BAHS 201

CELL BIOLOGY
Wilhelmina Annie Mensah
Dept. Of Med. Bchem.
UGMS , Ghana
 What is biochemistry
• Biochemistry studies the chemical reactions that
occurs in living organisms

• In general it deals with body substance like

enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, amino acids,
fats, proteins, DNA, RNA etc.

• Biochemists study their origin, formation,

functions and deficiency diseases.
 Importance of biochemistry in
PHARMACY and NURSING
Biochemistry will help you to better understand
Drug Constitution

The half life of drugs

Drug storage

Drug metabolism

Biochemical tests
Macromolecule
s
 Molecule vrs Macromolecules
A molecule/ Monomer?
•A group of two or more atoms
held together by covalent bonds.
E.g. H2O, Glucose,

A macromolecule/Polymer?
A long molecule made of
monomers bonded
together to form a polymer
Molecule vrs Macromolecules
 Forming Macromolecules
Formed from Condensation reactions called
dehydration synthesis (removal of water)
 Forming Monomers
• Hydrolysis reaction
– Hydro = water;
– lysis = break
– Water is added and the lysis of the polymer occurs.
 Memory Check
 Monomer/ molecule ----- Atoms joined by covalent
bonds
 Polymer/ macromolecule---- Long unit made of monomer
units
 Polymers are formed from— Condensation / dehydration

 Monomers are formed form--- Hydrolysis or rehydration

 The four types main types macromolecules are ........

Four main Macromolecules

 Carbohydrates

 Lipids

 Proteins

 Nucleic acids
Building Blocks
CARBOHYDRATES
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the most
abundant organic molecules
in nature.
Carbohydrates are present in
humans, animal tissues, plants and
in micro-organisms.

Carbohydrates are also present in

tissue fluids, blood, milk,
secretions and excretions of
animals
 CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are defined as
organic substances containing
C, H, O
 Where H and O are in the ratio 2:1 as
found in H2O

The term carbohydrate

means a hydrate of carbon

 Its general formular is

Cn(H2O)n
 Classification Of Carbohydrate
CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDES OLIGOSACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES
Cannot be hydrolysed On hydrolysis yield
Two or more monomer units
into smaller unit monosaccharides or
Basic units of oligosaccharides
They can be further
carbohydrates
hydrolysed to smaller units

a. Classified based on a.Disaccharides a.Homo-polysaccharides

the no. of C-atoms
b.Trisachharides b.Hetro-polysaccharides
b.Classified based on the
type of functional group
c.Tetrasachharides
 Classification Of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides

Based on the no of C-atoms Based on the functional group

- Aldoses :
- Trioses (C3H6O3) - Aldehyde –CHO
e.g. Glyceraldehyde
- Tetroses (C4H8O4)
Glucose

- Pentoses (C5H10O5) - Ketoses :

- ketone ( C = O)
- Hexoses (C6H12O6)
e.g.Dihydroxyacetone
- Heptoses (C7H14O7) ,
Structure of Common Monosaccharides
Structure of Common Monosaccharides
 Structure of Common Monosaccharides
• In aqueous solutions many monosaccharides form rings:
Common Monosaccharides
 Uses of Monosaccharides
• Glucose ( 50%) is hypertonic and
provides a source of calories in a
minimal volume of water.

• Glucose 50% is frequently used to

restore blood glucose concentrations
in the treatment of hypoglycaemia
resulting from insulin excess or from
other causes.
 Uses of Monosaccharides
• Fructose: as an
intravenous energy source
for patients with:

• Hepatic disease,
• Uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus
• Postoperative state.
 Uses of Monosaccharides
• Dextrose is the name of a simple sugar chemically
identical to glucose (blood sugar) that is made
from corn.
• Dextrose is dissolved in solutions that are given
intravenously used to increase a person’s blood
sugar, which can be combined with other drugs, or
.
• Dextrose is also available as an oral gel or tablet.
Because dextrose is a “simple” sugar, the body can
quickly use it for energy.
Monosaccharide's of Biomedical Importance

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 OLIGOSACCHARIDES
They are formed by condensation of 2-9 monosaccharides
they are

a.Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose)

b.Trisaccharides (raffinose)
c.Tetrasaccharides (stachyose)

The smallest and the commonest oligosaccharides are

Disaccharides
 Disaccharides
A disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharide units (similar or
dissimilar)held together by a glycosidic bond( links a sugar to
another group)
They are crysatalline, water soluble and sweet to taste.
 Forming Disaccharides
Glucose
CH2OH
(Dehydration/ condensation reaction)
CH2OH CH2OH

C O H
C O H
H H
H H
C OH H C C OH H C
OH OH
OH
C C
OH
C C
H OH H OH

Maltose CH2OH CH2OH

H
C O H H
C O H
H H
C OH H C C OH H C
OH OH
O
OOH C OH Are joined by a
C C C glycosidic linkage
H H
H OH H OH

Glycosidic Bond
This is a CONDENSATION reaction, where a water molecule is lost.
 Common Disaccharides
Monosaccharide Monosaccharide Disaccharide
Glucose Glucose Maltose
Glucose Fructose Sucrose
Glucose Galactose Lactose

Maltose Sucrose Galactose

 Uses of Disaccharides
• Maltose can be converted from icodextrin
which is used in dialysis solutions.

• Sucrose : It is often used in medications

to impart a more pleasant taste to often
unpalatable chemicals

• Iron Sucrose : is a medicine which is used

in iron deficiency.
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
- Made up of repeating units of monsaccharides held by
glycosidic bonds

- During its formation a water molecule is released at each

condensation

-Unlike sugars they are not sweet.

 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
- They are ideal as STORAGE AND AS STRUCTURAL
COMPONENTS

- They are of 2 types Homoglycans and Heteroglycans.

- HOMOGLYCANS HETEROGLYCANS
- -Made up of only 1 type of -Made up condensation of2 or
more types of monosaccharides
monosaccharide monomers • agar,
- Starch • Chitin,
- Glycogen • peptidoglycans etc
- Dextran
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
• Dextran : complex branched
glucan

• Polysaccharide made of
many glucose

• It is used medicinally as an
antithrombotic, to reduce
blood viscosity
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)

 Glycogen:
 Storage of excess
sugar in animals;

 stored in liver and

muscles

 It is the animal
short-term storage
form of energy
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
• Chitin: Used as a structural material in

 Arthropod exoskeleton
 Fungal cell walls and
 Surgical thread
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
 Starch or amylum: consists
of a large number of
glucose units joined by
glycosidic bonds.

 This polysaccharide is
produced by most green
plants as an energy store
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
Cellulose : component of plant cell wall
 Polysaccharides (Glycans)
Inulin

 Polymer of fructose i.e. fructosan

 Found in bulbs, garlic, onion etc

 Inulin is not readily metabolised in the

human body and is readily filtered
through the kidney. Hence used for
testing kidney function
 General Functions carbohydrates

 STORAGE form of energy (starch and glycogen).

 Main SOURCE of energy in the body( glycogen).

 Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.

 General Functions carbohydrates
 Structural basis of many organisms
1.Cellulose of plants
2. Exoskeleton of insects
3. Cell wall of microorganisms
 General Functions carbohydrates

 Components of several animal structure and

plant structures
1.cartilage
2.tendons,
 General Functions carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are components of blood group
substances.
 General Functions carbohydrates
 Ascorbic acid, a derivative of carbohydrate
is a water-soluble vitamin
 General Functions carbohydrates
 Derivatives of carbohydrates are components of
antibiotics like erythromycin
used in the treatment of infections caused by Gram-
positive bacteria. It is similar in its effects to penicillin.
Lipids
 LIPIDS
With the water, I say, Touch me not,

To the tongue, I am tasteful,

Within limits, I am dutiful,

In excess, I am dangerous

dr.aarif
 Lipids
Lipids are the chief concentrated storage form of energy forming
about 3.5% of the cell content.

Lipids are organic substances relatively

insoluble in water

soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether)

dr.aarif
 Lipids
Lipids consist mostly of hydrocarbons (C , H, and O)
Hydrophilic Head (“hydro”=water; “philic” = loving,
Hydrophobic Tails ( Phobic- fearing)
Polar Head
Glycerol (hydrophilic)
Fatty acid
Fatty acid

Non-Polar Tail
(Hydrophobic)
 LIPIDS

Simple Derived
Esters of fatty Esters of
Esters of fatty acids
acids and hydrocarbon
alcohol and rings and long
other groups hydrocarbon
side chains
Phospholipids
Esters of long Steroids
chain fatty acid Lipoproteins
and long chain
Esters of fatty alcohols
acid and glycerol Glycolipids
Terpenes
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
They are esters of fatty acids with alcohol. They are of 2 types :

1. Neutral or true fats : Esters of fatty acids with glycerol

2. Waxes : Esters of fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol.

Neutral / True fats/Triacylglycerol

True fats are made up of C, H, & O but O is less
A fat molecule is made up of 2 components :
a)GLYCEROL
b) FATTY ACIDS (1-3 mol, of same or diff long chained)
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
1.Neutral / True fats
Glycerol: A glycerol mol has 3 carbons
each bearing a –OH group
A fatty acid mol is an unbranched
chain of C-atoms.

It has a –COOH group at one end and a

H bonded to almost all the C-atoms

Fatty acids may be saturated or

unsaturated
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
1.Neutral / True fats/Triacylglycerol
When a fatty acid attaches to glycerol
it becomes a fat

Fats have a structure that looks like a E

Unsaturated fatty acid in a fat makes it

an unsaturated fat

Saturated fatty acid in a fat makes it a

saturated fat
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
1.Neutral / True fats
Unsaturated fats :
– one or more double bonds in the Oleic acid

fatty acids allows for “kinks” in the

tails cis double bond
(b) Unsaturated fat and fatty acidcauses bending

– liquid at room temp

– most plant fats

Saturated fats:
No double bonds in fatty Stearic acid

acid tails (a) Saturated fat and fatty acid

solid at room temp
most animal fats
 Functions Simple Lipids
1.Neutral / True fats
1. Storage form of energy
(triacylglycerol) in adipose
tissues
• Adipose tissue is the major
storage site for fat in the
form of triglycerides in the
skin
• Fat under skin serve as
thermal insulator against
cold.
 Functions Simple Lipids
1.Neutral / True fats
1. Fat around kidney and
heart serve as padding
against injury.

2. Act as electric insulators

in neurons as myelin
sheath

3. Help in absorption of fat

soluble vitamins (A, D, E
and K)
 SIMPLE LIPIDS

2. WAXES

Lipids which are long chain saturated fatty acids and a long chain
Saturated alcohol of high mol wt other than glycerol

Example :
1.Bees wax : secretion of abdominal glands of worker honey bees
2.Shellac wax - from the lac insect kerria lacca
3.Lanolin or wool fat : Secretion of cutaneous glands and obtained
from the wool of sheep
3. Sebum : secretion of sebaceous glands of skin
4. Cerumen : soft and brownish waxy secretion of the glands in the
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
WAXES
Bee wax Lanolin

Ear wax in ear

Sebum in skin
 SIMPLE LIPIDS
Uses Waxes
Lanolin is frequently used in
protective baby skin treatment and
as a treatment for sore nipples in
breastfeeding mothers.[13]

Shellac wax is used in dental

technology, in (partial) denture
production.
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
They are derivatives of simple lipids having Protein
additional group like
N-Base Phosphate Polar Head
 phosphate, (hydrophilic)
 N2-base, Glycerol
Protein etc.

They are further divided into

Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Non-Polar Tail
(Hydrophobic)
Phospholipids,
Glycolipids,
Lipoproteins.
 COMPLEX LIPIDS They consists of
Two fatty acids tails(long
1. Phospholipid chains of hydrogen and
x carbon molecules)

Alcohol Phosphate Polar Head Glycerol 'head.‘

(hydrophilic)

Glycerol  The glycerol molecule is

also attached to a phosphate
group,
Fatty acid
Fatty acid

Non-Polar Tail
(Hydrophobic) The phosphate can be
attached to an alcohol and
another group
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
Function Phospholipids

Structural component of cell

membrane. Often occur with other
molecules (e.g., proteins, glycolipids,
sterols) in a bilayer.
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
2. Glycolipid

They are lipids with a

carbohydrate
attached.

CEREBROSIDE are the

most simplest form of
glycolipids
 COMPLEX LIPIDS

Functions of Glycolipids
Glycolipids are Structural components of
plasma membrane
 COMPLEX LIPIDS

Functions of Glycolipids
Glycolipids are components of
blood group substances.
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
Functions of Glycolipids
Glycoprotein serve as cell surface receptors.
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
3. Lipoprotein

They contain lipids and proteins in their molecules.

They are main constituent of membranes.
They are found in milk and Egg yolk.

5 types of lipoproteins :
1. chylomicrons
2. VLDL (Very Low density Lipoprotein)
3. LDL (Low density Lipoprotein)
4. HDL (High density Lipoprotein)
5. Free fatty acid albumin complex
 COMPLEX LIPIDS
Functions Lipoprotein

 Transport of lipids
 Transport of fat soluble vitamins
 DERIVED LIPIDS
They are derivatives obtained on the hydrolysis of the simple
and complex lipids.e.g. steroids, terpenes. etc

1. Steroid
The steroids do not contain
fatty acids but are included in
lipids as they have fat-like
properties.

They are made up of 4

fused carbon rings
 DERIVED LIPIDS
Functions of Steroids

• Cholesterol
Hormone production. Cholesterol
plays a part in producing hormones
such as estrogen, testosterone,
progesterone, aldosterone and
cortisone

Vitamin D production. Vitamin D is

produced when the sun’s ultraviolet
rays reach the human skin surface.
 DERIVED LIPIDS
Functions of Steroids

• Cholesterol
Cell membrane support.
Cholesterol plays a very
important part in both the
creation and maintenance of
human cell membrene
 DERIVED LIPIDS
Functions of Terpenes
Terpenes are a major component of essential oils produced by
plants. They give fragrance and perform various therapeutic
functions
 Clinical significance of lipids
Diseases associated with abnormal chemistry or
metabolism of lipids-
 Obesity
 Atherosclerosis
 Diabetes Mellitus
 Hyperlipoproteinemia
 Fatty liver
 Lipid storage diseases
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 Clinical significance of lipids
1.Excessive fat deposits cause obesity. obesity is a risk factor for
heart attack.

2. Abnormality in cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism leads to

atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases .

3. In diabetes mellitus, the metabolisms of fatty acids and

lipoproteins are deranged, leading to ketosis

72
 Clinical significance of lipids
4. Hyperlipidemia, hyperlipoproteinemia, or hyperlipidaemia
involves abnormally elevated levels of any or all lipids and/or
lipoproteins in the blood . It is the most common form of
dyslipedemia (which includes any abnormal lipid levels).

5. Some fat in your liver is normal. But if it makes up more than 5%-
10% of the organ's weight, you may have fatty liver disease.

6. Lipid storage diseases are a group of inherited metabolic

disorders in which harmful amounts of fatty materials (lipids)
accumulate in various tissues and cells in the body

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 Discussion Question
1. How will my knowledge about carbohydrate
and lipids structure and function enrich my
work as a health professional.(outline 5points)

2. What are the uses of carbohydrates and lipids

in medicine .(5 uses)
Proteins
 Proteins
• Proteins consist of
C, H, O and N (S & P)

• Polymers (polypeptides)
of amino acids joined by
peptide bonds
 Proteins Structure
• Peptide bonds
connect amino acids
to form polypeptide
chains

• One or more
polypeptide chains
make up a protein
levels of Proteins Structure
 General Functions of Proteins
1. Transport of substances in the body . E.g. Haemoglobin
transports oxygen.

2. Enzymes which catalyze chemical reactions in the body

3. Defence function .e.g Immunoglobulins(antibodies)

4. Hormones are proteins. They control many biochemical

events. Example: Insulin.
 Functions of Protiens

5. Contraction of muscles. E.g Muscle proteins(actin and

myosin).

6. Gene expression. They control gene expression and

translation.E.g Histones.

7. Nutrient and storage .E.g albumen of egg, Casein of

milk , Ferritin that stores iron.
 Medical And Biological Functions

8. Proteins act as buffers. E.g Plasma proteins.

9. Proteins function as anti-vitamins. E.g. Avidin

of egg.

10.Proteins are infective agents.e.g Prions

which cause mad cow disease are proteins.
 Medical And Biological Functions
10. Some toxins are proteins E.g Enterotoxin of
cholera microorganism.

11. Some proteins provide structural strength and

elasticity to the organs and vascular system. E.g
Collagen and elastin of bone matrix and ligaments.

10. Some proteins are components of structures of

tissues. E.g α-keratin is present in hair and
epidermis
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids structural Components
 Building the nucleic acid polymer

ester bond

Phosphodiester bond

ester bond

Nucleotides
Nucleotidesare
arejoined
joinedtogether
togetherby
by Phosphodiester
Phosphodiesterbonds
bonds
 Nucleic Acids Types
1. DNA ( Deoxyribonucleic acid)
– double stranded (DNA helix)
– can self replicate
– makes up genes which code for proteins is
passed from one generation to another

1. RNA ( Ribonucleic acid)

– single stranded
– functions in actual synthesis of proteins coded
for by DNA
– is made from the DNA template molecule
 Functions of nucleic acid in the cell
1. They are involved in the storage, transfer and expression
of genetic information.

2. Some nucleic acids acts as enzymes and coenzymes.

E.g. RNA, act as catalyst and RNA is coenzyme for
telomerase which seals ends of chromosomes.

3. DNA exhibits structural polymorphism. It assumes

several forms depending on certain conditions. Several
DNA variants are known.