UNIT 1.

1
THE INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY: PEDAGOGICAL
CONTENT KNOWLEDGE
______________________________________________

Unit Outline
1 The Concept of Instructional Theory
2 Four Characteristics of Instructional
Theory
3 The Concept of Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (PCK)
4 Highlights of Key Findings and
Principles of Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
5 How is Pedagogical Content
Knowledge Developed?
6 The Nature of Pedagogical Content “Those who can, do. Those who
Knowledge understand, teach.” – Lee S. Shulman.

7 How to Use It?

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. explain the importance of Instructional Theory;
2. incorporate how Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) can be applied in a
classroom setting; and
3. examine how does Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) influences the teaching
process.

Checkpoint

1. What is an effective teacher for you?

2. When can you say that a teacher teaches his/her subjects clearly and effectively?
3. How do content and pedagogy help you to become a successful teacher?

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 Overview

In the era of globalization, education needs more tangible and practical instruction.
Students have misconceptions about the subject matter, but teachers may also teach
wrong concepts, especially science.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) plays a vital role in classroom instructions.
A PCK involves teachers' competence in delivering the conceptual approach, relational
understanding, and adaptive reasoning of the subject matter in the teaching and learning
process.
The critical skill that a teacher should process is transforming the knowledge to be
taught to the students to be easily understood. Actual teaching should not only contain the
teacher's skillful demonstration of this knowledge. Still, it should also include the ability to
guide the students to understand the content of the knowledge (Hansen, 1995)
meaningfully.
Without a full grasp of PCK, teachers may face difficulty in teaching the subject
effectively.

THE CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

According to Reigeluth (1999), an instructional theory is a theory that offers explicit

guidance on how to help better people learn and develop. It allows us to create conditions
that increase the probability of learning. Instructional theories are adapted based on the
educational content and, more importantly, the student's learning styles. They are used as
teaching guidelines, tools by teachers/trainers to facilitate learning.

FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL

THEORY

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

Design-oriented Methods of Instruction Component Methods Probabilistic

• Direct guidance • Methods for learning • Parts of the general • Rather than
for practitioners facilitation method deterministic
• Learning goals- • Situations: • Kinds of the general • The purpose is
oriented o What is to be learned method to increase the
• Prescriptive o The learner • Criteria that the chance of the
o Learning environments general method desired learning
o Instructional should meet outcome.
development
constraints

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 THE CONCEPT OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (PCK)

Pedagogical Pedagogical Content

Knowledge Content Knowledge
Knowledge
(PCK)

Pedagogical knowledge is a term that refers to the method of how teachers

teach, in theory, and in practice. Pedagogy is formed by an educator's teaching beliefs
and concerns the interplay between culture and different ways to learn. Content
knowledge is the knowledge about the subject matter related to the content that
teachers should teach. And in 1986, Dr. Lee Shulman combined the two methods and
called it Pedagogical Content Knowledge.

What is Pedagogical Content Knowledge?

The term Pedagogical Content Knowledge

renewed emphasis with Lee Shulman (1986), a teacher
education researcher who was interested in expanding
and improving knowledge on teaching and teacher
preparation that, in his view, ignored questions dealing
with the content of the lessons taught.
According to Shulman (1986), the key to
distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching rested at
the intersection of content and pedagogy. He defined
pedagogical content knowledge as teachers'
interpretations and transformations of subject-matter
knowledge in facilitating student learning.
Lee Shulman

HIGHLIGHTS OF KEY FINDINGS AND PRINCIPLES OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT

KNOWLEDGE
• Pedagogical content knowledge is a special combination of content and pedagogy
uniquely constructed by teachers and thus is the "special" form of an educator`s
professional knowledge and understanding.
• Pedagogical content knowledge is also known as craft knowledge. It comprises
integrated knowledge representing teachers' accumulated wisdom concerning
their teaching practice: pedagogy, students, subject matter, and the curriculum.
• Pedagogical content knowledge must be addressed within the context of a diverse
pedagogy.

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 HOW IS PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPED?
Pedagogical content knowledge is deeply rooted in a teacher's everyday work. It
encompasses both theories learned during teacher preparation as well as experiences
gained from ongoing schooling activities. The development of pedagogical content
knowledge is influenced by factors related to the teacher's background and the context in
which he or she works. And it is deeply rooted in the experiences and assets of students,
their families, and communities.

THE NATURE OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

Pedagogical content knowledge is unique to teachers and is based on how
teachers relate their pedagogical knowledge (what they know about teaching) to their
subject matter knowledge (what they know about what they teach).
The integration or synthesis of teachers' pedagogical knowledge and their subject
matter knowledge comprises pedagogical content knowledge. According to
Gudmundsdottir (1987), pedagogical content knowledge is a form of knowledge that
makes science teachers, teachers rather than the scientist. Teachers differ from
scientists, not necessarily in the quality or quantity of their subject matter knowledge, but
in how that knowledge is organized and used. In other words, an experienced science
teacher's knowledge of science is organized from a teaching perspective and is used as
a basis for helping students to understand specific concepts.

Sample Scenario

In her sophomore year of high school, Anne had a chemistry teacher who had an
impressive background working in the field. She knew the subject matter perfectly, so
most people would assume that her knowledge made her a great teacher. After all, the
most important thing is for the teacher to know what they teach inside and out, right? Well,
yes and no. Anne learned through her experience with Mrs. Johnson that she needed
more than a teacher who knew her subject well. She required one who also knew how to
teach it well. So, while Anne`s teacher knew chemistry like the back of her hand, she
didn`t seem to know how to explain it, illustrate it, and make it understandable to Anne
and her classmates. For someone who wasn't the greatest with formulas and science, to
begin with, Anne needed more assistance.
As it turned out, Anne wasn’t the only student who needed more from her teacher.
If Mrs. Johnson had combined her knowledge of chemistry with class exercises, creative
examples, and careful explanations, she would have displayed pedagogical content
knowledge. She also would have been a more successful teacher.

HOW TO USE IT?

How can teachers implement it in the classroom? Several features make up
pedagogical content knowledge, and each is intended to provide students a route to
genuine understanding and learning.
ü Combining Content and Pedagogy
§ The foundation of pedagogical content knowledge is the combination of
both content and pedagogy. Rather than just knowing the ins and outs of
psychology., for example, a psychology teacher has to know how to get the
concepts across to the students. Let's say the teacher wants the students
to learn about positive reinforcement. Of course, she has to know what to
teach it; that is her knowledge of psychology content. Then, based on her
understanding, she can explain the term and use examples. She can
demonstrate it to the class by telling her students that they will be given a
candy bar for the rest of the week every time someone raises their hand to
answer a question. Students can experience what it's like to have behavior

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 reinforced and encourage. They will likely understand the term and also find
it memorable.

ü Understanding Student Perceptions

§ Pedagogical content knowledge requires an understanding of where
students are coming from about the subject being taught. That's because,
to teach the material well, teachers have to know what the students bring to
the table as far as prior conceptions, feelings, and strategies. For example,
many students tend to have personal thoughts about math word problems.
A math teacher with pedagogical content would address these prior
conceptions and show why each one is inaccurate. The teacher would help
the students understand how to break down word problems to make them
clearer and see them differently. If the students have specific strategies they
have been using, the teacher would want to know what those are and how
they might need to be changed.

ü Deciding a Subject`s Difficulty

§ Teachers with pedagogical content knowledge must grasp which aspects
of their subjects are typically easy for students and more complex. That
way, they can create lesson plans that move through the more accessible
material quickly and provide more time for the difficult subjects. This will
help students fully grasp the more complex topics, better prepared to move
forward.

Impact of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

• When teaching subject matter, teachers’ actions will be determined on a large
extent by the depth of their pedagogical content knowledge, making this an
essential component of their ongoing learning.
• Pedagogical content knowledge research links knowledge on teaching with
learning, a powerful knowledge base to build teaching expertise.

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 UNIT 1.2
FOUNDATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
______________________________________________

Unit Outline
1 Instructional Theory
2 Foundations of Instructional Theory
3 Teaching Strategies

4 Four Characteristics of Instructional

Theory
“Instruction ends in the schoolroom, but
education ends only with life. A child is
given to the universe to be educated.”
- Frederick William Roberto

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. define what is instructional theory;
2. explain how three basic theories influence instructional theory in educational thought;
3. enumerate the four characteristics of instructional theory; and
4. analyze the integration of instructional theory in teaching Science.

Checkpoint

1. What is the difference between instruction and construction?

2. Do theories play an essential role in the teaching-learning continuum?
3. What is the most effective teaching strategy for you?

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 Overview

The instructional theory identifies what instruction or teaching should be like. It

outlines strategies that an educator may adopt to achieve the learning objectives. It is
used as teaching guidelines/tools by teachers to facilitate learning. The instructional
theory is adapted based on the educational content and, more importantly, the student's
learning styles.
The goal of Instructional theory is to understand the instructional system and to
improve the process of instruction. It helps us create conditions that increase the
probability of learning.
According to Carr-Chellman and Reigeluth (2009), a distinction has been made in
the literature recently between “instruction” and “construction”, with the implication that
instruction is necessarily done to learners (i.e., learners are passive). In contrast,
construction is done by learners (learners are active). But our concern is with how to
help learners learn, which means identifying ways to help learners construct knowledge.
Instruction is not instruction if it does not foster construction.
Therefore, we define instruction as anything that is done purposely to facilitating
learning. It includes constructivist methods and self-instruction and more traditional
instruction views, such as lecture and direct instruction.

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
Theory plays a vital role in the teaching-learning continuum. According to Dorin,
Demmin, and Gabel (1990), the theory involves five major components: (1) helps explain
phenomenon over time; (2) can explain and predict behavior; (3) provides a general
framework for understanding observations; (4) can be modified; (5) should be tested for
its utility. In other words, it is suggested that when teachers select the appropriate
instructional theory and link it to its correlated teaching strategy, learning outcomes
should be explained and predicted with better precision.
The instructional theory is a discipline that focuses on structured material for
promoting the education of humans. It offers explicit guidance on how to help better
people learn and develop. The theory provides insights about what is likely to happen
and why concerning different kinds of teaching and learning activities while helping
indicate approaches for their evaluation.

This theory is heavily

influenced by the 1956 work of
Benjamin Bloom, a professor at the
University of Chicago, and the results
of his Taxonomy of Education
Objectives – one of the first modern
codifications of the learning process.
Robert M. Gagne is one of the first
instructional theorists, who in 1965,
published Conditions of Learning for
the Florida State University`s
Department of Educational
Research.

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 FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
The instructional theory is influenced by three fundamental theories in educational
thought: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. The bases of these instructional
theories were synthesized by Mergel (1998). These theories provide a context for the
learning environment in distinct ways.

Behaviorism
Cognitivism
3 FOUNDATIONS
OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
THEORY
means that

means that

Observes new behavioral

The learner is in patterns and focuses on how to
control of his or her Constructivism learn
learning

to practice to practice

means that

• Pose good problems • Factor in learner characteristics

• Create group learning activities that promote or interfere with
• Guide the process of knowledge Studies individual’s observable and the cognitive process of
construction measurable behaviors that are information
repeated until they become automatic • Analyze which tasks are
appropriate for effectively and
efficiently processing
to practice information
• Apply a variety of learning
strategies
• Create measurable learning outcomes
• Use tangible rewards and informative feedback.
• Guide students in mastering a set of predictable skills or behaviors

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Behaviorism
It seeks to alter a person’s environment until the behavior becomes automatic and
conforms to prescribed conditions. Two of the most recognizable theorists of behaviorism are
Ivan Pavlov (1849 –1936) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990). According to Roger (2003), learners
are aware of tasks governing their behavior but may not be conscious of learning. Through
repeated behaviors, they hopefully become aware of conceptual learning ascribed to the task. As
applied to a learning environment, receiving positive reinforcement could promote the behavior
of continued study and learning (Megel, 1998).
Behaviorism as an instructional theory is depicted along these lines. The teaching process
establishes boundaries around information to which knowledge is gained by the type of feedback
provided. Whereas the theory helps us understand how people conform to predetermined
standards, the behaviorist approach fails to explain people's thought processes for learning.

Cognitivism
In the mid-1960s, cognitivism emerged based on the work of Jean Piaget from the 1920s.
It recognizes that learning occurs through mental associations. People develop schemas, which
represent an internal knowledge structure. When faced with new information, they compare it to
existing knowledge structures, whereby the schema may be altered to accommodate the
information. Anderson (1996) examined what knowledge a person might possess and the
probability of its use given particular contexts. As applied to a learning environment, information
deemed as meaningful stands a better chance of being retained than material that learners
evaluate as dull.
Cognitivism as an instructional theory can be portrayed according to the following. The teaching
process is a mental activity where new information is to be linked with existing cognitive
structures. Although valuable for intellectual development, the cognitivism approach does not
account for people acquiring knowledge through their experiences.

Constructivism

The constructivism approach is based on the general concept that people construct their
reality. Notable constructivist theorists include John Dewey and Lev Vigotsky, who explored the
value of human activity as a critical function of gaining knowledge. Learning is an active process.
As people do things, they are exposed to stimuli to evaluate them with previous experiences
continually. They can construct new meaning and systems of meaning as they engage in the
world around them.
Constructivism as an instructional theory can be characterized in this manner. The
teaching process provides new experiential activities for learners, which interact with their existing
body of knowledge. This often requires faculty to draw from a wide range of experiences to place
students in situations for them to construct new knowledge (Brophy, 2002).

TEACHING STRATEGIES
Teaching strategies relate to the design of instruction (Davis, 1993; Fink, 2003). If teachers
design their instruction correctly, they can create a more challenging environment with more
significant learning as the outcome. Although there are numerous ways to describe teaching
strategies (Baron & Sternberg, 1987; Davis, 1993; Fink, 2003; McKeachie, 2006; Mayers &
Jones, 1993; Middenddorf & Pace, 2004), they can cluster into three basic areas: (1) discussion;
(2) lecture; and (3) collaboration.

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Discussion

Discussion as a teaching strategy has a clear purpose. Many teachers may employ
discussion in the classroom to get students to think about a particular topic. However, the
discussion aims to develop thinking skills (Davis, 1993; McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). Developing
thinking skills, which are particular to the discussion as a teaching strategy, are critical, creative,
and dialogical. Critical thinking relates to the judgment, authenticity, worth, or accuracy of
something.

Lecture

Lecture as a pedagogical strategy extends beyond a common conception to transmit

information. Its purpose is to develop conceptual frameworks about a subject matter (Davis,
1993). Because effective lectures are writers, comedians, and entertainers as part of their
teaching repertoire, they can stimulate students to explore the subject matter further. The specific
learning outcomes of the lecture as a teaching strategy particular to it are to stimulate interest;
introduce new terminology; focus on what is essential; present, analyze, and critique ideas; offer
a new perspective; demonstrate how something works; and trace steps of discovery or creation
(Davis, 1993).

Collaboration

Collaboration as a teaching strategy has an expressed purpose. The fundamental

principle of collaboration is to solve significant problems. It is founded in social psychology, where
meaning or interpretation that people give to interaction depends on their knowledge base. Small
group interaction is viewed as 3 to 20 people exchanging communication to influence each other
(Tubbs, 1997). Tubbs related that collaboration must be relaxed and informal, task-centered, and
free for expression for group interaction to be effective. Other tasks are assigned based on
decisions made in the group. From group interaction theory, problem-based learning (PBL)
emerged, which serves as the consummate application of collaboration. Collaboration's
effectiveness as a teaching strategy is to engage students in a situation or series of situations
where they can draw from their collective experience to solve problems.

Instructional Theories

Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism

• Operant conditioning • Mental associations • Active process
• Positive/negative • The cognitive structure • Experiences,
reinforcement of knowledge knowledge, & beliefs
• Establish learning • Link new information • Provide new
boundaries to existing experiential activities

Discussion Lecture Collaboration

• Develop thinking skills; • Develop conceptual • Solve essential
critical; creative; & frameworks about a problems: establish a
dialogical subject matter: stimulate problem; agree on
interest; introduce goals; individual
terminology; focus accountability; the
importance; present, variety of knowledge;
analyze, & critique ideas; no resident expect in
offer perspectives; the group.
demonstrate works; &
trace steps.

Teaching Strategies

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 FOUR CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY

Design-oriented Methods of Instruction Component Methods Probabilistic

Design-oriented
• An instructional theory should provide direct guidance on how to achieve a learning
goal. It is both means-oriented and goal-oriented because it focuses not only on
guidance but also on attaining a learning goal. Also, the nature of instructional
theory is prescriptive. It guides educators, so the main target audience of
instructional approaches is educational practitioners.

Methods of Instruction
• As mentioned above, the instructional theory focuses on direct guidance, which
essentially includes methods of instruction, that is, how to teach, support, and
facilitate learning. A method of instruction cannot be effective in every situation
and occasion. That is, it's not universal but situational. The situation includes the
concept of instructional conditions, which consist of the nature of: (1) what is to be
learned, (2) the learner, (3) the learning environment, and (4) the instructional
development constraints.

Component Methods
• The methods of instruction can be broken into some components. That means an
instructional theory should provide detailed guidance with specific components to
educators. The components can be (1) parts of the more general methods, (2)
kinds of the more general method, and (3) criteria that the general method should
meet.

Probabilistic
• The main characteristic of instructional theories is that the instructional methods
are probabilistic rather than deterministic. The goal of an instructional theory is to
achieve the highest possible chance of the desired learning outcome effectively
and/or

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 UNIT 1.3
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING
______________________________________________

Unit Outline
1 Science Teaching

2 Goals of Science Teaching

3 Objectives of Science Teaching

"The best teachers are artists who know

the science of teaching."
-Anonymous

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. discuss the significance of science teaching;
2. analyze the goals of science teaching;
3. compare the objectives of science teaching in primary and secondary levels;
4. explain the importance of science process skills;
5. differentiate the six basic science process skills; and
6. create a graphic organizer about the goals and objectives of science teaching.

Checkpoint

1. What are your goals as a student?

2. Are goals and objectives related?
3. Is it okay to have an objective without a goal?
4. What skills are useful in teaching science?

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 Overview

According to John Dewey, a goal is foreseen and directs specific activities or motivates
human behavior. While starting to work on any mission, it is essential to think before working
towards the motives and purposes of understanding that mission. The same holds good for the
study of a particular subject. Without knowledge of goal, the educator is like a sailor who does not
know his destination, and the young learner is like a rudderless vessel drifting ashore.
In the modern world, some knowledge of science is essential for everyone. Science should
be a non-negotiable part of basic education, just like language, arts, and mathematics. It is important
to teach science because it is a significant part of human culture and represents one of the pinnacles
of human thinking capacity. Also, it provides a laboratory of shared experience for the development
of language, logic, and problem-solving skills in the classroom.
Individuals need to think of scientific process skills to develop a fundamental scientific
understanding. Process skills describe students' thinking activity and require reasoning. The
teachers play an essential role in teaching science process skills through a series of scientific
learning processes. In addition to skills, the students also have to master the knowledge to
understand scientific concepts.
Effective science teaching is more than simply presenting information to learners to learn
and providing science equipment for them to use. Teachers must also ensure that an instructional
plan is prepared and implemented correctly in class. There is no best method or approach to
teaching science. It depends on the content and the teacher's teaching styles using appropriate
approaches and instructional resources.

SCIENCE TEACHING

Science is a way of knowing, a method of learning about nature. Rooted in common sense,
its formal, systematic process is called scientific inquiry. In doing scientific inquiry, scientists use
various empirical approaches, techniques, and procedures to collect data from nature, examine
and analyze it, and construct knowledge based on it. The product of scientific inquiry is the body
of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge takes four forms: hypotheses, facts, laws, and
theories.
According to Staver (2007), education in science serves three purposes. First, it prepares
students to study science at higher levels of education. Second, it prepares students to enter the
workforce, pursue occupations, and take up careers. Third, it prepares them to become more
scientifically literate citizens. The relative priority and alignment of these three purposes vary
extensively across countries and cultures. Regardless of the setting, sound education in science
emphasizes that science is both a way of knowing and a body of knowledge; it integrates scientific
inquiry with scientific knowledge.
Much is known about teaching science effectively to learners of all ages. This knowledge
comes from research and scholarship conducted in developed and developing countries (Abell &
Lederman, 2007). Science teaching is a complex activity that lies at the heart of the vision of
science education. Teachers are central to education, but they must not be placed in the position
of being solely responsible for reform. Teachers must work within a collegial, organizational, and
policy context that supports good science teaching.
According to National Science Education Standards (1996), teachers must have theoretical
and practical knowledge and abilities about science, learning, and science teaching. The
standards for science teaching are grounded in five assumptions:

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 1
The vision of science
education requires
changes throughout the
entire system.

2
What students learn
is greatly influenced
by how they are
taught

3
Teachers' actions are deeply
influenced by their perceptions
of science as an enterprise and
a subject to be taught and
learned.

4
Student understanding
is actively constructed
through individual and
social processes.

5
The actions of teachers
are deeply influenced by
their understanding of
and relationships with
students.

GOALS OF SCIENCE TEACHING

Education is imparted for achieving certain ends and goals. Various subjects of the
school curriculum are different means to achieve these goals. The term goals of teaching
science stand for the aims, targets, or broader purposes that may be fulfilled by teaching
science in the general education scheme.
According to the National Council of Educational Research and Training (2006),
the general aims of science education follow directly from the six criteria of validity:
cognitive, content, process, historical, environmental and ethical. The goal of science
teaching should enable the learner to:

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 provide the broader objectives of science
that process skill knowledge curiosity
The goal of
Science encourage and enable students to develop
Teaching inquiring minds and curiosity about science
and nature
should allow the
learner to:
acquire knowledge, conceptual
understanding, and skills to solve problems
and make informed decisions in scientific
contexts

develop skills of scientific inquiry to design and

carry out scientific investigations and evaluate
scientific evidence to draw conclusions

communicate scientific ideas, opinions, and practical

experiences accurately in a variety of ways

think analytically, critically, and creatively to solve

problems, judge arguments, and make decisions in
scientific and other contexts

appreciate the benefits and limitations of science and

its application in technological developments
understand the nature of science and the interdependence of
science, technology, and society, including the benefits, limitations,
and implications imposed by social, economic, political,
environmental, cultural, and ethical factors
demonstrate attitudes and develop values of honesty and
respect for themselves, others, and their shared
environment

There is an emphasis on the linkage of scientific knowledge with society, i.e., scientific
knowledge should be a part of society and verified and authenticated by the learners
themselves. It focuses on the development of scientific process skills along with nurturing
natural curiosity and aesthetic sense. Along with the development of a scientific attitude,
equal focus is on the development of universal values.
The advantages that can be drawn for purposes that can be served by studying that
subject generally become the goal of its study. To realize a goal or broader purpose,
these are usually divided into some definite functional and workable units named as
objectives.

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 OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING

Objectives may be termed short-term goals achieved within a subject teacher's

specific limited resources and time. They can be easily evaluated to the expected
behavioral changes or learning outcomes. In this way, objectives are the ways and means
of achieving the goal more practically and clearly.
The goal of teaching science may thus be broken into some specified objectives
for providing actual learning experiences to bring desirable behavioral changes.
Objectives of science teaching may provide certain well-defined short-term purposes are
tasks before a science teacher when teaching a particular topic for giving a particular type
of learning experience.
The main objectives of the science curriculum up to the secondary level are to
make learners "scientifically literate" as science is a compulsory component of the
curriculum up to the secondary level. The focus should be on "developing awareness
among the learners about the interface of science, technology, and society, sensitizing
them, especially to environment and health issues, and enabling them to acquire practical
knowledge and skills to enter the world of work." (National Curriculum Framework, 2005).
Emphasis is more on acquiring process skills to deal with the ever-changing and
expanding world of science. Keeping these key points in mind, science teaching at
different levels has been organized.

At the primary level, emphasis is on engaging the learners in exploring the world and
harmonizing with it. The objectives at this stage are:
• to nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment, artifacts,
and people);
• to have the child engage in exploratory and hands-on activities to acquire the basic
cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation, classification, interference,
etc.;
• to emphasize design and fabrication, estimation, and measurement as a prelude
to the development of technological and quantitative skills of later stages; and
• to develop the basic language skills” speaking, reading, and writing not only for
science but also through science.
At this level, science and social science have been integrated as "Environmental Studies."
At the upper primary level, the emphasis is on engaging the learner in learning
principles of science through familiar experiences, working with hands to design simple
technological units and modules, and learning more about environment and health
through activities and surveys.
As a science teacher, you will agree that learning scientific concepts is better if
learners explore them through activities and experiments. Learners should be allowed to
explore science in their everyday experiences. Teachers should engage learners in
meaningful investigations – particularly of the problems they perceive to be significant.
As a science teacher, discussions should be encouraged with co-teachers and
peers. Teachers can ask the learners to gather information from newspapers,
knowledgeable persons in the neighborhood, and readily available sources and discuss
them in class with peers and teachers.
Roleplay, skits, cooperative learning strategies should be adopted to ensure more
significant participation and sharing of learning outcomes. It is advised that biographical
narratives of scientists and inventors can be used. Teachers should keep in mind that
efforts should be continued to develop the process skills of science.
It is suggested that teachers should engage their learners in learning science as a
composite discipline at the secondary stage. As a science teacher at this level, teachers
should allow learners to engage in activities and analysis on environmental and health
issues. As a secondary stage, systematic experimentation is suggested to discover/verify
theoretical principles and work on locally significant projects involving science and
technology.
Concepts, principles, and laws of science should be introduced at this level,
emphasizing comprehension rather than mere formal definitions. At this stage, those

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concepts, which are beyond direct experience, should also be introduced. Learners
should understand that all scientific phenomena are not directly observable; science relies
on inference and interpretation.
You should use experimentation as an important tool to discover/verify theoretical
principles at this stage. At this level, teachers should organize co-curricular activities like
small group projects on local issues and use a problem-solving approach.
At the higher secondary stage, the curriculum has adopted a disciplinary
approach with rigor and depth. There is a strong emphasis on experiments, technology,
and investigative projects. Teachers should organize co-curricular activities by adopting
a problem-solving approach on local issues involving science and technology,
encouraging learners' participation through creative/investigative projects in national
science fairs, and participation in science Olympiads. Teachers should allow their
learners to participate in debates and discussions on issues at the interface of science,
technology, and society.
At the higher secondary stage, a transition from general science to a discipline-
based curriculum takes place. Physics, Chemistry, and Biology are being offered as
elective subjects. At this stage, the learners choose any discipline to pursue their future
careers in basic sciences or professional courses like medicine, engineering, technology,
and studying practices in applied areas of science and technology at the tertiary level.
Hence, at this level, the learners should be provided with sufficient conceptual
background of disciplines which would be provided with sufficient conceptual background
disciplines, which would eventually make them competent to meet the challenges of
academic and professional courses after the higher secondary stage.
Teaching-learning of various science subjects at the higher secondary stage
enables the learners to comprehend contemporary knowledge and develop aesthetic
sensibilities and process skills. The experimental skills and process skills developed with
conceptual knowledge prepare the learners for more meaningful learning experiences
and contribute to significantly improving quality of life. The learners would also appreciate
the role and impact of science and technology and their linkages with overall national
development.

SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS

One of the important objectives of education in our day is to bring the students
scientific thinking skills and science process skills. Process skills describe students'
thinking activity and require reasoning. The teacher plays an important role in the
classroom to teach science process skills through a series of scientific learning
processes.
Science process skills have always been part of the science curriculum. It involves
skills that require more complex experiences, such as the ability to observe that we
develop and utilize naturally even in our very early ages, in addition to comparison skills,
data gathering, data interpretation, and the ability to hypothesize.
According to Yumusak (2016), they approached the science process skills like
observation, classification, quantification, correlating number and space, forecasting,
data recording, data using and modeling, data interpretation, and making inferences,
determining variables, changing and controlling variables, hypothesizing and testing and
experimentation skills.
Science process skills are comprised of many skills groups, from basic to complex.
Basic science process skills are considered as the prerequisite of integrated science
process skills. In this respect, the integrated science process skills may involve utilizing
many basic level skill areas.

SCIED 61 (THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE) 17

 Basic Science Process Skills
According to Science - A Process Approach (SAPA), these skills are defined
as a set of broadly transferable abilities appropriate to many science disciplines and
reflective of the behavior of scientists. Below are the science process skills:

Classifying
Observing After making observations, it is important to notice Communicating
The most basic skill in science. Using the similarities, differences and group objects
senses to gather information about an object according to a purpose. Grouping or ordering It is important to be able to
or event. Good observations are essential in objects or events into categories based on share our experiences. We
learning other science process skills. It can be properties or criteria. It is important to create are using words or graphic
quantitative (observations involving numbers) order to help comprehend the number of objects, symbols to describe an
or qualitative (observations involving the events, and living things. action, object, or event. This
characteristics or quality of the thing being can be done with graphs,
observed). diagrams, maps, and spoken
words.

BASIC
SCIENCE
PROCESS
SKILLS

Measuring
It is using both standards and Predicting
nonstandard measures or estimates to
Inferring It is stating the outcome of a
describe the dimensions of an object
or event. Measuring is important in The inference is an explanation based on future event based on a pattern
collecting, comparing, and observation. It is making an "educated guess" about of evidence. It is an educated
interpreting data. It helps us classify an object or event based on previously gathered data guess based on sound
and communicate with others. The or information. It is a link between what is observed observation and inferences about
metric system should be used to help an observed event or prior
and what is already known. It uses reasoning to
understand the scientific world. explain what you observe and can also be knowledge.
SCIED 61 (THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE) 18
assumptions about your observations.
 ACTIVITY 1
Make a 2-minute video explaining your insights about the following questions.

1. What is the importance of Instructional Theory?

2. How to integrate Instructional Theory in teaching science to high school students?
3. How does a pre-service teacher's pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) influence
students’ learning performance?

Send your work to your SCIED 61 Google classroom. Deadline for submission will be given
by your instructor.

“Learning is never done without errors and defeat.” –

Vladimir Lenin.

Rubric for the Video

Poor Fair Good Very Good Excellent Total
(2-3 pts) (4-5 pts) (6-10 pts) (111-15 (16-20 pts)
pts)
Subject/Content The video The videoThe video The video The video pr
Delivery provides no provides provides provides insights and
insights, insights oninsights on insights on topic are
and relevant the topic but the topic and the topic presented with
information still needs is and relevant accuracy, and
is not improvements appropriately information relevant
discussed discussed are information
properly. with minor discussed are discussed
improvement properly properly
The video The video The video The video The video
Creativity/ presentation presentation presentation presentation presentation
Organization shows no shows shows shows shows great
organization organization organization organized organization
and but lacks and information and creativity.
creativity creativity creativity and has a
good sense
of creativity
Technical/Clarity The video is The video is The video is The video is The video is
inaudible audible but audible and audible and audible, and
and unclear unclear and can be can be the delivery of
and has too has minor understood understood information is
many technical fairly clearly. commendable.
technical problems
problems
(e.g.,
corrupted
file)

SCIED 61 (THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE) 19

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SCIED 61 (THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE) 20