Visual Notation: An Image Making Approach

for Communication in Illustration Education

Jo Mignone, University of South Australia, Australia
David Blaiklock, University of South Australia, Australia

Abstract: Visual notation is a practice-based education approach that facilitates and incorporates creative
thinking, visual literacy, drawing skill and communication processes in relation to Illustration. In line with
experiential design studio teaching and a didactic lecture format, visual notation enables a form of thinking and
deeply engaging conceptual reflection tool which enhances visualization skills, communication and knowledge
of image making. Similar to other design disciplines, an Illustration practitioner utilizes image making processes
such as visual notation that require rapid conceptual development, individual aesthetic, succinct production
methods and effective communication. This paper describes an effective pedagogic approach applied within an
Illustration education context which facilitates deeper student engagement with discipline specific knowledge.

Keywords: Education, Interpretation, Viewers, Visual Notation, Illustration, Drawing

Introduction

T his article frames the process of visual notation as a form of thinking utilized
within Illustration professional practice which can facilitate creative thinking,
visual literacy and communication for students. Through a case study focused on
Illustration studio courses at the University of South Australia this article demonstrates a
teaching approach through which students achieve deeper critical engagement and
interpretation of lecture content and discipline specific knowledge.
Within Illustration education, image making technical skills and associated design theory
are predominately developed through studio based experiential learning which simulates
professional practice incorporating specific process strategies or design processes (Cross
2011). Image development and production is conveyed to students through practice, the
Illustration practitioner’s design process, which utilizes “reflection” (Schon 1995, 49),
described by Thompson and Thompson (2008) as a multi-perspective cyclic approach,
questions assumptions and incorporates influences, experiences and knowledge relevant
to the individual practitioner to resolve specific project requirements. Illustration design
processes are facilitated by drawing, combining thinking and making processes such as
visual notation, described as sketching, brainstorming and spider diagrams to
communicate ideas and solutions for image making (Wigan 2006, Male 2007, Zeegen
2005).
Visual notation as a practice-based education approach aims to develop student
expertise in Illustration, specifically in creative thinking, visual literacy, drawing skill and
communication processes. Reflecting professional practice, visual notation is introduced
through the sketch book/journal/visual diary to create a dialogue between the Illustration
student, their teachers, peers and ultimately clients. Visual notation has been adapted as a
primary teaching tool within Illustration education at the University of South Australia, as
it encourages reflective practice in image making and can reveal a student’s level of
technical skill, critical thinking and visual literacy.
Through the use of a sketch book, visual notation fosters an illustrator’s skills in
drawing and illustrative media, enabling the practice and refinement of a distinct “visual
vocabulary” (Male 2007, 42). Visual Notation is an approach that supports the
documentation of ideas and observations specific to an individual’s perception and
experience of the world as a form of self-dialogue. This dialogue may manifest as literal,
metaphorical and imaginative drawings which contributes to and develops an illustrator’s
visual literacy, defining them in the marketplace through a unique visual style and
language.
Visual notation is stigmatized by the belief that any form of drawing requires a high
level of skill before it can be regarded as a valid and valuable form of communication.
This assumption and the emphasis on digital interaction impedes the use of analogue
drawing to convey, develop or communicate information (Crowe and Laseau 2011). The
rising use of digital technology, the internet, ease of access to photography, images and
graphics has impacted on the use of drawing and visual notation as a means of
communication (Crowe and Laseau 2011). Digital technology is shaping human
communication through interface with devices such as mobile phones, smart televisions,
virtual reality, tablets, computers (Campbell and Park 2008). Moving and static photos,
video, sound and text, typing and swiping are preferred over mark making, writing,
drawing and visual notation skills. This impact is most obvious throughout art and design
tertiary education in which emphasis on drawing as a primary skill for communication,
idea generation and conceptual development has declined in preference of digital literacy
and screen communication. The declining use of drawing is further exacerbated by the
introduction, integration and emphasis of digital devices and online delivery in art and
design pedagogy throughout the primary and high school education systems in Australia.

Illustration Expertise
‘Expertise’ in Illustration practice, similar to other creative, scientific and social
domains, is to possess ‘skill’, a body of knowledge, language and set of processes specific
to the professional practice. Illustration expertise has been acknowledged as a distinct
profession since the late nineteenth century, with the advent of mass communication print
mediums, books, magazines and newspapers. Illustration is a creative discipline that can
be categorized through the practice of drawing, Illustrative media technical skills, modes
of practice and a variety of commercial enterprise (Arisman 2006, Male 2007) described
as “reportage, medical, historical reconstruction, information illustration” (Brazell and
Davies 2014, 48). Predominately the Illustrator’s role as professional practitioner is to
develop images which offer a “unique perspective on events and situations” (Brazell and
Davies 2014, 48), providing visual commentary, a sense of place or which convey
information and narrative.
Illustration expertise emphasizes communication and technical image making skills,
exemplified by (Arisman 2006, Wigan 2008, Zeegen 2005), ‘drawing’, which is a core
component of contemporary Illustration practice. Fundamental to Illustration expertise,
drawing is regarded an essential skill utilized to record, represent, convey and portray
information ranging from conceptual, imaginary, technical and representational,
depending on the “intent” of practitioner (Frazier 2003, 48). However, whilst
commentators agree that drawing expertise is critical to Illustration professional practice,
the level of technical drawing expertise required by a practitioner is not clear, Arisman
(2006), Male (2007) and Zeegen (2005) argue that an Illustrator’s drawing expertise, often
categorized as ‘draftsmanship’ must include facsimile figurative skill which is used to
describe and plan image form, composition, perspective, texture and proportion whilst
Wigan (2006) suggests that drawing is only important for visual thinking, to interpret the
world, to visually articulate, communicate thoughts, ideas and emotions and extend the
‘visual vocabulary’ of the practitioner.
Cognitive expertise within Illustration is recognized tacitly through practice,
manifesting through drawing conducted in notebooks, sketchbooks and visual journals,
which are utilized by Illustrators to document visual ideas and experiment with mediums.
Consciously developed by Illustration practitioners this practice-based design process
(Cross 2010) refines an illustrator’s visual literacy which comprises of two identifiable
skills, visual acuity and visual expression, described as drawing, doodling, concept
sketches and visual notation. Visual acuity, the ability to receive and interpret visual
messages and visual expression, developing and sending visual messages is critical as it is
consistently utilized and applied within Illustration professional practice throughout
project development, client negotiation, collaboration and the image development process
(Crowe and Laseau 2011).
The multiple, contemporary roles of illustrators are grounded in both cognitive
(creative) and visual communication skills as well as technical image making abilities. A
successful expert illustrator is categorized as highly educated, a visually articulate,
socially, culturally and historically aware empathic communicator who possesses a broad
range of practical and intellectual skills (Arisman 2006, Male 2007, Poynor 2010).
Illustration as a field of practice has evolved beyond the service provision of technical
skill into visual communication of concepts and subject matter (Brazell and Davies 2014,
Male 2007). The widespread adoption of digital technology and subsequent proliferation
of free digital images has seen a reappraisal of the value of the illustrator. Contemporary
Illustration practitioners are now regarded as hybrid image makers capable of
transdisciplinary practice whose expertise in image making (visual communication) can
facilitate the application of knowledge in domains beyond Illustration’s traditional fields
of practice (publishing, design and advertising industries) (Grove 2011, Wigan 2006).
Subsequently Illustration education has begun to emphasize practice-based cognition and
critical thinking (visual notation) alongside the development of related technical skills and
knowledge. This shift in Illustration education enables student Illustrators to acquire
transferable skills that are “not only practical, but intellectual and knowledge based”
(Male 2007, 116) including a “command of written and oral language, presentation and
research” (Male 2007, 116).

Visual Notation
Visual notation is a communication process that conditions the way we process
information, allowing the organization and assembly of ideas, thoughts, impressions and
facts (Crowe and Laseau 2011). It is a form of documentation that facilitates reflection in
order to achieve and retain deep understanding of the subject matter. Visual notation is a
method of abbreviating meaning through analytical and critical thinking, expressed as
images and written language that enable description, examination and reflection. As a
form of expertise within Illustration professional practice, visual notation utilizes images,
visual and written elements to communicate ideas, develop imagination and record
insights.
The Illustration practitioner utilizes visual notation, like other design disciplines,
including architecture, landscape architecture, product design, interior architecture and
communication design, which manifests as drawing, sketching and writing throughout the
formative and iterative stages of the design process. It is also utilized across a range of
professions to develop diagrams, record, store and communicate information, including
engineering, science, botany, biology, anthropology and archeology (Crowe and Laseau
2011, Anzai 1991).
Specific to the Illustration field, visual notation is an essential communication skill
within professional practice. As a process of communication, visual notation provides a
succinct approach to image production and professional interaction within Illustration
professional practice (Cross 2010, Rodgers, Green, and McGown 2000). Visual notation
enables multiple project solutions (Cross 2010) referred to as ‘thumbnail drawing’, ‘idea
generation’, ‘concept development’ and can convey understanding between the Illustrator,
project collaborators and their clients. Depending on the context and application of a
commissioned image (Male 2014), illustration projects can be extensive in their
development, requiring extended visual notation in order to convey ideas and content.
These drawings require rapid conceptual development to effectively explore the project
topic and to develop understanding of the problem being investigated.
Drawing
The act of drawing, especially visual notation, is intrinsic for the development of critical
thinking as it effectively sharpens perceptions and enhances the ability to retain and recall
knowledge (Brown 2014, Andrade 2010). Incorporating different levels of drawing, visual
notation is categorized within Illustration practice using terms such as sketching,
doodling, and thumbnails, concept drawings, concept drawings and visual research. As
forms of drawing, visual notation accommodates representation, abstraction and
symbolism. Representation is explained as conveying accurate depictions relevant to the
intended message. Abstraction is a way of distilling and simplifying information to be
conveyed, consequently abstracted drawings often emphasize important or specific
information only. Symbolism, similar to abstraction, employs the combination of images
and generalized marks, forms and shape, which in conjunction can rapidly convey
meaning. Basic drawing skill is required to communicate visual notation; however high-
level drawing skill is not necessary if meaning is conveyed succinctly. A variety of
drawing approaches can be incorporated to visually notate a range of information, the
visual language utilized is dependent on the preference and skill level of the Illustration
practitioner.
The use of rapid drawing to communicate concepts and ideas becomes more
significant than verisimilitude or realistic depiction of form, underscoring the illustrator’s
“ability to use the representational act to reason with on the fly” (Goldschmidt 2003, 72).
Interpretation, selection and recording for the function of communication is highlighted
through this drawing approach. Regular practice of drawing within this communicative
context leads to increased student confidence, as an accepting, inclusive understanding of
drawing expertise is emphasized rather than mastery or hyper-real drawing skill,
reflecting the different understandings suggested in the literature specific to drawing
expertise in Illustration professional practice.

Teaching approach
At the time of writing, visual notation is practiced weekly within four illustration courses
at the University of South Australia, with approximately sixty student participants in the
second and third year of the Bachelor of Design, (Illustration and Animation). Illustration
image making processes and techniques are taught within each studio course, practiced
and refined by students when undertaking course projects within a design process
framework. Visual notation fulfills an auxiliary function within the teaching of Illustration
studio courses at the University of South Australia. As an extension of studio teaching
approaches, devised to supplement course contact hours, visual notation provides students
with an additional learning mechanism outside of the design project structure. This
approach evolved due to gradual changes in tertiary education similar to those
documented within related fields, for instance graphic design education. Waarde and
Vroombout report a number of tensions, namely changes “in funding…organizational
structures…increasing numbers of students, decreasing numbers of staff, and increasing
requirements for qualifications of staff” (Waarde and Vroombout 2012, 23). These
external developments have contributed to a pedagogical shift from a technically
orientated master-apprentice studio teaching approach to an emphasis on applied critical
thinking, utilizing an experiential learning approach that is design process orientated.
Framing the act of visual notation as a form of thinking within the illustration design
process emphasizes creative thinking, communication processes and visual literacy for
students. Visual notation is outlined as an exploration and experimentation used to
visually record an event or information through both image and text. The selection and
interpretation of content through visual notation is non-proscriptive, encouraging analysis
and critical reflection. Students are encouraged to experiment and practice, explore a
range of visual techniques and a range of page structures (layout/composition) with the
aim of developing a personal visual language and system of rapidly recording
information.
Students are required to visually notate the weekly lecture of the primary Illustration
studio course. Within the University of South Australia teaching model, lectures are
defined using a standard lectern model, a formal presentation by an academic staff
member, usually to a large number of students. Important theoretical, contextual,
historical and technical information relating to Illustration practice is delivered to students
through handouts and audio-visual presentations, with limited opportunities for students
to ask questions or discuss the material. It is a teaching approach that has been historically
ineffective within Illustration Studio courses, with lectures suffering from low student
attendance, minimal engagement and poor student retention of critical information
relating to Illustration practice. Utilizing visual notation, the aim is to facilitate a deeper
student critical engagement and retention of the studio lecture content and discipline
specific knowledge through the discrimination and interpretation of presented material. It
is a teaching approach that provides students with an entry point in developing their
individual visual style or language whilst providing a flexible framework of visual
possibilities that can facilitate solutions to studio projects.
The visual notation project connects with Illustration professional practice in keeping
a sketchbook or journal and fits within the tradition of a visual travel diary to record
insights, experiences and information. All of these practice-based approaches require the
critical observation and interpretation of ideas or experience, realized as a multi-entry,
visual output. Furthermore, students undertake further analysis of the original
information, verifying notations, re-transcribing and refining their work, utilizing
reflection-on-action (Schon 1995) including sharing their work through weekly posting to
an online forum.
Visual notation content is most effectively organized within a page structure
(composition or layout), which refers to the positioning of type and images on a page to
create a sense of hierarchy and structure (Barnum 2011). Students are required to produce
at least one double page spread per lecture, a minimum of 297mm x 420mm in dimension.
The project briefing is scaffolded, with examples of different page structures, drawing
methods, and applications of mediums provided for inspiration and guidance. A one-hour
lecture time format necessitates pre-planning; students are required to prepare a title
‘banner’ for each lecture, including the lecture title, lecturer name, day and date, an
approach drawn from the work of Mike Rohde (Rohde 2013). Examples of student visual
notation page structures can be seen in Figures 1, 2 and 3 below.
 Figure 1: Student Social Advocacy Project: Topic-Debt
Source: Ignacio 2017.

Figure 2: Student Lecture Notation: Topic-Conceptual Illustration and Visual Metaphor

Source: McCulloch 2017.
 Figure 3: Student Lecture Notation: Topic-Reference Development
Source: Woods 2017.

The teaching environment is also a consideration as the lectures at the University of

South Australia are delivered in lecture theatres with small desks and close seating.
Students are encouraged to employ transportable mediums, deemed to be effective given
the available physical space. Environmental conditions impact upon the tools, mediums
and size of journal notebook students select for visual notation.
Each week students are required to complete and share their visual notation diary
entry to the online course forum. Sharing reinstates the communicative aspect of visual
notation, reflecting professional practice. Students also use this forum to comment and
reflect upon their own and others’ achievements. Posting entries online allows students to
view each other’s entries, drawing, experimentation, ideas and use of images, including
insights into personal visual language.
The visual notation entries submitted for assessment are analyzed individually for
student’s application of typographic variables and structures organization of information
hierarchy (page layout of text and images), and experimentation with form and/or a range
of drawing materials and processes to generate image driven design possibilities,
appropriate to the lecture content being visually notated. These criteria are aligned to the
visual notation project aims of developing students’ capabilities in creative thinking,
visual literacy, communication processes and drawing skills.

Results
Visual notation is an inclusive teaching and learning approach, a valid method of visual
exploration and beneficial to student engagement. The 'live' nature of creating visual
notation within the lecture develops proficiency in rapid drawing and idea generation, a
critical component of professional illustration expertise.
We observed student participants were more interested in the forum and comments
they received from their peers than the lecturers had anticipated. This was evidenced by
the high number of student comments on the work of their peers in the online forum.
Conversely the lecturers found some student’s motivation to participate in the visual
notation online forum was lower than others. It is surmised that a contributing factor was
the extra processes entailed in digitizing traditional sketchbooks to upload to the forum.
Initially, lecturers regarded the value of the visual notation project as the
development of visual literacy and communication processes, drawing skills and creative
thinking. In addition, students’ enthusiastic approach to the sharing of information
resulted in a more socially constructed method of knowledge production. This project
shifted emphasis from the traditional role of students as receivers of knowledge to co-
contributors and interpreters of knowledge, encouraging deeper engagement in their
learning and participation in an online community (Greenhow, Robelia, and Hughes
2009). This social approach shares parallels with the collaborative nature of professional
illustrator-client relationships, described as “dual direction debate” (Male 2007, 182) with
both parties informing the development of the work.
The experience of attending lectures with peers is a communal event in which
delivery of information is experienced and creatively interpreted as individuals,
additionally shared and discussed within the group through regular student posting of
visual notations. Participation in the online community provided continuous scaffolding
and sustained the teaching approach. Students described ‘putting in more effort’ due to an
awareness of their peers’ ability to view and comment upon their work. Peer to peer
participation in the online environment encouraged personal responsibility and
accountability, students commented positively upon their peers’ techniques, skill level and
use of media. Indeed, students included records of peers’ comments as validation of their
work within their assignment file for assessment submission. This online community
dialogue impacted the project to a larger degree than was anticipated by the lecturers,
students reported the positive results such encouraging or thoughtful peer comments had
upon their participation in the project. From these types of experiences, it was concluded
that learning within this project became more personally relevant as students shared their
work in the online community.
The project resulted in a perceivable shift in student attitudes to the role of drawing
within third year studio courses. The lecturers observed a higher quality of drawing and
creative thinking in third year Illustration studio work, specifically a high degree of
visualization relating to higher grades during assessment compared to previous years in
which the same project had been taught. Engagement in the visual notation project was a
contributing factor to this perceivable rise in quality. Ingraining the practice of drawing as
a form of thinking and recording in a familiar setting, at a recurring event, contextualized
drawing as a regular practice. Within this project, drawing practice was established as
repetitive, undertaken without preconceived notions of the result or expectation of
virtuosity.

Conclusion
This visual notation teaching and learning approach is successful in achieving the
aims of the Illustration curriculum, specifically, enhancing students’ critical and creative
thinking, visual literacy, drawing and communication skills. In future iterations of the
project, lecturers will recommend digital means of production that allow for a high degree
of free hand drawing expediting the process of creating visual notation entries. Digital
production will allow for direct posting to online social platforms as the lecture ends. This
may also serve as an effective measure of ‘on the fly’ drawing skills, as this approach will
require visual notation entries to be produced within the set one-hour time frame of the
lecture, precluding time for refinement of drawings and sourcing visual references.
Student recall of specific knowledge through examination will also be considered in
future research by the authors. This will enable the measurement of data regarding
memory retention and recall using specific knowledge sets.
 Through the lens of transdisciplinary practice, this visual notation pedagogic
approach is applicable within tertiary education of other disciplines, especially design and
art disciplines concerned with the production of visual outcomes and have visual literacy
as a key component of their discipline. High student engagement within the online
component of the Visual Notation Project testified to the active learning that took place as
students constructed knowledge through individual interpretations, online dissemination
and discussion of knowledge. This success implies that the teaching approach may be
useful for student engagement within other fields of education, including secondary and
primary school education. For example, to achieve active student engagement within
delivery teaching approaches, such as lectures, seminars and information gathering.
The strength of this pedagogic approach is apparent, deeper learning is facilitated
through engaging students in a combination of visual, written and digital literacies. Visual
Notation does not preclude those who ‘can’t draw’ but encourages a low risk approach to
drawing that encompasses a wider range of methods by which knowledge may be
interpreted and conveyed. Visual Notation is a process and catalyst for student
engagement, it transforms didactic teaching methods, such as lectures into written and
drawn notes. It is a teaching approach which enables a socially constructed method of
knowledge production, in conjunction with social platforms, that empowers students to be
responsible for their own learning and co-contribute in the sharing and interpretation of
knowledge.

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