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EE424 Circuit I Module 02 Resistive Circuits

Engineering (Batangas State University)

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MODULE 2: RESISTIVE
CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION
An electric circuit can be quite dangerous to build. It is directly connecting the poles of a
voltage source together with a single piece of wire. The reason it is dangerous is that the
magnitude of electric current may be very large in such a short circuit, and the release of energy
may be very dramatic (usually in the form of heat). Usually, electric circuits are constructed in
such a way as to make practical use of that released energy, in as safe a manner as possible.
Circuit analysis, or solving a circuit, means figuring out voltages and currents in each
element. This module contains the overview of resistive circuit analysis with some context for the
various tools and methods we use to analyze circuits. The methods included here are the direct
application of the fundamental laws (Ohm’s Law ang Kirchhoff’s Law) which is a very simple
analysis that works very well for simple circuits.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Describe an electric circuit and Ohm’s Law
2. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the voltages and currents in electric circuits.
3. Analyze single-loop and single-node-pair circuits to calculate the voltages and currents in
an electric circuit.
4. Determine the equivalent resistance of a resistor network where the resistors are in series
and parallel.
5. Calculate the voltages and currents in a simple electric circuit using voltage and current
division.
6. Transform the basic wye resistor network to a delta resistor network, and visa versa.
7. Analyze electric circuits to determine the voltages and currents in electric circuits that
contain dependent sources.
8. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law to determine the voltages and
currents in an electric circuit.

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ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
A simple electric circuit can consist of a battery (or other energy source), a light bulb (or
other device that uses energy), and conducting wires that connect the two terminals of the battery
to the two ends of the light bulb.

Figure 2.0 Basic circuit elements

There are three basic measurements which can be made in an electrical circuit – voltage,
current and resistance.

You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VnnpLaKsqGU

Resistance is an electrical circuit element which opposes the flow of current. Irrespective
of current type, resistance opposes the flow of current. It is represented by the symbol shown in
Fig. 2.1. A resistor is a physical device that can be purchased in certain standard values in an
electronic parts store. These resistors, which find use in a variety of electrical applications, are
normally carbon composition or wirewound. In addition, resistors can be fabricated using thick
oxide or thin metal films for use in hybrid circuits, or they can be diffused in semiconductor
integrated circuits. Some typical discrete resistors are shown in Fig. 2.2

Figure 2.1. Symbol for a resistor

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Figure 2.2. Some practical devices. (1), (2), and (3) are high-power resistors. (4) and (5) are high wattage
fixed resistors. (6) is a high-precision resistor. (7)–(12) are fixed resistors with different power ratings.
(Photo courtesy of Mark Nelms and Jo Ann Loden)

If two different conductors are placed in a circuit, then the amount of current found to flow
in each may not be the same. There are a number of reasons for this:
1. The first is that the ease with which electrons are able to move within the structure of the
material. If the electrons are bound tightly to the crystal lattice, then it will not be easy to pull
them free so that there can be a drift of electrons in a particular direction. In other materials
there are very many free electrons drifting randomly around the lattice. It is these materials
that allow a current to flow more easily.
2. Another factor that affects the electrical resistance of an item is its length. The shorter the
length of material, the lower its overall resistance.
3. The third is the cross-sectional area. The wider the cross-sectional area the lower the
resistance as there is more area through which the current can flow.

RESISTANCE ANALOGY
The concept of resistance is not always easy to understand because it is not possible to
visibly see the quantities involved: voltage, current and resistance itself are all rather invisible
quantities to the naked eye, although they can be detected and measured in a variety of ways.
One analogy that helps introduce the concept of resistance is that of a water tank with a
pipe leading down from it. Whilst we don't want to take the analogy too far it does help to explain
the basic concept.

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Figure 2.3 Analogy of a water tank and pipe to illustrate the concept of resistance

In this analogy, the water pressure caused but the height of the water is analogous to the
voltage, the flow of water is analogous to the current, and the restriction of the water flow caused
by the pipe is analogous to the resistance.

Figure 2.4 Adding a tap to reduce water flow (increasing resistance)

It can be seen that if the pipe was narrowed, or a tap added, the water flow would be
further restricted and less water would flow. This would be analogous to increasing the resistance
in in an electrical circuit, and this would reduce the current flow.

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Figure 2.5 Simple circuit

In a simple circuit comprising of a battery or voltage source and a resistor, then assuming
the connecting wires have no resistance, then the higher the resistance the less the current that
will flow.
The tap in the analogy of the water system corresponds to changing the resistance of the
resistor. When the tap is off, then this is equivalent to a switch stopping any current flow into e
electrical circuit.

RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

Provided that the dimensions (length and cross sectional area) of any conductor do not
change, its resistance will remain the same. If two conductors of exactly the same dimensions
have a different resistance, they must be made of different materials.
One way to describe a material (any material) is by its resistivity. This is the amount of
resistance present in a piece of the material OF STANDARD DIMENSIONS. Every material can
be defined in this way. The resistivity of a material is defined as the resistance of a piece of
material having a length of one metre and a cross sectional area of one square metre (i.e. a cube
of material one metre square). The resistivity of the material being the resistance across opposite
faces of this standard cube.
Resistivity is given the symbol 𝜌. This is a lower-case Greek letter r (called rho) and is
measured in a unit called the OHM METER, written 𝛺 • 𝑚 . (Note: this is not the same as
ohms/metre or ohms per metre)

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So the resistance of any conductor can be found by relating the three factors;
Length:= L Cross Sectional Area: = A Resistivity: = ρ

Figure 2.7 Resistance

So, to find the resistance of any conductor, providing that its dimensions and its resistivity
are known, the formula is given by:

𝝆𝑳 𝝆𝑽 𝝆𝑳𝟐
𝑹= = 𝟐=
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨

Where: 𝜌 is the resistivity, in 𝛺 − 𝐶𝑀/𝑓𝑡

L is the length of the conductor, in 𝑚, 𝑐𝑚, 𝑓𝑡
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor, in 𝐶𝑀
V is the volume of the conductor

Table 2.1 Resistivity of Common Elements at 20℃.

Material ρ (Ω – CM / ft.) 𝑇(℃) 𝛼 𝑎𝑡 20℃

Silver 9.9 243 0.0038

Copper, Annealed 10.37 234.5 0.00393

Aluminum 17 236 0.0039

Tungsten 33 202 0.0045

Zinc 36 250 0.0037

It can be seen from the above list that the resistivity of insulators is much higher than that
of conductors.

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Cross – sectional Area

1. When the conductor has a circular cross
section, the area of a circle can be found by
using the formula:

𝑨 = 𝒅𝟐 or 𝑨 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐

2. If the cross section of the conductor is square

or rectangular, the cross-sectional area of the
conductor can still be found by simply
multiplying the width by the height.

Most conductors, found in cables etc. are circular in cross section.

EXAMPLE 2.1
Using the given particulars, calculate the resistances of the following conductors at 20℃.
a. Material – Copper
Length- 1000 ft.
CM – 3220 circular mils.
Solution:
𝐿 1000 𝑓𝑡.
𝑅=𝜌 = (10.37 𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀/𝑓𝑡. ) ( ) = 3.2205Ω
𝐴 3220 𝐶𝑀

b. Material – Aluminum
Length - 4 miles
diameter – 162 mils.
Solution:
5280 𝑓𝑡
Length = (4 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠) ( ) = 21, 120 𝑓𝑡
1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒
𝐿 21, 120 𝑓𝑡
𝑅=𝜌 = (17𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀 / 𝑓𝑡. ) ( )
𝐴 (162 𝑚𝑖𝑙)2

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c. Material – Advance
Length – 486 in
diameter – 0.0159 in

Solution:
1 𝑓𝑡
Length= (486 𝑖𝑛) ( ) = 40.5 𝑓𝑡
12 𝑖𝑛

1 𝑚𝑖𝑙
Diameter = (0.0159 𝑖𝑛) ( ) = 15.9 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑠
0.001 𝑖𝑛

𝐿 40.5 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 = 𝜌 = (294𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀 / 𝑓𝑡. ) ( )= 47.0986 𝛺
𝐴 15.9 𝑚𝑖𝑙2

EXAMPLE 2.2
What kind of material is used in the construction of a 39 Ω rheostat (a variable resistor) if the wire
has a length of 266 ft. and a diameter of 22.6 mils.

Solution:

𝐿 1000 𝑓𝑡.
𝑅=𝜌 = (10.37 𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀/𝑓𝑡. ) ( )
𝐴 3220 𝐶𝑀
𝑅𝐴 (39 𝛺) (22.6)2
𝜌= = ( ) ,
𝐿 266 𝑓𝑡.

𝜌 = 74. 8859𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀 / 𝑓𝑡.

𝜌 = 75 𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀 / 𝑓𝑡.

EXAMPLE 2.3
The heating unit for an electric iron has a resistor of 12 Ω. If the cross - sectional area of the
material is rectangular, 0.0045 in x 0.125 in, and its total length is 13 ft., determine the resistivity
of the material used.

Solution:

1 𝑚𝑖𝑙 2
𝐴 = (0.0045 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 0.125 𝑖𝑛) 𝑥 ( ) = 562.5
0.001 𝑚𝑖𝑙
𝑅𝐴 (12 𝛺)( 562.5) 4/𝜋)
𝜌= = = 661.1051 𝛺 – 𝐶𝑀 / 𝑓𝑡.
𝐿 13 𝑓𝑡.

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LEARNING ASSESSMENT

1. How many circular mils does a round copper rod of 0.25 inch diameter has?

2. What is the size in square millimeter (mm2) is the cable of 250 MCM size?

3. A copper rod of 10 m long has a diameter with one inch. If the resistivity of copper is 10.371
ohms circular – mil per foot, what is the resistance?

4. Determine the resistance of a bus bar of copper if the length is 10 meters long and the
cross section is a 4 x 4 cm. the resistivity is 1.724 𝜇𝛺 − 𝑐𝑚.

5. A copper tubing has an outside diameter of 1.72 cm and an inside diameter of 0.9525 cm.
determine the resistance of a 20 kilometer of the tubing with a resistivity is equal
to 1.72 𝑥 10−8 𝛺 − 𝑚.

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TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON RESISTANCE

Although the resistance of a conductor changes with the size of the conductor (e.g. thicker
wires have less resistance to current flow than thinner wires), the resistance of a conductor also
changes with changing temperature. This may be expected to happen because, as temperature
changes, the dimensions of the conductor will change as it expands or contracts.
However, materials that are classed as CONDUCTORS tend to INCREASE their resistance
with an increase in temperature. INSULATORS however are liable to DECREASE their resistance
with an increase in temperature. Materials used for practical insulators (glass, plastic etc.) only
exhibit a marked drop in their resistance at very high temperatures. They remain good insulators
over all temperatures they are likely to encounter in use.
These changes in resistance cannot therefore be explained by a change in dimensions due
to thermal expansion or contraction. In fact, for a given size of conductor the change in resistance
is due mainly to a change in the resistivity of the material, and is caused by the changing activity
of the atoms that make up the material.

You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SaXggeH-dEo

Temperature and Atomic Structure

The reasons for these changes in resistivity can be explained by considering the flow of
current through the material. The flow of current is actually the movement of electrons from one
atom to another under the influence of an electric field. Electrons are very small negatively
charged particles and will be repelled by a negative electric charge and attracted by a positive
electric charge. Therefore if an electric potential is applied across a conductor (positive at one
end, negative at the other) electrons will "migrate" from atom to atom towards the positive
terminal.
Only some electrons are free to migrate however. Others within each atom are held so
tightly to their particular atom that even an electric field will not dislodge them. The current flowing
in the material is therefore due to the movement of "free electrons" and the number of free
electrons within any material compared with those tightly bound to their atoms is what governs
whether a material is a good conductor (many free electrons) or a good insulator (hardly any free
electrons).

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The effect of heat on the atomic structure of a material is to make the atoms vibrate, and
the higher the temperature the more violently the atoms vibrate.
In a conductor, which already has a large number of free electrons flowing through it, the
vibration of the atoms causes many collisions between the free electrons and the captive
electrons. Each collision uses up some energy from the free electron and is the basic cause of
resistance. The more the atoms jostle around in the material, the more collisions are caused and
hence the greater the resistance to current flow.
In an insulator however, there is a slightly different situation. There are so few free electrons
that hardly any current can flow. Almost all the electrons are tightly bound within their particular
atom. Heating an insulating material vibrates the atoms, and if heated sufficiently, the atoms
vibrate violently enough to actually shake some of their captive electrons free, creating free
electrons to become carriers of current. Therefore at high temperatures the resistance of an
insulator can fall, and in some insulating materials, quite dramatically.
In a material where the resistance INCREASES with an increase in temperature, the
material is said to have a POSITIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.
When resistance FALLS with an increase in temperature, the material is said to have a
NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT.
In general, conductors have a POSITIVE temperature coefficient, whilst (at high
temperatures) insulators have a NEGATIVE temperature coefficient.
Different materials within either group have different temperature coefficients. Materials
chosen for the construction of the resistors used in electronic circuits are carefully selected
conductors that have a very low positive temperature coefficient. In use, resistors made from such
materials will have only very slight increases in resistivity, and therefore their resistance. Using
such materials for the manufacture of resistors creates components whose value changes only
slightly over a given range of temperature.
Materials chosen as insulators will have a very low NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT over their working range of temperature.
The temperature-resistance effect is given by the equation;

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Figure 2.8 Temperature-resistance effect

𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + ∝𝒕𝟏 (∆)]

Where: 𝑅2 and 𝑅1 are resistance at temperature 𝑇2 and 𝑇1

∆ = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 , change in temperature
1
∝𝑡1 = , the temperature coefficient of resistance
𝑇 + 𝑡1

EXAMPLE 2.4
The tungsten filament in an incandescent lamp has a resistance of 9.8 ohm at a room temperature
of 20 ℃ and a resistance of 132 ohm at normal operating temperature. Calculate the temperature
of the heated filament. From the table, ∝20 ℃ = 0.0045/℃ .

Solution
𝑅2 = 𝑅1 [1 + ∝𝑡1 (∆)]

𝑅𝑡2 = 𝑅20 ℃ [1 + ∝20 ℃ ( 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )]

132 𝛺 = 9.8 𝛺 [1 + 0.0045/℃ ( 𝑡2 − 20)]

𝑡2 = 2790.98 ℃

EXAMPLE 2.5
The copper field winding of an electric machine has a resistance of 46 ohm at a
temperature of 22 ℃. What will be its resistance at temperature of 75 ℃?
From the table of coefficients, ∝20 ℃= 0.00393/℃ .

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Solution:

𝑅75 ℃ = 𝑅22 ℃ [1 + ∝22 ℃ ( 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )]

1
∝20 ℃ =
[𝑇] + 20 ℃
1
0.00393/℃ = [𝑇] + 20 ℃
; [𝑇] = 234.4529 ℃

1
∝20 ℃ =
[𝑇] + 22 ℃
1
0.00393/℃ = [𝑇] + 22 ℃
; [𝑇] = 232.4529 ℃

1
∝22 ℃ = [234.4529 ℃] + 22 ℃
; ∝22 ℃ = 3.8994 𝑥 10−3 /℃

𝑅75 ℃ = 46 [1 + 3.8994 𝑥 10−3 /℃ ( 75 − 22)]

𝑅75 ℃ = 55.50674 𝛺

LEARNING ASSESSMENT

1. The resistance of a given electric device is 46 ohm at 25 ℃. If the temperature coefficient of

resistance of the material is 0.0045 at 20, determine the temperature of the device when its
resistance is 92 ohm?

2. The resistance of a transformer winding is 0.25 ohm at 25 ℃. When operating at full load, the
temperature of the windings is 75 ℃. The temperature coefficient of the resistant of copper at
0 ℃ is 4.27 x 10 – 3 per degree centigrade. What is the winding resistance at full load?

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OHM’S LAW
In 1828, George Simon Ohm, a German physicist, derived a relationship between
electric current and potential difference. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
As a result of his pioneering work, the term Ohm was adopted as the unit of
electrical resistance.

Ohm’s law states that “the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature and
other physical conditions remain unchanged.” The resistance, measured in ohms, is the constant
of proportionality between the voltage and current.

The mathematical relationship of Ohm’s law is illustrated by the equation

𝝊 (𝒕) = 𝑹 𝒊(𝒕), where 𝑹 ≧ 𝟎

In an electric circuit, shown in Fig. 2.1, shows that the charge moves from the higher to the lower
potential as it passes through the resistor. The energy is absorbed is dissipated by the resistor in
the form of heat. The rate of energy dissipated in the instantaneous power, given by the equation;

𝒑(𝒕) = 𝝊 (𝒕)𝒊(𝒕)

Which, using equation (2.1), can be written as;

𝒗𝟐 (𝒕)
𝟐(
𝒑(𝒕) = 𝑹𝒊 𝒕) =
𝑹
The equation illustrates that the power is a nonlinear function of either current or voltage and that
is always a positive quantity

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EXAMPLE 2.6
Considering the circuit in Figure 2.1 with supply voltage of 12v and resistance of 2k,
determine the current and the power absorbed by the resistor.
Solution
Using Ohm’s Law equation, we find the current to be
𝑉 12
𝐼= = = 6𝑚𝐴
𝑅 2𝑘

And the power absorbed by the resistor is given by;

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 12 ∗ 6𝑚𝐴 = 0.072𝑊

𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 = (6𝑚𝐴)2 ∗ 2𝑘 = 0.072𝑊

𝑉 2 122
𝑃 = = = 0.072𝑊
𝑅 2𝑘

EXAMPLE 2.7
A 200 V lamp has a hot resistance of 400 ohms. The power rating in watts of the lamp is
______.
Solution:
𝑉 2 2002
𝑃= = = 100 𝑊
𝑅 400

EXAMPLE 2.8
A residential house has a lighting load of 1000W and a small appliance load of 2000W. If
they are used at the same time, what will be the monthly bill at an energy cost of Php 0.40 per
kWh?
Solution
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡 = ((1𝑘𝑊 + 2𝑘𝑊)(720ℎ𝑟𝑠)) = 2160𝑘𝑊ℎ

0.40
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 2160 𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑃ℎ𝑝 864
𝑘𝑊ℎ

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NODE, BRANCHES AND LOOPS

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, there are
basic terms and concepts of network topology to be understood. To differentiate between a circuit
and a network, we may regard a

Network as an interconnection of elements or devices

whereas a

Circuit is a network providing one or more closed paths

The convention, when addressing network topology, is to use the word network rather
than circuit. This is done even though the words network and circuit mean the same thing when
used in this context. In network topology, we study the properties relating to the placement of
elements in the network and the geometric configuration of the network. Such elements include
branches, nodes, and loops.

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor

In other words, a branch represents any two-

terminal element. The circuit has five branches,
namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A
current source, and the three resistors

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches

A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If

a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes,
the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in the
figure has three nodes a, b, and c. The three points that
form node b are connected by perfectly conducting wires
and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true
of the four points forming node c.

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A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a

node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node more than
once. A loop is said to be independent if it contains a
branch which is not in any other loop. Independent loops
or paths result in independent sets of equations. For
example, the closed path bcb contains 3-Ω resistor and a 2A current source.

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KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

In 1845, German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff first described two laws that became
central to electrical engineering- the Kirchhoff's Current Law (also known as
Kirchhoff's Junction Law, and Kirchhoff's First Law) and the Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law.

These laws are extremely useful in real life because they describe the relation of values of
currents that flow through a junction point and voltages in an electrical circuit loop. They describe
how electrical current flows in all of the billions of electric appliances and devices, as well as
throughout homes and businesses, that are in use continually on Earth.

You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0gRtVz4XrZM

KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW

This first law states that the algebraic sum of the currents entering any node is zero. In
mathematical form the law appears as
𝑵

∑ 𝒊𝒋 (𝒕) = 𝟎
𝒋=𝟏

where 𝑖𝑗 (𝑡) is the 𝑗𝑡ℎ current entering the node through branch 𝑗 and 𝑁 is the number of branches
connected to the node.

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To understand the use of this law, consider node 3 shown in the figure;

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) to this node,

𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟓 − 𝒊 𝟒 − 𝒊 𝟕 = 𝟎

We have assumed that the algebraic signs of the

currents entering the node are positive and,
therefore, that the signs of the currents leaving the
node are negative.

Alternately, we can write the equation as

𝒊𝟐 + 𝒊𝟓 = 𝒊𝟒 + 𝒊𝟕

which states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node. Both of these italicized expressions are alternative forms of Kirchhoff’s current
law.

EXAMPLE 2.9
Considering the circuit diagram shown, find the unknown current in the network.
Solution:
Assuming that the currents leaving a junction is
positive.

By KCL
at node 1
𝐼1 − 60𝑚𝐴 − 20𝑚𝐴 = 0

at node 2
𝐼4 + 𝐼1 + 𝐼6 = 0

at node 3
60𝑚𝐴 + 𝐼5 − 𝐼4 − 40𝑚𝐴 = 0

at node 4
30𝑚𝐴 + 20𝑚𝐴 − 𝐼5 = 0

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The first equation yields 𝐼1 and the last equation yields 𝐼5. Knowing 𝐼5, we can immediately
obtain 𝐼4 from the third equation. Then the values of 𝐼1 and 𝐼4 yield the value of 𝐼6 from the second
equation. The results are 𝐼1 = 80 𝑚𝐴, 𝐼4 = 70 𝑚𝐴, 𝐼5 = 50 𝑚𝐴, and 𝐼6 = −10 𝑚𝐴.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

1. Given the networks shown, find Answer:

I1 = -50mA
a. I1 in network (a); and
IT = 70mA
b. IT in network (b)

2. Given the network shown, find Answer:

I1 = 6mA
a. I1 in network in (a); and I1 = 8mA and
I2 = 5mA
b. I1 and I2 in circuit (b)

Answer:
ix = 4mA
3. Find the current ix in the circuit given.
ix = 12mA

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KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law describes the distribution of electrical voltage within a loop, or
closed conducting path, of an electrical circuit. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law states that: the algebraic
sum of the voltage (potential) differences in any loop must equal zero. The voltage differences
include those associated with electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and resistive elements, such as
resistors, power sources (batteries, for example) or devices—lamps, televisions, and blenders—
plugged into the circuit. Picture this as the voltage rising and falling as you proceed around any
of the individual loops in the circuit.
Using the Voltage Rule requires some sign conventions, which aren't necessarily as clear
as those in the Current Rule. Choose a direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) to go along the
loop. When traveling from positive to negative (+ to -) in an EMF (power source), the voltage
drops, so the value is negative. When going from negative to positive (- to +), the voltage goes
up, so the value is positive.
Remember that when traveling around the circuit to apply Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, be sure
you are always going in the same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) to determine whether
a given element represents an increase or decrease in the voltage. If you begin jumping around,
moving in different directions, your equation will be incorrect. When crossing a resistor, the
voltage change is determined by the formula:
𝑽= 𝑰 ∗ 𝑹

where I is the value of the current

R is the resistance of the resistor

Crossing in the same direction as the current means the voltage goes down, so its value
is negative. When crossing a resistor in the direction opposite the current, the voltage value is
positive, so it is increasing.

You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sVeFqlSV4A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BnL_9BYHmVM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gGEmrbURsA

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EXAMPLE 2.10
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. If VR1 and V R2 are known quantities, find VR3.
Solution
By KVL:
+𝑉𝑅1 − 5 + 𝑉𝑅2 − 15 + 𝑉𝑅3 − 30 = 0

𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑅3 = 50 + 15 + 30

Now suppose that VR1 and V R2 are known to be 18V
and 12v, respectively. Then VR3 = 20 V.

EXAMPLE 2.11
Consider the network in the figure. Let us apply KVL to determine the voltage between
two points. Specifically, in terms of the double-subscript notation, find Vae and Vec.

Solution:
The circuit is redrawn in figure b. Since points a and e as well as e and c are not
physically close, the arrow notation is very useful. Our approach to determining the
unknown voltage is to apply KVL with the unknown voltage in the closed path.
Therefore, to determine Vae we can use the path aefa or abcdea. The equations for
the two paths in which Vae is the only unknown are
𝑉𝑎𝑒 + 10 − 24 = 0

and
16 − 12 + 4 + 6 − 𝑉𝑎𝑒 = 0

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Note that both equations yield Vae = 14 V. Even before calculating Vae, we could
calculate Vec using the path cdec or cefabc. However, since Vae is now known, we
can also use the path ceabc. KVL for each of these paths is

4 + 6 + 𝑉𝑒𝑐 = 0

−𝑉𝑒𝑐 + 10 − 24 + 16 − 12 = 0

and
−𝑉𝑒𝑐 − 𝑉𝑎 + 16 − 12 = 0

each of these equations yields

𝑉𝑒𝑐 = −10 𝑉

EXAMPLE 2.12
Given the network containing a dependent source, write the KVL equations for the two
closed paths abda and bcdb.

The two KVL equations are

𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑅2 − 𝑉𝑆 = 0

20𝑉𝑅1 + 𝑉𝑅3 − 𝑉𝑅2 = 0

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LEARNING ASSESSMENT:

1. Find 𝑉𝑎𝑑 and 𝑉𝑒𝑏 in the network given

ANSWER:
Vad = 26 V;
Veb = 10 V.

2. Find 𝑉𝑏𝑑 in the circuit

ANSWER:
Vbd = 11 V.

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SINGLE LOOP CIRCUITS (OR SERIES CIRCUITS)

A single loop circuit is the simplest circuit with a

single closed path, loop, or elements. Applying KCL
to every node in a single-loop circuit reveals that the
same current flows through all elements. We say
that these elements are connected in series
because they carry the same current. Apply
Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Ohm’s law to the circuit
will determine various quantities in the circuit.

The circuit consists of an independent voltage source that is in series with two resistors.
Assuming that the current flows in a clockwise direction. If this assumption is correct, the solution
of the equations that yields the current will produce a positive value. If the current is actually
flowing in the opposite direction, the value of the current variable will simply be negative, indicating
that the current is flowing in a direction opposite to that assumed.

The following are the rules governing the single loop circuit (or series circuit);

1. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances:
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + . . . 𝑅𝑛
2. Components in a series circuit share the same current: 𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = . . . 𝐼𝑛
3. Total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2

In a simple single loop circuit, the source voltage is divided between the resistors R1 and
R2 in direction proportion to their resistances. It is called voltage divider, and can be calculated
by:

In rule no. 3,
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

However, by Ohm’s law

𝑉1 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 and 𝑉2 = 𝐼2 𝑅2

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Therefore,
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼2 𝑅2

But, rule no. 2 gives 𝐼1 = 𝐼2

Solving the equation for 𝐼1 yields

𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝐼1 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Knowing the current, the voltage across each resistor are:

𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝑣
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑅2
Similarly, 𝑉2 = 𝑣
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

EXAMPLE 2.13
Consider the circuit below. the single loop circuit consists of two resistors, a variable
resistor R1 (such as the volume control of a radio or television set) and resistor R 2. Assuming VS
= 9 V, R1 = 90 kΩ, and R2 = 30 kΩ, examine the change in both the voltage across R 2 and the
power absorbed in this resistor as R1 is changed from 90 kΩ to 15 kΩ.

Voltage V2 can be obtained directly by,

𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑆

30𝑘
𝑉2 = (9) = 2.25 V
90𝑘 + 30𝑘

Suppose the that variable resistor change from 90 kΩ to 15 kΩ. Then

30𝑘
𝑉2 = (9) = 6𝑉
15𝑘 + 30𝑘

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While the power absorbed by resistor R2 under two conditions, R 1 = 90 kΩ and R1 = 5

kΩ.
For the case R1 = 90 kΩ,
9 2
𝑃2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅2 = ( ) (30𝑘) = 0.169 𝑚𝑊
120𝑘

For the case R1 = 15 kΩ,

9 2
𝑃2 = 𝐼 2 𝑅2 = ( ) (30𝑘) = 1.2 𝑚𝑊
45𝑘

The current in the first case is 75 μA, and in the second case it is 200 μA. Since the power
absorbed is a function of the square of the current, the power absorbed in the two cases is quite
different.

EXAMPLE 2.14
Consider the circuit below, which is an approximation of a high-voltage dc transmission
facility. Assume that the bottom portion of the transmission line is a perfect conductor. The load
can be represented by a resistor of value 183.5 Ω, determine both the power delivered to the load
and the power losses in the line.

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Solution
The equivalent circuit of the high voltage dc facility is shown below,

Using voltage division, the load voltage is

183.5
𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (400𝑘)
183.5 + 16.5

𝑉𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 367𝑘𝑉

The input power is 800 MW and the power transmitted to the load is
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 734𝑀𝑊

Therefore, the power loss in the transmission line is

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 66𝑀𝑊

Since power is proportional to the square of the current, there would be a large increase in the
power loss in the line and, therefore, the efficiency of the facility would decrease substantially.
That is why, in general, we transmit power at high voltage and low current.

SINGLE-NODE PAIR CIRCUITS (PARALLEL CIRCUITS)

An important circuit is the single-node-pair circuit. The

first principle to understand about parallel circuits is
that the voltage is equal across all components in the
circuit. This is because there are only two sets of
electrically common points in a parallel circuit, and the
voltage measured between sets of common points
must always be the same at any given time.

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The rules governing parallel circuit are the following;

1. Components in a parallel circuit share the same voltage: 𝑉𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛
2. Total resistance in a parallel circuit is less than any of the individual resistances:
1
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 =
1 1 1
+ +⋯+
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

3. Total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents:
𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + ⋯ + 𝐼𝑛

A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all the branches in a
parallel circuit, and the voltage remains the same across them. The current division rule
determines the current across the circuit resistance, and can be calculated as follows:

From Ohm’s Law,

𝑣 = 𝑖1 𝑅1 = 𝑖2 𝑅2

or
𝑣 𝑣
𝑖1 = , 𝑖2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2

Applying KCL at node a gives the total current 𝑖 is

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2

Substituting the equations, 𝑖 yields

𝑣 𝑣
𝑖= +
𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 𝑣
𝑖 = 𝑣( + )=
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞

Where

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

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Combining equations yields,

𝑖 𝑅2 𝑖 𝑅1
𝑖1 = and 𝑖2 =
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2

This shows that the total current 𝑖 is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their
resistances. This is known as the principle of current division.

You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1a629-Ryjc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMel2p4ip2g

EXAMPLE 2.15.
Find 𝑖0 and 𝑣0 in the circuit shown. Calculate the power dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor.

The 6-Ω and 3-Ω resistors are in parallel, so their

combined resistance is

6∗3
6𝛺 ∥ 3𝛺 = = 2Ω
6+3

Thus, our circuit reduces to

Notice that 𝑣0 is not affected by the combination of the resistors because the resistors are
in parallel and therefore have the same voltage 𝑣0 . Applying Ohm’s law,

12
𝑖= = 2𝐴
4+2

and hence, 𝑣0 = 2𝑖 = 2 ∗ 2 = 4𝑉.

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Also, voltage 𝑣0 can be solve using voltage division;

2
𝑣0 = (12) = 4𝑉
4+2

To solve for 𝑖0 , Ohm’s law or current division can be used.

4
By Ohm’s Law: 𝑣0 = 3𝑖0 ; 𝑖0 = 𝐴
3

6 2 4
By current division: 𝑖0 = 𝑖 = (2) = 𝐴
6+3 3 3

Therefore, the power dissipated in the 3-Ω resistor is

4
𝑝0 = 𝑖0 𝑣0 = ∗ 4 = 5.33𝑊
3

EXAMPLE 2.16
Find Req in the circuit below.

To get the Req, combine resistors in series and parallel.

The 6Ω and 3Ω resistors are in parallel, so their
equivalent resistance is
6∗3
6𝛺 ∥ 3𝛺 = = 2Ω
6+3

(The symbol ∥ is used to indicate a parallel combination.) Also, the 1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors are in
series; hence their equivalent resistance is
1𝛺 + 5𝛺 = 6𝛺

Thus, the circuit is reduced to

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The two 2-resistors are in series, that resulted to 4Ω. The equivalent 4Ω resistor is now in
parallel with the 6Ω resistor. The equivalent resistance is

4∗6
4𝛺 ∥ 6𝛺 = = 2.4𝛺
4+6

The equivalent circuit now is represented by

Thus, Req is equal to the series combination of 4Ω, 8Ω, and 2. 4Ω

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 8 + 2.4 = 14.4 Ω

EXAMPLE 2.17
Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in
the circuit

Solution
The 3-Ω and 6-Ω resistors are in parallel because they are connected to the same two
nodes c and b. Their combined resistance is

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3∗6
3𝛺 ∥ 6𝛺 = = 2𝛺
3+6

Similarly, the 12-Ω and 4-Ω resistors are in parallel since they are connected to the
same two nodes d and b. Hence
12 ∗ 4
12𝛺 ∥ 4𝛺 = = 3𝛺
12 + 4

Also the 1-Ω and 5-Ω resistors are in series; hence, their equivalent resistance is
1𝛺 + 5𝛺 = 6𝛺

With these three combinations, we can replace the original

circuit with that in figure (a). In figure (a), 3-Ω in parallel
with 6-Ω gives 2-Ω. This 2-Ω equivalent resistance is now
in series with the 1-Ω resistance to give a combined
resistance of
1𝛺 + 2𝛺 = 3𝛺

Thus, equivalent circuit is given in figure (b). In figure (b),

2-Ω and 3-Ω resistors are in parallel,
3∗2
3𝛺 ∥ 2𝛺 = = 1.2𝛺
3+2

This 1.2-Ω resistor is in series with the 10-Ω resistor, so that 𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 1.2𝛺 + 10𝛺 = 11.2𝛺

LEARNING ASSESSMENT

DIRECTION: Solve the following problems.

1. Find I and Vbd

in the circuit ANSWER:
I = −0.05 mA;
Vbd = 10 V.

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2. Find the currents I1 and I2 and the power absorbed by the 40-kΩ resistor in the network

ANSWER:
I1 = 12 mA,
I2 = −4 mA, and
P40 kΩ = 5.76 W.

3. Find the power absorbed by the 6-kΩ resistor in the network

ANSWER:
P = 2.67 mW

4. Find the equivalent resistance at the terminals A-B in the network

ANSWER:
RAB = 22 kΩ

5. Find the equivalent resistance at the terminals A-B in the circuit

ANSWER:
RAB = 3 kΩ

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WYE-DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the

resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. For
example, consider the bridge circuit shown. The
combination of branch R6 and branch R5 is not series
since a node is between them. Also, combination of
branch R1 through R6 are neither in series nor in
parallel.

Many circuits of the type can be simplified by using three-terminal equivalent networks.
These are the wye (Y) or tee (T) network shown figure (a) and the delta () or pi (π) network
shown in figure (b). These networks occur by themselves or as part of a larger network. They are
used in three-phase networks, electrical filters, and matching networks.

(a)

(b)

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DELTA TO WYE CONVERSION:

Considering the network above, each resistor in the

Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent  branches, divided by the sum of the
three  resistors.
𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐
𝑅1 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑎
𝑅2 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑎
𝑅3 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏 +𝑅𝑐

WYE TO DELTA CONVERSION

The circuit above shows that each resistor in the  network is the sum of all possible products of
Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by the
opposite Y resistor.

𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑎 =
𝑅1

𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑏 =
𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅𝑐 =
𝑅3

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You could go to the following websites to see further explanation of the topic.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-Xy2_3tIUE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQYRc9UibKk&pbjreload=101
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kLjrS4krO2E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0-nHbGQZqo

EXAMPLE 2.18
Obtain the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑎𝑏 for the circuit shown, and use it to find current 𝑖.

Solution:
In this circuit, there are two Y networks and one 
network. Transforming just one of these will
simplify the circuit. If we convert the Y network
comprising the 5-Ω, 10-Ω, and 20-Ω resistors, we
may select

𝑅1 = 10Ω , 𝑅2 = 20Ω , 𝑅3 = 5Ω

Thus, the equations are,

𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 (10 ∗ 20) + (20 ∗ 5) + (5 ∗ 10)
𝑅𝑎 = = = 35Ω
𝑅1 10

𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 (10 ∗ 20) + (20 ∗ 5) + (5 ∗ 10)

𝑅𝑏 = = = 17.5Ω
𝑅2 20

𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 (10 ∗ 20) + (20 ∗ 5) + (5 ∗ 10)

𝑅𝑐 = = = 70Ω
𝑅3 5

With the Y converted to , the equivalent circuit (with the voltage source removed for now) is

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Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain

70 ∗ 30
70 ∥ 30 = = 21Ω
70 + 30

12.5 ∗ 17.5
12.5 ∥ 17.5 = = 7.2917Ω
12.5 + 17.5

15 ∗ 35
15 ∥ 35 = = 10.5Ω
15 + 35

So that the equivalent circuit is,

Hence, we find
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = (7.292 + 10.5) ∥ 21

17.792 ∗ 21
𝑅𝑎𝑏 = = 9.632Ω
17.792 + 21

Then,
𝑣𝑠 120
𝑖= = = 12.458𝐴
𝑅𝑎𝑏 9.632

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M o d u l e 2 | 77

CIRCUITS WITH DEPENDENT SOURCES

As discussed in the previous module (Module 1), the dependent sources generate a
voltage or current that is determined by a voltage or current at a specified location in the circuit.
These sources are very important because they are an integral part of the mathematical models
used to describe the behavior of many electronic circuit elements.

Problem-Solving Strategy for solving Circuits with dependent sources

1. When writing the KVL and/or KCL equations for the network, treat the dependent source
as though it were an independent source.
2. Write the equation that specifies the relationship of the dependent source to the
controlling parameter.
3. Solve the equations for the unknowns. Be sure that the number of linearly independent
equations matches the number of unknowns.

EXAMPLE 2.19
Determine the voltage Vo in the circuit

Solution:
By KVL , we obtain
−12𝑉 + 3𝑘𝛺 𝐼1 − 𝑉𝐴 + 5𝑘𝐼1 = 0

Where, 𝑉𝐴 = 2000𝐼1

and the units of the multiplier, 2000, are ohms. Solving these equations yields

𝐼1 = 2𝑚𝐴

Then, 𝑉0 = 5𝑘𝛺 ∗ 𝐼1 = 10𝑉

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M o d u l e 2 | 78

EXAMPLE 2.20
The network shown contains a voltage-controlled voltage source. Find 𝑉𝑜

Solution:
Applying KVL to this network yields
−12 + 3𝑘𝐼 + 2𝑉𝑜 + 1𝑘𝐼 = 0

where
𝑉𝑜 = 1𝑘𝐼

Hence, the KVL equation can be written as

−12 + 3𝑘𝐼 + 2𝑘𝐼 + 1𝑘𝐼 = 0

or
𝐼 = 2 𝑚𝐴

Therefore,
𝑉𝑜 = 1𝑘𝐼 = 2 𝑉

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