

MECH4301
3D printers are being used in MECH4301 to print patterns for sand
casting
Wax 3D printers are also used for investment casting
Sand casting using 3D printed patterns in MECH4304

MECH4301

3D printing in established industries

Sand Mould 3D printer

3D printing for small productions
Volvo Group Governmental Sales Oceania are developing rural firefighting vehicles

Case Study: conformal cooling
• Karcher was producing 9000
casings per day, which was
limited to cycle time (cooling).
• Redesigned steel moulds for 3D
printing with improved internal
cooling channels
• Cycle time reduced from 22s to
10s (55%)

Additive Manufacturing (AM)
CASE STUDY: injection moulds
Tool/mould for plastic injection moulding requires cooling

channels. Optimised heat dissipation enables shorter cycle
times and improved part quality. AM allows complex cooling
channels where needed (as apposed to CM where channels can
only be drilled in straight lines)
• Maraging Steel MS1 material

• Conformal cooling channels utilised
• Cycle time reduced from 90 to 40 seconds
• Reduced scrap rate
• Payback period 2 months
http://www.eos.info/en/applications/tooling/injection-moulding/project-lbc.html

Limitations
3D printing has a lot of hype but what are the limitations?
• Quality
• Speed
• Cost

Quality
How do the properties of 3D printed products compare with
those produced by traditional manufacturing processes?
Are 3D printed properties directional?
Metallic 3D printing is a Heat Source (e.g laser)
melting and solidification
process
Feedstock (e.g.
wire or powder)
Solid Liquid
Heat Extraction
Previous Solid layer
3D printing
This is similar to casting – directional heat extraction
produces directional grain structures (columnar grains)
Student Question
Metallic 3D printing can crudely be visualised as a series of
small castings
Heat Source (e.g laser)
Feedstock (e.g.
wire or powder)
Liquid
Previous Solid layer

Titanium 3D printed microstructure
Notice the directional columnar grains

Grain orientation affects dislocations
Columnar Structures: dislocation mobility depends on

direction
Titanium specifically
Properties are anisotropic: different in different direction
If pulled in
tension
perpendicular
to the grain
direction,
ductility can be
as low as 2%
In titanium metallurgy: a brittle phase forms along the

grain boundary, so cracks can easily propagate along
grain boundaries.
Titanium specifically
If pulled in tension
along the grain
direction, ductility can
be much higher
(>10%)
In titanium metallurgy: a brittle phase forms along the

grain boundary, so cracks can easily propagate along
grain boundaries.
Delamination
Risk of
delamination if the
bond between
layers is not good
So strength along
direction layer
direction is usually
higher than across
layer direction
Titanium specifically,
Note that the directional properties are highly

dependant on the material and the 3D printing
process.
Titanium 3D printed products are anisotropic for
different reasons than plastic FDM products.
Quality
Carbon Fibre Printers/filaments are available – are these quality? Will we
be printing performance parts (for aircraft/automotive)?

Don’t get sucked in by the hype
Carbon fibre reinforced composites get their

strength by layering up the fibres –
how can 3D printing from a FDM printer do this?

Markforged carbon fibre printer
Carbon fibre reinforced nylon

Cost
Is 3D printing a low cost or expensive

manufacturing process?

Speed
Is 3D printing a fast or slow manufacturing process?
Think about the scale of manufacturing – for one off components and small
productions 3D printing is likely the fastest manufacturing route, but if you
are making hundreds or thousands of parts, it is likely to be slower.
Hypothetical time to produce 10 units

3D printing
Conventional Time to make tooling / set up fixtures/ programming etc
process
If a component can be produced by

forging, casting (especially high
pressure or low pressure die casting)
or machining, it is very likely to be
faster to produce lots of parts this way
This door handle took 32hrs to print!

Demonstration of FDM 3D printer
Prints in ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene)
or PLA (Poly-Lactic Acid)

MECH2305
Manufacturing
Powder Metallurgy


Extrusion Other Processes (Sheet Metal

forming, Surface
Engineering…)
Products
Outline
Powder metallurgy
• Applications
• Fundamentals
– The PM process
– Powder production
– Forming processes
– Sintering
• Case studies
For more detail, you can read about these in the text book
Powder Metallurgy (PM) Applications
World Powder Metallurgy

Parts Consumption (% ton)
2016
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n_FW7Q2xO5o
World Powder Metallurgy Parts Market (2016E):
Percentage Breakdown of Annual Value Sales
Europe is the largest sector worldwide in terms of world

part markets 2016
European PM Production 2016 by value (Billion €)
Total €11 Billion (6,8 Billion AUD)
Europe is the largest sector worldwide in terms of world

part markets 2016
Global Powder Metallurgy Structural Components Market
(2016E): Percentage Breakdown of Volume Sales by
Application Segment
Automotive is the
First Market for
Structural Parts
Examples of automotive components made by
Powder Metallurgy
Automotive is the
major market for
structural parts
Engine parts ≈ 600 sintered parts / one car
Brakes Transmission parts

Three main application groups:
1) Situations were PM offers a cost
effective alternative to other
manufacturing process (e.g.
machining from
billet)automotive industry
2) Materials that are difficult to form
any other way:
 tungsten, molybdenum, cemented
carbides - hardmetals, etc.
 controlled porosity : e.g. filters, foams,
self-lubricated bearings
3) Materials with better performance
 tool steels
Also for CERAMICS

Net shape
manufacturing
process
↓
Cost-effective
https://www.epma.com/powder-metallurgy-economic-advantages
Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Prealloyed powder
Elemental powder
Additives
PressingGreen part
Sintering
Final sintered density

5 steps in manufacturing products by
Powder Metallurgy
1. Blending - Metal powders mixed
with lubricants and binders.
2. Compaction – Powders
compacted to form ‘green’ part.
3. Burn out - Part is heated to
moderate temperatures to remove
lubricants and binders
4. Sintering – Heated to high
temperatures (bellow melting
temperature of metal) to facilitate
diffusion between particles causing
bonding of particles and resulting
in shrinkage.
5. Secondary operations -
Subsequent heat treatment and
final machining if required.
Powder production
Gas atomisation
Solid state reduction
Spherical powder
Elemental/alloyed
Sponge powder, elemental

Metal Powders
B C
A D
E– shape makes no difference
• Powder characteristics such as size, shape and strength affect flow

of powders, packing, compaction and sintering.
Which powder shape is going to be the most difficult to compact to a high density?
UQ POLL: apps.elearning.uq.edu.au/poll/65805
Powder Characteristics
MORPHOLOGY
Aspect ratio: Ratio of the largest dimension to the smallest dimension
Shape factor: Ratio of surface area to volume of the particles
SIZE
Particle size distribution - the frequency distribution
DENSITY
Apparent density, tap density
FLOWABILITY
COMPRESIBILITY
Powder Composition
Elemental powder Prealloyed powder

Each particle is one Each particle has the
element final composition
Blending
- Powders of different compositions
- Powders of same composition with different
particle size
- Additives such as lubricants or binders
Powders must be
homogeneized
Powder Compaction
Application of high pressure to the powders to form them
into the required shape
Conventional  uniaxial
pressing
The pressed powder part is called
green compact.
Enough green strength to
handle
Compaction of metal
powder to form a bushing
A typical tool and die set

for compacting a spur gear.
Powder Compaction
Compaction plastically deforms the powder particles and causes

some bonding giving the compact its green strength
Powder Compaction
If particles are spherical and all the
same size there is 24% porosity
when particles touch.
Typically there is a distribution of
powder sizes and smaller particles
fill the gaps between large
particles.
Wider particle size distribution
higher packing factor
Increasing compaction pressure increases

density toward the “theoretical density”, i.e.
100% density of the bulk metal
Upon compaction of a green body, which type of powder will

result in higher green density?
(assume same shape and size of powders)
a) Pre-alloyed powder (each powder particle has the same

alloy composition)
b) Elemental powder (mixture of ‘pure’ powders in the
appropriate ratio to form the alloy)
c) It will not make a difference
Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic particles, thereby
increasing strength and hardness
• Green compact is heated in a controlled atmosphere to
the sintering temperature for a particular time
• Atmosphere needs to be controlled to prevent
(i) decarburization of iron based alloys
(ii) oxidation of reactive metals like Al & Ti
• Temperature typically 70-90% of melting temperature
• Part shrinkage occurs during sintering due to pore size
reduction
• Stages: i) burn off lubricant; ii) sinter and
(iii) cool down
Sintering
Sintering
• Diffusion
• Reduction in
surface area
Sintering
Elemental powder
Prealloyed powder
Sintering
Factors affecting sintering
Effect of sintering
temperature, time and
green density
Effect of particle size
smaller particles have higher surface area

than large particles  the driving force
for sintering (reduction in surface energy)
is greater
Sintering
Sintering stages. Effect of increasing temperature
Sintered filter Industrial handle Watchcase
R.M. German. Powder Met Review, 2016, p.71

Properties of sintered products
Density: typically 85-90% but can reach 99.9%, ductility is low to adequate
(2-8%), ductility/toughness can be improved by subsequent hot working
operations such as forging, extrusion etc.
Ceramic vs metal powders
 Ceramic powders do not deform during pressing  need of

additives (binders) for pressing.
 High melting point of ceramics  too high sintering
temperature  reduction of particle size to enhance sintering
by increasing surface area  very fine particle size (even
nano).
 Fine particle size + no deformation 
difficult conventional uniaxial pressing 
wet routes: suspensions, slurries, spray
drying to form granules
 Low green density  higher shrinkage
during sintering
Limitations and Disadvantages
• High tooling and equipment costs

• Metallic powders are expensive
• Problems in storing and handling metal powders
– Degradation over time
– Fire hazards with certain metals
• Limitations on part geometry because metal powders
do not readily flow laterally in the die during pressing
• Variations in density throughout part may be a
problem, especially for complex geometries
Alternative PM methods
• Conventional press and sinter sequence is the most

widely used shaping technology in powder metallurgy
• Some additional methods for producing PM parts:
– Isostatic pressing - hydraulic pressure is applied
from all directions to achieve compaction
– Hot pressing - combined pressing and sintering
– Powder injection molding (PIM) - starting polymer
has 50% to 85% powder content
• Polymer is removed and PM part is sintered
• ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
Metal Injection Moulding
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoJbLGR6Dss

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Casting

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What chapters should I study?

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Value Added Manufacturing

Wrought Net Shape Additive

Extrusion Other Processes (Sheet

Value Added Manufacturing

Wrought Net Shape Additive

Extrusion Other Processes (Sheet

97% of all metal products are manufactured

• Equipment for casting

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What is the freezing temperature of

The important thing to remember is that

Driving force to turn solid

Example: homogeneous nucleation temp of water ≈ -42ºC

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More about these in Reverse Engineering

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Hot chamber Die Casting Cold chamber Die Casting

Liquid metal is injected very quickly at high pressures (typically 15-30MPa).

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Rebars are used for

1981 1998 2005

“U.S. Army bought 120 NC machines and

CNC machine with

HAAS VF-1 CNC Vertical

Define cutter path by Tool Path Generation

Define cut parameters Tool Path Generation

A “generic” cutter location (CL) file Tool Path Generation

Post Processing Tool Path Generation

 Tool & material libraries

Tool & Material Library

Siemens NX interface CATIA interface

PTC Creo (previously

 often requires complex jigs

• Tools: lathes, mills, routers,

Control Loop Unit

“In a NC machine, motion is controlled by servo

Input (converted from analog to digital value)

Motor lead screw rotation table moves