International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 96 (2023) 103969

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International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijdrr

Adaptive response for climate change challenges for small and

vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) countries: Qatar perspective
Shoukat Alim Khan a, b, Ans Al Rashid a, *, Muammer Koç a, c
a Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha 34110, Qatar
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Doha, Qatar
c Faculty of Engineering, University of Karabük, Karabük 78050, Turkey

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Climate change has already been affecting the entire globe in all aspects of life. Along with miti-
Climate change gation efforts, adaptive response actions are gaining increasingly urgent importance for many re-
Responsive gions to considerably reduce the most severe impacts of climate change on social and physical in-
Adaptation frastructure. As the severity and frequency of climate change impacts and consequences grow fast
Coastal
and highly alarming, particularly for small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) countries, the ur-
Qatar
gency and magnitude of the crises call for immediate and more adaptive responses. This study
proposes that SVCA countries, being on the frontline of climate change vulnerabilities, impacts,
and risks, should prioritize their resources and capacity and focus on developing and implement-
ing immediate, tailored, adaptive response policies, plans, and actions. Long-term mitigation ef-
forts would not help them reduce their current or immediate vulnerability in the short-term, as
long as large countries with comparably huge populations, economies, heavy industrial depen-
dences, and extreme consumption levels do not change their courses significantly. Therefore, this
study presents a framework of climate change, sustainability, resilience, risk reduction, and adap-
tive response as a nexus to conceptualize the problem and solutions properly. Such a framework
is needed to develop synergies between climate change and immediate adaptive response for
such countries. The study analyzes Qatar, a typical SVCA country, assessing its current vulnera-
bilities & risks and potential physical, social, and economic challenges. Finally, it concludes with
a discussion on recommended adaptive responses proposed for Qatar.

1. Introduction
Climate change refers to the long-term alteration of Earth's average weather patterns, including temperature, precipitation, and
other climate variables, primarily driven by human activities that increase concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
[1–3]. The impacts of climate change on cities include more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms and floods, sea level rise, and
other extreme weather events, which can damage infrastructure, disrupt essential services, and affect the health and well-being of res-
idents [4,5]. Climate change (CC, a.k.a. global warming) refers to changes in the climate condition caused by human activity or na-
ture that last for a long time, generally decades or more. Climate change may result from internal natural processes, external forces, or
enduring manmade changes in the atmosphere's composition or land use. The effects of global warming are already being felt in many
locations, including shifting weather patterns, increasing sea levels, unusually high or low-temperature levels, excessive melting snow
and ice [6], and increasingly severe and frequent hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons. It has already adversely impacted ecosystems,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: shoukat.khan@tamu.edu (S.A. Khan), anrashid@hbku.edu.qa (A. Al Rashid), mkoc@hbku.edu.qa (M. Koç).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103969
Received 30 April 2023; Received in revised form 10 August 2023; Accepted 27 August 2023
Available online 30 August 2023
2212-4209/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
S.A. Khan et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 96 (2023) 103969

freshwater resources, and human health. It is undeniable that this tendency will continue and have more effects in the future, even
though the future frequency and severity rates are unpredictable [7].
Nearly 11% of the world's population, or 896 million people, already reside in low-lying coastal regions and are exposed to inter-
acting climate- and non-climate coastal hazards [8]. Many megacities and urbanized areas on the coasts are the hub of economic, so-
cial, and cultural activity and critical infrastructure. As a result of compounding various effects, climate change impacts the economy,
culture, society, habitation, infrastructure, health, welfare, food, and water security [9]. The impact of storm surges, major precipita-
tion events, tropical cyclones, and sea level rises has already been felt in smaller island communities and coastal areas [6].
Although there are no known ways and means to stop climate change entirely, the worst effects can be mitigated by adopting a
net-zero emission approach to lower the quantity of heat-trapping gasses emitted into the sky. However, the window of opportunity
for meaningful mitigation actions to avert adverse global effects is rapidly closing, and climate change is likely to increase the fre-
quency and severity of the impacts [10]. Coastal regions are particularly susceptible to the effects of climate change [11–17]. Thus,
adaptation or adaptive responses to climate change are considered a more immediate and helpful way of action under time and re-
gional urgencies. IPPC defines adaptation as “the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects” [8], while miti-
gation represents actions taken in response to climate change to reduce global warming and its consequences.
Hence, the need to determine the ideal balance of mitigation and adaptation has been growing [18] depending on the geographi-
cal location, population density, critical infrastructural vulnerability, etc. Climate researchers and policymakers have recently turned
their attention to the possibility of creating synergy and striking a selective balance between climate change mitigation and adapta-
tion. With the temporal and spatial differences between adaptation and mitigation actions and expected results, a nexus framework
enhanced with a diagrammatic depiction of climate change, sustainability, resilience, risk reduction, mitigation, and adaptive re-
sponse is crucial for comprehending the issue, identifying critical factors, and facilitating communication within a wide range of
stakeholders, decision and policymakers and disciplines [19].
The main contributor to global warming is the emission produced by large developed or developing countries like the US, the Eu-
ropean Union, China, and India. These four countries or unions make up around 62.3% of the global GDP, 55.7% of energy consump-
tion, and 58.6% of emissions. However, their pollutive effects have been confronted and suffered by all regions and countries, large or
small, developed or developing, all around the globe [20]. On such a large scale, any mitigation efforts from small countries would
not significantly impact or change anything in the right direction in the short term to reduce the vulnerabilities, risks, and hazards for
their sustainability, resilience, safety, and security. With climate change's unpredictable and severe environmental impacts and lim-
ited time and resources, it is a critical question for small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) countries how to prioritize mitigation or
adaptation policies, plans, programs, and actions. SVCA emerges as a distinctive and targeted concept that warrants careful examina-
tion. While the more widely recognized terms “small islands” and “small island developing states” (SIDS) have been pivotal in charac-
terizing vulnerable regions, SVCA offers a refined lens through which to view vulnerabilities in coastal settings of smaller scale. Un-
like the broader categorization of SIDS, SVCA directs attention to coastal areas that may not be encapsulated within the typical island
context but share vulnerabilities due to their limited geographical expanse and susceptibility to climate change impacts. This differen-
tiation signifies the paramount importance of addressing vulnerabilities in coastal regions beyond the scope of conventional island
settings.
Adaptive response to climate change challenges in SVCA countries is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires a holistic and
integrated approach [21–23]. The challenges faced by SVCA countries are unique and often disproportionately affect their popula-
tions, as they are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, such as sea level rise, coastal flooding, and more frequent and in-
tense storms. To address these challenges, SVCA countries must adopt various adaptive measures tailored to their needs and context.
These measures can include: strengthening coastal defenses, such as sea walls, revetments, and dikes; developing and implementing
early warning systems and evacuation plans; enhancing the resilience of critical infrastructures, such as power plants, water treat-
ment facilities, and transportation networks; promoting the use of climate-friendly technologies and practices, such as renewable en-
ergy and sustainable agriculture; building the capacity of local communities and institutions to adapt to climate change [24–26].
This study analyzes climate change impacts and risks for SVCA countries and their readiness regarding policies, preparations, and
actions to these challenges. The study also analyzes the state of Qatar's perspective as a case study of SVCA countries, the climate
change mitigation efforts by Qatar, its climate change risks, and critical challenges. Finally, this study suggests adaptation policies,
preparations, and actions to respond effectively to potential climate change emergencies in disaster conditions. The methodology
adopted to conduct this study is briefly discussed in the subsequent section. Section 3 of the study analyzes the current mitigation and
adaptation policies for SVCA countries and their effectiveness in the present CC scenario. Section 4 summarizes the climate change
risks and their impacts on SVCA countries, adaptation policies for SVCA countries, and the suggested direction for these practices
based on the literature. Section 5 analyzes responsive adaptation policies, preparations, and actions for climate change challenges
from the state of Qatar's perspective as a case study.

2. Methodology
2.1. Literature search & exclusion criteria
A wide range of articles, review papers, magazines, and internationally reputed blogs were reviewed using different databases,
i.e., Google Scholar, Springer, Scopus, Wiley, PubMed, and Taylor & Francis. The literature was searched using keywords within the
reported literature's title, abstract, and article keywords. The literature search was conducted using keywords such as global warm-
ing, climate change, responsive, mitigation, policy, coastal area, vulnerability, resilience, adaptation, environmental impact, and a
combination of these keywords. Furthermore, the literature was filtered to select articles written and peer-reviewed in English. The

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primary source of the reviewed literature was original research or review articles; however, conference proceedings, book chapters,
and theses were also considered. A total of 98 articles, books, and related sources were gathered during our literature search. The
gathered literature was filtered to consider the most relevant studies by skimming the main text of the articles. The criterion was to:
include the studies with current policies for climate change, consider the literature focusing mainly on the vulnerable coastal areas,
take account of the mitigation and adaptation policies, and exclude the articles where one of the themes mentioned above is missing.
Through a rigorous screening process, we refined this selection to 46 sources that met our stringent inclusion criteria. These chosen
works were primarily from reputable peer-reviewed journals and academic publishers, spanning 2017 to 2023, to ensure current rele-
vance.

2.1.1. Literature review and proposed policy

Once the selected literature was reviewed thoroughly, current strategies for mitigation and adaptation were reported concisely,
focusing on the vulnerable coastal areas. Drawing from these insights, we propose pragmatic adaptation policies encompassing criti-
cal sectors such as food security, water resources, energy, transportation, health, and shelter. Our recommendations go beyond theo-
retical frameworks, outlining actionable plans that engage stakeholders, allocate resources, and integrate innovative technologies. By
emphasizing interdependencies among sectors, we provide a holistic approach that aligns Qatar's distinct challenges with effective
and implementable adaptation measures.

3. Literature review
3.1. Current strategies: mitigation and adaptation
The world and its habitants already embrace an alarming degree of climate change impacts, and addressing it requires mainly a
two-pronged adaptation and mitigation strategy. Recently, climate research and policy have turned their attention to the possibility
of creating synergy between climate change mitigation and transformation [27] and focused on striking the right balance between
adaptation and mitigation for different regions and countries depending on their vulnerability, risk levels, and urgency.
The need for the study to determine the ideal balance of mitigation and adaptation is preferred in the literature [27]. For example,
Liu et al. [28] emphasized mitigation methods more than adaptation behaviors. The study also suggested activities and responsibili-
ties of governmental and non-governmental sectors to address climate change. Other researchers like Tol [29] argued that mitigation
and adaptation should be analyzed together in a cost-benefit analysis of emission reduction. Larsen and Gunnarsson Ostling [30] dis-
cussed the inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation. Laukkonen et al. [31] considered it insufficient to concentrate on
either comfort or adaptation but a combination of both. Also, the research conducted by Nicholls and Lowe [32] indicated that a vari-
ety of adaptation and mitigation strategies should be considered for coastal regions since this will offer a more robust response to hu-
man-induced climate change rather than either strategy alone. Most of the research in these areas focused on the general approach to
climate change.
It is also worth noting that mitigation and adaptation policies might conflict with some of their actions. Hamin and Gurran [33]
performed a review, mainly for the Australian and U.S. cases, and reported that half of the measures included in an assessment of cli-
mate change policy had been determined to have potential conflicts with concurrently accomplishing adaptation and mitigation.
Biesbroek et al. [34] also studied the history of the adaptation-mitigation dichotomy and addressed the connection between climate
change responses and spatial planning. Some researchers like Pielke [35] spoke about the shortcomings of mitigating measures and
reported the necessity for adaptation as a fundamental part of climate policy. Similarly, according to Alan Ingham et al. [36], most
studies have concentrated on the scenario where society's only option is reducing emissions, with little to no place for education.
Even though future rates of change are unpredictable for climate change impact, it is undeniable that the tendency will continue
and have many more effects. The coastal zone, where consequences are evident and intensifying, and the need for adaptation, is par-
ticularly concerned about this issue. Climate change impacts in coastal and small countries are already alarming, and the need for
adaptive response actions is more significant and urgent.
Baills et al. [25] assessed selected climate change adaptation measures for coastal areas in their study. Fifty-one (51) coastal risk
adaptation measures were selected. Ten climate-change-related criteria were used to assess these measures. To address issues arising
in the Aquitaine region (southwest France, now administratively part of Nouvelle-Aquitaine), they listed possible measures for adap-
tation to climate change impacts at the regional level and focused on coastal hazards. Similarly, Adger [37] suggested adaptive gover-
nance, which includes the social and institutional contexts that shape the diversified learning environment. Self-organizing social net-
works that link people, groups, and institutions from various administrative levels and actor groups can be used to explain adaptive
governance systems. Information and knowledge are exchanged in these systems to create a shared understanding, which promotes
social learning. Adger et al. [37] identified the governance frameworks and environmental factors that hinder or encourage the im-
plementation of strategic adaptation plans as operational adaptation instruments at various administrative scales and social actors. In
public administration, science, civil society, and the tourist industry, multiple stakeholders operate at different organizational levels
(local to national). The metropolitan administration is an essential bridge entity by promoting climate change adaptation to numer-
ous interest groups and disseminating information among players.
Cross-scale studies have revealed that adaptation policies are comparatively new and spatially unequally distributed, particularly
with weak local government-led action in areas with lower adaptation capacity, high vulnerability, and exposure. Recently, Madrid
has been building a vast urban forest to combat climate change [38]. There is continual improvement in planned adaptation, and
there is evidence that, at least in highly developed nations, practical policy tools and measures are being deployed [37]. However, for
the rest of the regions and countries, this highlights the need for a thorough analysis of climate risks and scenarios and a much better

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understanding of the policy implications of adaptation tools [37]. Both mitigation and adaptation responses attempt to lessen the
harmful effects of climate change on people and ecosystems. Still, they differ in terms of their precise goals, range, needed degree of
cooperation, and time frame in their representation of the two-way interaction between human activity and global climate change.
Duguma et al. [39] distinguished between climate change adaptation and mitigation, Fig. 1.
Although the policies might differ from case to case depending upon factors such as surrounding risks, there are existing applied
policies and economic conditions. Simultaneously implementing mitigation and adaptation policies might be challenging for SVCA
countries due to the limitation of time, financial constraints, or severity of the impact. Also, such actions might be challenging for
countries with lower economic resources. Even the adaptation plans in wealthy countries are often inadequate and have gaps.

3.2. Small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) countries

Small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) countries are at significant risk of climate change (CC) challenges, disasters, emergen-
cies, and consequent social and economic threats and catastrophes due to the dynamic interactions between infrastructure, economic
activity, and population density along the shore, Fig. 2. Approximately 896 million people, or nearly 11% of the world's population,
live in coastal areas within the Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ, defined as coastal regions below 10 m of elevation above sea level
that are hydrologically connected to the sea), which could rise to more than 1 billion by 2050 [8].
Due to the concentration of a significant amount of the world's population and economic activities, such as trade via ports, coastal
cities, and settlements along the sea, are in more severe danger. From a broader viewpoint, the effects of climate change on the coast
influence a significant amount of the world's population, social and economic activity, and highly critical infrastructure, which is also
vital for the rest of the population living away from the coast and ports. According to an estimate, 23–37% of the world's population
resides within 100 km of coastal areas [8]. To demonstrate the non-stationarity of risk, Toimil et al. [7] use a hypothetical coastal sys-
tem susceptible to CC for more than a century to depict the evolution of hazards, effects, exposure, and susceptibility. The current ex-
posure of coastal cities and settlement (C&S) populations to Sea Level Rise (SLR) related clean effects and other climate-related conse-
quences is significant. They are subject to various climate risks and ocean-combined hazards brought on by climate change. In C&S,
threats to people's lives, livelihoods, and property are exceptionally high due to climate change's increased frequency and severity of
disasters. Some of the most dangerous risks are land subsidence, vulnerability to tropical cyclones and storm surges, floods from ex-
tremely high tides, and rising sea levels [8]. First, many coastal areas are not only exposed and vulnerable to climate-compounded
risks but also hubs of creativity and innovation. Second, the livelihoods of those who live in coastal communities by the sea depend on
coastal ecosystems, many of which are highly vulnerable to climate change, exacerbating non-climate hazards and making coastal
livelihoods more precarious. Third, C&S are connected by a network of ports and harbors that support international commerce and
exchange but are vulnerable to the effects of climate change, particularly SLR, with enormous ramifications for global CRD prospects
[8].
Coastal cities vary in size, form, growth trends, and access to environmental, financial, and cultural amenities. Specifically, the re-
gions with relatively high levels of poverty and inequality, significant populations, and densely built environments are particularly
susceptible to a changing climate [8]. Several specific impacts should be considered for coastal areas. Hung et al. [40] describe some
of these impacts, as reported in Fig. 3.

3.2.1. Temperature and humidity rise (TR and HR)

Recent severe weather occurrences have been linked to this human-caused climate change [41]. Surface air temperature is the
most often used statistic to assess global warming. However, it falls short in describing the nature of global warming and how it af-
fects extreme weather and climate. A full measure of global warming is surface equivalent potential temperature, which incorporates
air temperature and humidity [42]. Since the 1880s, the world's average temperature has increased by around 1.1 °C, verified by

Fig. 1. (a) Climate change mitigation and adaptation (b) Climate Resilience.

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Fig. 2. An illustration of the potential evolution of risk, effects, exposure, and vulnerability in a coastal system exposed to climate change, moving counterclockwise
from 1900 (Adapted from reference [7], Copyright © 2019, Elsevier B.V.).

Fig. 3. The impacts of climate change on coastal areas [40].

satellite measurements and by examining observations from thousands of independent weather stations worldwide [43]. Additional
proof comes from the fast reduction of the planet's ice cover. The average day is getting hotter in many places, and sweltering days are
now more common, Fig. 4. The frequency of scorching temperatures has significantly increased in the last decades. While looking
ahead, the further transformation will likely continue well into the next ten years, at the very least. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other
greenhouse gasses, such as methane and nitrous oxide, have increased in atmospheric concentrations due to human activity during
the last two centuries. This increase is the main reason for the observed temperature increase [44]. The fact that an increase in surface
temperature causes an increase in humidity is one of the most convincing conclusions of most if not all, climate model studies [8].
Warming seas and land surfaces give more water into the atmosphere through evaporation. Surface warming is causing a faster in-
crease in humidity since warm air can hold more water vapor [42]. Heat waves, rising temperatures, and moisture will lead to human
sickness, mortality, and infrastructure breakdown.

3.2.2. Sea level rise (SLR)

The main physical effects of sea level rise are beach erosion, inundation of deltas, floods, and the loss of numerous marshes and
wetlands. As a result of saltwater intrusion, increased salinity will probably become a concern in coastal aquifers and estuary systems.

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Fig. 4. Temperature distribution from 1901 to 2015 [44,45].

Although the global average sea level rise (SLR) is undeniable, its pace and size are less definite beyond 2050 [46,47], which is crucial
for coastal towns and deltas that are heavily inhabited and sinking [48].

3.2.3. Coastal flooding and storm (FL)

Urban areas in coastal and riverine ecosystems are on the frontlines of flooding. Flooding can result from either increased sea level
rise or intense weather conditions. Due to the possibility of being impacted by rising sea levels and more violent and frequent coastal
storms, coastal communities are vulnerable to significant dangers due to climate change. Very few thorough approaches and case
studies probabilistically construct flood maps using mean SLR and predict high sea levels and waves [49,50]. After a detailed analysis
of the challenges, climate change risks, and adaptation in coastal areas, Toimil et al. [7] supported increased attention to the multi-
variate evaluation of severe flood occurrences caused by the combined impact of waves, storm surges, tides, sea level rise [50–52]. To
better estimate the risks of climate change floods, it is necessary to enhance the modeling of the statistical dependence between corre-
lated drivers and programs that consider climate forecasts.
To illustrate the importance and urgency of this challenge through case studies, McKinsey Global Institute published a report in
April 2020 on climate risk and responses for coastal regions [53]. Nine case studies of cutting-edge climate change effects from all key
areas, industries, and affected systems were chosen for the study. For example, Ho Chi Minh City, which contributes almost a quarter
to the nation's GDP, is a distinguishing element of the Vietnamese growth narrative. In addition to the projected two million migrant
laborers, the city is home to eight to nine million inhabitants. Flooding, however, is a regular occurrence here. Ho Chi Minh City's esti-
mated yearly flood expenditures might increase more quickly than the city's GDP without the proper steps for adaptation. By 2050,
the high flood danger in Ho Chi Minh City may have multiplied by five to ten, posing an urgent threat to major infrastructure systems.
Therefore, Ho Chi Minh City's adaptation expenditures must increase to deal with the nonlinear flood risk. Total investments for the
city's adaptation measures may be like today's yearly GDP.

3.2.4. Coastal erosion (CE)

The function and structure of their ecosystems and sensitive coastal and marine areas might suffer significantly from the conse-
quences of climate change. Changing coasts due to rising sea levels (1.7 mm/year) also cause coastal erosion, floods, and increased
subsurface saltwater intrusion. For coastal areas worldwide, sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and flooding problems are expected to in-
crease over the next hundred years [54].

3.2.5. Current and expected impacts

The level and range of critical risks evolve as the effects of climate change become more pronounced. Their tangible repercussions
include damage, fatalities, and lost livelihoods, adverse effects on health and well-being, particularly at the time and place of cata-
strophic events such as involuntary migration and displacement [55]. Since the altering physical environment of cities, the Urban
Heat Island (UHI) effect is already an acknowledged challenge. The interaction between climate change and the altering physical en-
vironment will be more severe for coastal cities. Heavy rainfall and rising sea level will intensify floods, while rising temperatures and
heat waves will increase human sickness and mortality, as well as the deterioration and failure of infrastructure. Furthermore, the im-

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pact extends to a large scale as coastal cities are usually the hub of economic activities for countries, which can affect other sectors,
such as supply chains, and have significant economic and geopolitical implications [55]. The followings are some identified sectors
that are predicted to be significantly affected in SVCA countries.
1. Physical infrastructure (roads, bridges, surge prevention levies, critical buildings such as hospitals, schools, power generation,
and transmission stations.)
a) Water security: network, system, and infrastructure.
b) Energy: electricity and gas network, system, and infrastructure.
c) Transportation network, plan, and infrastructure.
2. Communication infrastructure: tethered and wireless network, stations, sub-stations, power supply, etc.
3. Social infrastructure:
a) Healthcare system: essential services, hospitals, clinics, accessibility to doctors, nurses, and medicine supply.
b) Education system: schools, teachers, access, digital network.
c) Institutions: emergency responders, civil defense, integrity, preparation, etc.
4. Food security: production and distribution system and infrastructure
a) Agricultural production, logistics, supply, storage, and distribution.
b) Livestock, supply, and feedstock.
5. Industrial sector: Production, distribution, and storage of goods, raw materials, etc.
6. Tourism sector: hotels, airports, air travel, ports, sea travel, etc.

3.3. Effective adaptive response policies for climate change and its impact
Climate change caused by emissions, pollution, waste, overconsumption, and wasteful production leads to severe environmental
disasters and emergencies. The proper readiness through early assessment, strategy and planning, and responsive adaptation and mit-
igation strategies could provide a sustainable and resilient solution to these challenges. The diagrammatic representation of this SR4
(Sustainability, Resilience, Risk, Readiness, and Response Nexus) framework is represented in Fig. 5.
The best adaptation choices become difficult with the increasing unpredictability of climate change. However, to develop a suit-
able set of policies, programs, and actions for adaptation to climate change impacts, society, individuals, businesses, and government
institutions must agree and act for sustainable, resilient, and responsive thinking, capacity development, and organizations, Fig. 6.
The effectiveness of adaptation measures will be increased if they are carried out in collaboration with regional and national govern-
ments, academic institutions, commercial and nonprofit sectors, and local communities.
Predicting the effects of climate change can have many benefits concerning the adaptation of safe actions. Models are generally
used in climate change modeling to understand global climate cycles. The creation of models could show how human activities im-
pact the earth's climate system. Models organize knowledge, establish hypotheses, and depict potential future events. There are sev-
eral different models used in this field. The IPCC developed a well-established framework in which risk results from the interaction of
hazard, exposure, and vulnerability and is influenced by adaptation and mitigation [55]. This framework has been widely embraced
by many coastal engineers who operate in the field of CC. However, it is not the only framework. For example, a substantial percent-
age of the community uses the ISO 31000 standard for risk management. Aligning knowledge of risk concepts and showing how com-
parisons of risk assessments are made using various frameworks may be beneficial and result in objective decisions [7]. For the future
determination of climate change, it is necessary to evaluate both top-down climate affect forecasts and bottom-up information on pre-
sent vulnerabilities. The dynamic adaptive response plans help to decide when, how much, and how to adapt to keep up with chang-
ing circumstances [56]. Such plans are composed of activities connected by adaptation tipping points, which show when a new action
is required to achieve specific adaptation goals. Table 1 summarizes adaptation plans developed for different regions and cities.

Fig. 5. The climate of climate change, sustainability, resilience, risk reduction, and adaptive response as a nexus to conceptualizing the problem.

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Fig. 6. The transformation from Wasteful, Degenerative, and Reactive to Sustainable, Resilient, Regenerative, and Responsive thinking, decision-making, and actions as
individuals, firms, organizations, and governments.

Table 1
Studies from the literature regarding the adaptation practices in the coastal areas.

No Region Title and Brief description Ref.

1 Taiwan An Adaptation Due to Climate Change on the Southwest Coast of Taiwan [40]
Approximately four typhoons hit Taiwan's coastline region per year. Rising sea levels and frequent hurricanes have endangered the
coastal habitats of Taiwan. These findings could help develop ways to put into practice and understand how to evaluate the advantages
of such a program.
2 Sweden Institutional capacity-building for targeting a sea-level rise in the climate adaptation of Swedish coastal zone management. [54]
Lessons from Coastby
Sea level rise, coastal erosion, and floods are all concerns that coastal areas worldwide deal with. According to scholars, this calls for
managing coastal zones to adapt to the climate. A Swedish case study provides insights into institutional limitations for climate
adaptation.
3 – Technological Options for Adaptation to Climate Change in Coastal Zones [57]
There are several technological options for adjusting to natural coastal dangers. They may also be crucial in lowering coastal regions'
susceptibility to climate change. Technologies are available to plan and create adaptation methods, implement them, track and assess
their effectiveness, and develop knowledge and awareness.
4 Taiwan An integrated spatial planning model for climate change adaptation in coastal zones. Ocean & Coastal Management [58]
The research highlights the spatial planning strategy for coastal sustainability and climate change adaptation. A case study is Cijin
Island, located next to Kaohsiung harbor, Taiwan. The suggested MOPSD modeling methodology produces better results than the two
conventional methodologies.
5 – Benefits of Mitigation of climate change for coastal areas [32]
One of human-induced global warming's most definite effects is sea level rise. Compared to unrestricted emissions, climate stabilization
lessens coastal consequences in the twenty-first century, while the most significant advantages could come in the 20-s century. The
findings imply that a combination of adaptation and mitigation approaches is required for coastal areas.
6 Barcelona Integrating climate change adaptation in coastal governance of the Barcelona metropolitan area [59]
Rising sea levels and frequent, violent coastal storms expose coastal towns to significant threats. The Barcelona metropolitan region has
relatively little experience with effective local adaptation techniques. Our research implies that strategic adaptation plans would be
more successful if adaptation planning and action were more effectively included in the current legal framework.
7 Wales Coastal Adaptation Planning in Fairbourne, Wales: lessons for Climate Change Adaptation [60]
Climate change adaptation is becoming an important goal and guiding principle for coastal communities. This essay investigates
current U.K. efforts to adapt to climate change, focusing on the situation of Fairbourne, Wales. The study uses a qualitative research
technique that includes policy analysis, interviews, and observation.
8 Spanish A planning strategy for the adaptation of coastal areas to climate change: The Spanish case [61]
Coastal area A national planning framework for climate change adaptation is presented in this research. The new Spanish Coastal Law is the source
of the approach, making it law. It involves the evaluation of coastal hazards brought on by climate change and severe events, as well as
planning, implementing, and evaluating risk reduction and adaptation measures.
9 Coastal Climate change adaptation in coastal Australia: An audit of planning practice [62]
Australia The physical threats from climate change are most acute in Australia's coastal cities and towns. Few municipalities have yet modified
their planning rules for climate risk despite continued development demand. The findings indicate that communities typically need to
complete preliminary tasks before implementing more complicated, costly, or political policies.

Based on the reviewed literature, the following suggestions could also be considered for responsive adaptation to climate change.
1. All levels of governance, including the public sector, the commercial industry, communities, and intermediaries like
universities or think tanks, must work together to develop assessment, strategy, and planning for inclusive and prosperous
climate adaptation actions tailored for different localities and communities [55].
2. All societal sectors need to be included in policy tools, strategies, and funding structures for adaptation that addresses
socioeconomic disparities.

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3. In providing planning and institutional action, local and regional governments are crucial. Potential solutions might include
various sizes and sectors, from land use management to critical infrastructure designs and community development initiatives.
4. Under innovative institutional forms like public-private partnerships, the private sector can raise money for adaptation
initiatives with a likelihood of significant financial gain, as in the case of interventions that increase real estate value [55].
5. Priority needs include the creation of appropriate design guidelines and precise decision standards to aid in incorporating
climatic information into port and harbor planning and administration [7].
6. To manage the risks associated with climate change and other changing social and biophysical factors, coastal urban
communities need more cooperative governance frameworks. According to studies, coastal environments are more likely than
other systems to create adaptive processes when various actors and stakeholders are involved.
7. Adaptation efforts might be gradual, reformist, or transformative, depending on the desired change. Cooperative planning
and decision-making processes may start conversations on a sustainable future [55].
8. Adaptation policy should align with mitigation policies where possible [6].
9. Designing the future pathways for adaptation of immediate, near-term, medium-term, and long-term actions should consider
evaluating the implications of climate change based on their risks, time, and effects.
10. Further research is needed to develop improved estimates of average and extreme climatic conditions with greater resolutions
and reliable measurements of the uncertainty cascade [63].
11. Adaptation plans should be created utilizing techniques that consider average and extreme weather conditions and the resulting
unpredictability [7].
12. Exploring naturally adapting solutions, such as nature-based or hybrid solutions, and developing and implementing flexible
adaptation methodologies should be preferred.
13. Self-organization of social networks, such as adaptive governance systems, link people, groups, and institutions from various
administrative levels and actor groups. These systems encourage social capital and enable social learning by sharing
information and knowledge to create a shared understanding.

4. Case study: mitigation and adaptation to climate change challenges for Qatar
According to the World Bank report [64], all the signs point to more severe repercussions of Sea Level Rise (SLR) in the Middle
East (ME) mainly due to its existing geographical and climate conditions, such as high temperature and humidity, year-long airborne
dust particles compounded with increasing air pollution coming from oil/gas production and consumption in industry, buildings, and
transportation. Specifically, 3.2% of its population, 1.28% of its GDP, 1.49% of its urban population, 1.94% of its wetlands, and
1.02% of its global urban population will all be negatively impacted by a 1 m SLR (vs. 1.86% worldwide). However, the impact is not
evenly distributed among all the countries in the Middle East. As an example of a small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) country,
Qatar is predicted to be significantly affected by climate change impacts [65]. However, its land area is minimal compared to the total
area of ME and squeezed between three major regional giants (Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq) in terms of land, population, energy pro-
duction and consumption, emissions, etc., Fig. 7. Impacts of CC are more critical in coastal areas with low elevation, high population,
and infrastructure density, like Qatar, where almost 99% of the population lives in a single urban area, greater Doha. This concentra-
tion of population and economic capital increases the cost of any disturbance, especially considering the accelerated impacts of cli-
mate change.

4.1. Key climate change challenges for Qatar

Mainly driven by the excessive temperature rise (TR) in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Still, Qatar is the most affected
country, particularly in the Arabian Gulf. Compared to the worldwide impact of sea level rise, Qatar is the third-most impacted coun-
try, following the Bahamas and Vietnam. In the wetlands category, Qatar is the fourth-most affected country worldwide. Pal and
Eltahir [68] reported in 2015 that the country's capital, Doha, is on a severe trend of temperature increase and will hit a dangerous
level at the end of this century, Fig. 8. The study used a high-performance model for forecasting and presented the results that sup-
ported the previous findings of Oxford University and NASA on climate change in GCC. According to the study, the annual wet-bulb
temperature rises monotonically in the various areas surrounding the Gulf. Doha is perfectly positioned geographically to receive hot,
humid air from the Gulf and hot, dry air from the center of the desert to the west. It is hence susceptible to both dry-bulb temperature
and wet-bulb temperature.
Any such severe temperature increase likewise severely increases other climate change risks such as sea level rise, heavy rain,
coastal flooding, storm, heatwaves, excessive water contaminants, and illness outbreaks; the importance of resiliency of crucial infra-
structures such as physical (energy, water, electricity, gas, transportation), communication and social infrastructure (health, hospi-
tals, clinics, first/emergency responders, schools) highly increases. However, the intelligent adaptation approach targets the areas
with a high range of impact on different basic needs.
The physical infrastructure represents the fundamental city structure. It is central to a city's prosperity, welfare, sustainability, dis-
aster responsiveness, and resiliency. Residents use and depend on the physical infrastructure for their daily lives (home, office, or
roads) and livelihoods. Subsequently, people continuously interact with it, affecting their productivity, welfare, happiness, habits,
and thoughts [69]. Any disaster or event involving all infrastructures with various degrees and degradation affects the city popula-
tion's survival, health, and activity [70]. The resiliency of the physical infrastructure is essential to reduce the impact of any distur-
bance and allow faster recovery. The electricity, water, and transportation (EWT) networks have a crucial role in cities by ensuring ef-

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Fig. 7. Qatar is a small and vulnerable coastal area (SVCA) country in a coastal area-geographical location, population, area, resources, and emissions in comparison to
regional powers [66,67].

Fig. 8. (a–c) represent max wet-bulb temperature (TWmax) and (d–f) max dry-bulb temperature (TDmax) for an average of 30 years period, RCP (Representative
Concentration Pathway) represents greenhouse gas concentration (GHG) emissions trajectory (Adopted from reference [68], Copyright © 2015, Springer Nature
Limited).

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ficient functions, lives, and operations during typical situations and providing power, water, and mobility for emergency teams dur-
ing and after any acute problem to restore and repair primary services [71].
All basic infrastructures are tightly interdependent, but their dependency on electricity and water is even more critical in Qatar
and similar regions. In Qatar, water production relies totally on water desalination from seawater (where the energy source is natural
gas). In addition, electricity is required for water pumping throughout the network. This dependency, the forecasted population
growth, and climate change effects induce tremendous obstacles for Qatar in reducing its carbon footprint as they all drive more de-
mands on fossil fuel-based energy. The drive to integrate renewable energy sources to minimize these impacts raises many concerns
regarding reliability and continuity.
Similarly, transportation directly influences socioeconomic dynamics and health and is affected profoundly by environmental con-
ditions. The restricted transportation limits commuting economic progress, educational access, and healthcare, in addition to wasting
time and human resources. Global warming and climate change harm public and private transportation systems by disrupting time
schedules, road and vehicle safety, and comfortable driving. Therefore, designing a resilient transportation network plays a crucial
role in having sustainable high living standards without interruption during and after natural hazards, such as heatwaves, extreme
temperature discrepancies, floods due to heavy rain and sea-level rise, and strong winds.

4.2. Qatar's climate change mitigation efforts

Qatar's approach to the CC and its impacts have been mainly reactive and under the guidelines and goals of internationally ac-
cepted norms and regulations, in addition to some regionally agreed prospects such as by the GCC countries council. However, as rec-
ommended in this study, there are also newer and alternative opinions to design a holistic approach to include all levels within its
readiness and response, including individual & family, business/industry, organizational/societal, and national/government levels.
According to its permanent constitution, the State of Qatar “preserves the environment and its natural balance” to ensure sustainable
development for all generations. Despite being a small and coastal country, Qatar plays an essential role in its mitigation efforts to-
ward climate change. A few examples of such actions are stated below:
1. The 2030 National Vision of Qatar asks for active participation in reducing the harmful effects of climate change, particularly in
the Gulf area, and supporting global efforts to do so.
2. The State of Qatar is a founding member of the International Institute for Green Growth, or GGGI, which helps developing
nations embrace sustainable development techniques. These nations serve as donors.
3. The State of Qatar ratified the Paris Climate Change Agreement on February 22, 2017, after signing it on April 22, 2016.
4. The State of Qatar is a member of the OPEC Fund for International Development (OFID), which finances the U.N. initiative
“sustainable energy for all, particularly the poor nations."
5. The State of Qatar is a member of the International Agency for Renewable Energy, which aids nations in switching to sustainable
energy in the future.
6. The government is implementing and modifying the best laws and technology for safeguarding environmental resources and
lowering pollution while investing in sources of future prosperity.
7. Qatar is dedicated to reducing inefficiencies that increase carbon dioxide emissions and collaborating with other nations and
international organizations to address the difficulties associated with the global climate. Like its Gulf neighbors, Qatar is
particularly susceptible to the negative consequences of climate change.
8. By attempting to diversify toward renewable energy, particularly in the power generation sector, to harness solar energy,
the State of Qatar is trying to reduce its dependency on non-renewable hydrocarbon resources.
9. While investing in sources of future prosperity, the government is adopting the most effective policies and technologies for
protecting environmental assets and reducing pollution [10].
10. The value chain for liquefied natural gas (LNG), which runs from Qatar's North Field to markets worldwide, depends on
hopping. In 2008, research conducted by Qatar Petroleum in collaboration with Exxon Mobil Corporation led to an
advancement in the design and size of LNG carriers that allowed transport technology to carry 80% more liquefied natural gas
than current carriers, significantly lowering the energy required per delivered unit [10].
11. Qatar supplies clean energy to many countries in Asia, such as Japan, South Korea, China, and India, where almost half of the
global population lives. These countries are replacing coal and other heavier fuels with natural gas to curb carbon emissions.
Hence, these factors should also be considered while debating Qatar's CO₂ emissions.

4.3. Adaptation policies, plans, actions, and suggestions

Fig. 9 summarizes the climate change risks, vulnerabilities, challenges, current efforts, strategies, and plans for Qatar under the
Q-SR4 (Sustainability, Resilience, Risk, Readiness, and Response Nexus) framework. Under this nexus framework, Qatar's climate
change challenges are mainly driven by increases in temperature and humidity [68], which not only have adverse effects on hu-
man health, such as lethargy, hyperthermia, etc., but also trigger sea level rise, extreme rain, and storms conditions, which leads
to flooding (both coastal and rainwater). These emphasize risks in all aspects of infrastructure, such as water, energy, health,
transportation, and communication, which are vitally necessary for human life and resiliency.
Qatar has already made commitments and long-term plans for sustainable development under its national vision, QNV 2030, and
consequent national strategies (QNDS) [72,73]. It is also committed to climate change responses as part of various international
agreements and conventions such as COP [74] and through its National Environment and Climate Change Strategy (QNECCS) [75].
Like many other countries, most of these efforts are dominated by mitigation policies. However, the detailed plans and actions in

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Fig. 9. Qatar's SR4- Sustainability, Resilience, Risk, Readiness, and Response Nexus framework focuses on Responsive Adaptation or Adaptive Response.

these strategies are weakly defined regarding adaptation, response, and building resilience. In addition to the ongoing mitigation ef-
forts, a set of targeted, coherent, and detailed policies, programs, and action plans for responsive adaptation and resiliency-building
capacity should be designed from the perspective of the country's distinctive geography, climate, and social and economic conditions.
Considering the physical infrastructure (electricity, water, transportation, and built environment) as a critical factor in a country's
prosperity, welfare, sustainability, responsiveness to disasters, and resiliency, the country should develop a targeted and detailed plan
to adequately respond to extreme and sudden climate changes. This should be done with a responsive adaptation approach as its high-
est and urgent priority. Since flooding is a crucial risk for all the physical, social, and communication structures, the country can take
some urgent measures, including the following listed below. Fig. 10 represents some of the suggested responsive adaptation strategies
proposed in this study, such as integrated ships and boat systems, safe inland survival camps, sea walls, etc., for climate-impact emer-
gency conditions.

4.3.1. Integrated fleet

As a responsive adaptation to the flooding risk, interconnected large ships and boat systems can be adopted, such as:
i. Several big ships on the coast or deep sea, with a massive capacity of shelter (housing), onboard electricity and water production
system, onboard hospital (health care systems), and food security. These can provide services to people in critical situations.
ii. The ships should be integrated with a flotilla of small boats, which could reach critical inland areas to deliver urgent needs and
rescue operations.
iii. To ensure the economic sustainability of the ships and boat systems, the system could be financed by crowdfunding, where
the people can own cruises and small boats, which can be used for tourism activities to generate income during regular times.
iv. As emergency and disaster conditions like flooding affect the overall life cycle, these ships and boat systems can be equipped
with drones and mobile 3D printing (3DP) to help maintain and produce critical requirements [76]. Such as essential healthcare
products, localized production of crucial parts, shelter and building infrastructures like shelters, and other built-environment
applications.

4.3.2. (Re)design and (Re)configure infrastructure

The existing infrastructure should be (re)designed and (re)configured, or new infrastructure should be designed and built to mini-
mize the climate change impact of sea level rise and flooding on the infrastructures and society, for example:
i. High-rise roads should be built along the seashores integrated with coastal area engineering measures and levies. These
measures can be implemented in and around critical areas with crucial infrastructure and densely populated locations to
act as a barrier for the flow of the sea waters inland. Such high-rise roads and levies will be used as transport means in
normal conditions and obstacles in emergency times.
ii. The critical and mega infrastructure and buildings, such as schools, hospitals, shopping malls, stadiums, and their
surroundings, should be elevated from the ground level so that they can be less affected by sea level rise and flooding. Thus,
these structures can be used as safe places to provide gathering, housing, health services, and other needs during emergency
times.

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S.A. Khan et al. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 96 (2023) 103969

Fig. 10. The adaptive response suggestions for climate change emergency challenges, specifically for Qatar, as a case study. Refer to the following discussions for
the numbering (1) Integrated fleet of ships, boats, and drones to provide shelter, health, food, onboard electricity, and water production; (2) (Re)design (Re)configu-
ration of critical infrastructures such as coastal road and levy system, large buildings such as hospitals, schools, and stadiums; (3) Transportation network: roads and
metro system enhanced with boats and drones; (4) Energy and water network: production, storage, and distribution; (5) Forecasting and mapping.

iii. The above critical, large infrastructures should be prepared and equipped with backup power, water, cooling, and food to
gather, house, and serve large populations safely in different locations in the country during disasters and emergencies.
iv. Adapt the safety techniques for existing infrastructure, such as drainage around the structure, safety walls for flooding, and
external insulation for increasing environmental temperature and heat waves.
v. Adapt and enforce proper construction techniques resistant to typical environmental hazards in the region, such as increased
humidity, salinity, and heat.
vi. Space cooling will become even more critical during emergencies if power is cut. The country should build its residential and
official buildings integrated with natural and passive cooling methods and technologies, learning from traditional techniques,
and equipping them with modern, distributed off-grid solutions such as portable solar PVs, heat pumps, modular and small
wind towers, etc. For example, the buildings can be integrated with ground source cooling techniques. Such measures should
be integrated into building codes for timely enforcement.
vii. Investigate and prepare the feasibility of different underground structures to use geothermal energy for building energy
requirements in case of harsh environmental conditions, such as heat waves or extreme cold [77].
viii. Investigate and find new technologies such as 3DP to develop the capacity of mass infrastructure development for residential
purposes in case of emergency conditions [78].
ix. Remote inland emergency neighborhood shelters with off-grid energy, food, water, and health facilities should be designed to
house and provide services for a large population in emergency conditions.

4.3.3. Transportation network

i. Identify potential transportation (highways, main roads, and metro) risks during and after disasters. Investigate and clarify the
transportation system topology through connectivity metrics between essential parts and needed adjustments to enhance its
resiliency. Develop a multilevel resiliency assessment framework for the transportation network.
ii. Develop a strategic plan for responsiveness and resilience of transport networks to become well-prepared in response to disasters
and prevent their catastrophic collapse. Furthermore, if possible, mitigate or eliminate significant risks, such as the interruption
of transportation in the whole country or some critical parts.
iii. Investigate the effectiveness and role of various modes of transportation and their contribution toward transportation
system resiliency and design their role and optimal resource allocation during emergency conditions.
iv. Develop a techno-economic plan to overcome national emergencies by incorporating a flotilla of drones and boats for
shipment and people mobility, emergency air-land-sea ambulances, and mobile educational buses. To justify the acquisition
of such a large flotilla and upfront investment, consider the use of such a flotilla for tourism and other transportation
purposes during regular times.

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v. Develop new transportation infrastructure considering the effect of sea level rise and flooding. For example, overpass structures
should be preferred on underpasses for transportation.

4.3.4. Water and energy networks

i. Analyze the potential climate change risks for all types of water and energy networks, design alternative solutions, and ensure
the ability to produce alternate renewable and decentralized water and energy generation to ensure resilience in emergencies.
Investigate the role of the topological distribution and connectivity of essential elements on water and energy network resiliency.
ii. Investigate and plan a proper water treatment and distribution system in bad weather conditions such as heavy storms or
flooding. Deploy small, portable, renewable-driven water filtration and treatment units nationwide.
iii. Offshore mobile desalination and energy infrastructure should be developed on a fleet of cruise ships, tanker ships, and
freight ships to provide ample energy and water, which can rapidly move to preferred locations around the country.
iv. Install hot and cold-water storage tanks, preferably underground, at different locations in the country. To assure the
availability of cold water (that can also be used for cooling purposes), there can be liquid air storage tanks across the most
vulnerable places. Liquid air is stored at around −195 °C, a precious cooling source in emergencies. This cold energy can be
used in HVAC systems or for storing food, vaccines, and other critical pharmaceuticals.
v. Develop a technological plan to overcome national emergency conditions and fulfill the basic energy needs of the people, such
as fuel diversification (such as LNG and CNG) and portable fuel stations.
vi. Develop a sustainable and resilient approach for energy, such as storage, distributed generation, and portable/mobile stations
to ensure a safe and continuous energy supply. Investigate new energy storage techniques for natural gas, such as deploying
liquified natural gas (LNG) or compressed natural gas (CNG) storage units at different locations in the country. It can be used for
distributed electricity generation in emergencies.
vii. Deploy mobile water and electricity stations via drones and boats, which can deliver and distribute water and energy
(stored in batteries) during emergencies. Mobile battery storage units can be transferred via drones or ships to the most
affected locations for electricity transport.

4.3.5. Accurate forecasting

Could have a significant role in the saucerful implementation of adaptation policies. Hence it is also highly suggested that the
country:
i. Develop an advanced forecasting model that constantly updates current data and aims to identify the most critical vulnerable
location throughout Qatar.
ii. Investigate the use of big data in real-time monitoring and planning of resilient infrastructure and reflection for future events.
iii. Update flood zone maps to determine which lowland regions are susceptible to flooding due to heavy rains or inland seawater
flow. Such zones should be designated only for green areas, water collection, etc., and not allowed to be used for roads and
buildings to minimize the impact of flooding.
iv. Develop a system dynamics model for implementing policy, law, and regulations and investigating the socioeconomic behavior
of a sustainable built environment.
v. Integrate, test, validate, and verify the hybrid modeling for scenario-based simulations in a sustainably built environment to
observe the platform's applicability, feasibility, and efficiency and modify them if needed.
vi. Develop a policy framework and regulations based on simulation results.

5. Conclusions, limitations, and future recommendations

Climate change has negatively impacted ecosystems, freshwater resources, and human health. With the continuously increasing
frequency and severity of climate change events, their effects on society and its habitats are also expected to increase in the near fu-
ture, calling for urgent adaptive response strategies, plans, and actions in addition to long-term mitigation plans. The urgency of this
call is even more critical for small countries in vulnerable coastal areas of the Middle East and Arabian Gulf due to the compounding
challenges of increasing heat waves, sea level rise, flooding, dust, and air pollution. Although the main contributor to global warming
is the emission produced by large developed or developing countries like the US, the European Union, China, and India, their century-
old pollutive effects have been faced and suffered by all regions and countries, large or small, developed or developing, all around the
globe. Hence, any mitigation efforts from small countries would not significantly impact or change anything in the right direction in
the short term to reduce the vulnerabilities, risks, and hazards for their sustainability, resilience, safety, and security. With climate
change's unpredictable and severe environmental impacts and limited time and resources, it is a critical question for small and vulner-
able coastal area (SVCA) countries how to prioritize mitigation or adaptation policies, plans, programs, and actions.
This study aims to analyze the trend of increasing environmental impacts and the direction of the small and vulnerable coastal ar-
eas (SVCA) country policies, preparations, and actions to these challenges. The proper readiness through early assessment, strategy
and planning, and responsive adaptation and mitigation strategies could provide a sustainable and resilient solution to climate
change challenges. This study first proposes a general framework of SR4 (Sustainability, Resilience, Readiness, and Response Nexus),
as explained in previous sections. The best adaptation choices become difficult with the increasing unpredictability of climate change.
However, to develop a suitable set of policies, programs, and actions for adaptation to climate change impacts, society, individuals,
businesses, and government institutions must agree and act for sustainable, resilient, and responsive thinking, capacity development,
and organizations. The effectiveness of adaptation measures will be increased if they are carried out in collaboration with regional

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and national governments, academic institutions, the commercial and nonprofit sectors, and local communities. Therefore, the cur-
rent study presents the case of Qatar as an SVCA country, its climate change risks, and critical challenges. It suggests adaptive re-
sponse policies, preparations, and actions to effectively respond to potential climate change emergencies in disaster conditions. The
government of Qatar is a significant player globally in mitigating the climate change challenges; however, it is also predicted to be
one of the most impacted territories soon. Considering the physical infrastructure (electricity, water, transportation, and built envi-
ronment) as a critical factor in a country's prosperity, welfare, sustainability, responsiveness to disasters, and resiliency, Qatar's cli-
mate change adaptation approach should keep the resiliency in these services at the highest priority. It is suggested to develop a struc-
tural plan to adequately respond to extreme and sudden climate changes and become resilient by incorporating various layers of soci-
ety, institutions, and government. The study suggests adaptive techniques for preparing for, responding to, and overcoming emer-
gency and disaster situations brought on by climate change, such as rising temperatures and humidity levels, rising sea levels, and
floods. It will contribute significantly to all sectors and ensure a sustainable, resilient, and prosperous future for SVCA countries, as
studied under the example of Qatar.
This study has certain limitations. First, it focuses on the climate change challenges and response needs of Qatar as a small and vul-
nerable area country in the Arabian Gulf. However, it attempted to develop and present a general framework of SR4. However, many
of the specific adaptive response policies and action suggestions are believed to also work in almost all SVAC countries worldwide.
Second, additional and detailed recommendations for specific adaptive response policies and actions could be developed and dis-
cussed, perhaps following a thorough investigation using agent-based and/or system-dynamic modeling and simulations. This would
be recommended for future work to fully understand various climate change challenges and impacts for a given locality and develop
systematic adaptive response action plans for different scenarios with the potential implementation plans, uncertainty, risk, and cost-
benefit analyses. In addition, for future studies, a detailed analysis of the obstacles and challenges involved in implementing these
programs could be a subsequent step, necessitating a thorough investigation tailored explicitly to the state of Qatar and its counter-
parts facing similar challenges in terms of economic, social, and environmental contexts.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments
Open Access funding provided by the Qatar National Library (QNL).

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