BEEE(M) 10-29 Semiconductor Devices

10.11.4 Zener Diode Specifications :

Some of the important specifications of a zener diode are :

Zener voltage 2. Power dissipation
3. Maximum power dissipation D max 4. Breakover current
( )
5. Dynamic resistance 6. Maximum reverse current.
Typical specifications of a zener diode
Table 10.11.2 shows some of the important
specifications of a zener diode IN 2816.
Table 10.11.2

Sr. No. Specification Unit Value

Zener voltage 18 Volts
Maximum power dissipation at 25 °c 50
d (max)
Dynamic impedance 22
Breakover current or knee current 5 mA
zk
Maximum junction temperature 150°C
j( max)
Temperature coefficient c 0.075 % per °C
10.11.5 Applications of Zener Diode:

As a
voltage reference in emitter follower type voltage regulator.
2. As a
regulated power supply.
n the protection circuits for MOSFET.
+. In the clipping circuits.
In the pulse amplifier.

10.12 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The semiconductor device like a diode cannot amplify a signal, therefore its application area is
limited.
A next logical step in the development of semiconductor devices after diode is a bipolar
Junction transistor (BJT).
Transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals are collector, emitter and base, out of
which base is a control terminal.
A signal of small amplitude applied to the base is available in the "magnified" form at the
collector of the transistor.
This is the "amplification" provided by a BJT.
Thus a large power signal is obtained from a small power signal.
The additional power required for this operation is obtained from an external source of de
power.
BIT is the basic building block of almost all the electronic circuits
regulator or oscillator circuit, logic gates to a digital computer.
right from a simple
Before the invention of a transistor, vacuum tubes were
being used for amplification
applications.
 10.12.1 Advantages of a Transistor:
The transistorsare more desirable than the
vacuum tubes because of their folowing advantage
1. Small size and ruggedness.
2. Do not require any filament
power.
3. Operate at a low voltage.
4 Higher efficiency.
10.12.2 Why is it called as a Transistor ?
The term "transistor" was
derived from the words TRANSFER
adopted because it best describes the and RESISTOR. This term was
current from a low resistance operation of a transistor, which is the
transfer of an input signal
circuit to a high resistance
circuit.
10.12.3 Why is it called
"Bipolar" Transistor ?
a

The conduction in a
is why it is called as a
bipolar junction transistor takes place due to
both, electrons and holes. That
"bipolar" transistor.
If the conduction takes
place due to only one type of carriers i.e.
transistor is called as majority carriers then the
"unipolar" transistor.
The example of a
unipolar device is the field effect transistor
10.12.4 Types of Transistors
(FET).
The bipolar junction transistors are of two
types:
P-n-p transistors
n-p-n transistors.

npn Transistor
pnp Transistor
Jc
E
JE
(Emitter) P n E
pai
(Collector) (Emitter) nul pain-oC
(Collectorn
B (Base)
B (Base)
(a)

E
C
(Emitter) (Collector) E
Emitter)
(Collector)
B (Base)
(b) B (Base)

Fig. 10.12.1: Construction and symbols

of transistors
 E(M) 10-31
Semiconductor Devices
The symbols of the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors are as shown in Fig. 10.12.1. The n-p-n transistors
are more popular than the p-n-p transistors.
The arrow is always placed on the emitter teminal and the arrow direction indicates the direction
of conventional current flow of emitter current.

10.13 Construction of a BJT

>>>[Asked in Exam: Dec. 02 !!! ]

The construction and symbols of the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors is as shown in
Fig. 10.12.1 (a) and (b) respectively.

The n-p-n transistor is formed by sandwiching a thin

semiconductor between two
"p" type "n
type semiconductors whereas a p-n-p transistor is formed by sandwiching thin "n" type
semiconductor between two p type semiconductors.
In both the types, base comes in between collector and emitter region.
Base is always a thin and lightly doped layer.
Emitter and collector layers are much wider than the base and are heavily doped. To be precise,
the emitter is slightly more heavily doped than the collector and the collector area is slightly
larger than the emitter area.
Number of p-n junctions and equivalent circuits
As shown in Fig. 10.12.1 (a) and (b), a transistor has two p-n junctions namely BE (Base to
Emitter) junction and CB (Collector to Base) junction.
A p-n junction is represented by a diode. Therefore the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors are equivalent
to two diodes connected back-to-back as shown in Fig. 10.13.1 (a) and (b).

n
BE CB
Emitter o Collector Emitter Collector

Base Base

(a) Equivalent for npn transistor (b) Equivalent for pnp transistor
Fig. 10.13.1

10.13.1 An Unbiased Transistor:

For an unbiased transistor no external power supplies are connected to it.
We have already seen the formation of a depletion region in an unbiased p-n junction diode.

As a transistor is formed of two p-n junctions, we can apply the same concept over here as well.
 10-32 Semiconductor.Davicos
PCEE(M)
the B-E and C-B junctions of an n-p-n
formed at
Fig.10.13.2 shows the depletion regions
transistor.

BE junction CB junction
Emitter Base Collector
O
Collector
Emitter n n
(C)
(E)
D
C Depletion Depletion
region Base region
(B)
Fig. 10.13.2: Depletion regions in an unbiased n-p-n transistor

10.14 Transistor Biasing in the Active Region:

Biasing is the process of applying external voltages to the transistor. The two junctions in a BJT
must be biased properly in order to operate it as an amplifier.
A BJT is capable of operating in four different regions, depending on the way in which it is
biased. The regions of operation are
1. Cutoff region (transistor is OFF)

22. Saturation region (transistor is fully ON)

3 Forward active region (in between saturation and cutoff).

4 Inverse active mode

The biasing conditions for these four regions of operation are as shown in Table 10.14.1.
Table 10.14.1: Biasing conditions for different regions of operation

Sr. Region of operation Base emitter Collector base junction Application

No. junction
Cutoff region Reverse biased Reverse biased

2. Forward Active Forward biased Reverse biased Amplifier

region
3. Saturation region Forward biased Forward biased

4 Inverse active Reverse biased Forward biased

BEEE(M) 10-33
The
Semiconductor Devicos
biasing of transistor
junction for active
transistor. A transistor should be biased in theregion
are shown in
Fig. 10.14.1 for an n-p-n
forward active region so as to
amplifier. operate it as an
Fig. 10.14.1 also indicates the conventional directions
of the currents
polarities of voltages VBE and VCE I lg and l plus the

CB Junction
is reverse
biased

VcE
VBE BE Junction
is forward
biased

Fig. 10.14.1: Transistor biasing for active region

In order to use the transistor as an amplifier, it must be
biasing of the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors for operated in its active region. The
their active region operation and the directions of
the currents are as shown in
Fig. 10.14.2.
n

VEE Vcc VEE Vcc

Biasing of n-p-n transistor
Biasing of p-n-p transistor
Fig. 10.14.2: Transistor biasing in the active region
10.15 Transistor Operation in the Active Region:

10.15.1 Operation of npn Transistor

The positive supp]y VEE Will forward bias the base-emitter
reverse bias the collector to base junction and the
voltage Vcc will
junction as shown in Fig. 10.15.1(a).
Hence the width of
depletion region for B-E junction is very small, but that at the C-B
large. junction is
 SemiconductorDevices
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BEEE(M) - Depletion regionsS

Current

Current limiting
limiting RE BEjunction
CB junction
Reverse biased
Rc resisto
resistor Forward biased
VEE Vcc
B
Fig. 10.15.1(a) : Transistor (npn) biased to operate in the active region

Operation : The sequence of operation for an npn transistor is as follows:

flov g towards
The electrons which are the majority carriers in the n-type emitter will start
Step 1: the p-type base as shown in Fig. 10.15.1(b). This will constitute the emitter current IE

Electrons moving from the emitter to base have three options as follows :
Step 2:
1. with the holes present in the base. As the base region is thin and
They recombine
lightly doped the number of holes is few. Hence out of the total injected electrons from
the emitter a very few recombine with the holes in the base region. This constitutes
the base current Ig. Thus base current flows due to recombinations of electrons
and holes. The base current is therefore small as compared to the emitter current
(typically 2% of total I). This is shown in Fig. 10.15.1(c).

-BE junction Collector current

Base
n

RE RE
BB
B
VEE

VEE Electrons Emitter electron current Base electron current

Holes due to recombination
(b) Constitution of emitter current (C) Constitution of base and collector currents
Fig. 10.15.1

2 Some of the electrons diffuse through the base and out of the base connection.
3 The remaining large number of electrons will pass through the depletion region of
CB junction and pass through the collector region to the positive end of the external
power supply Vcc as shown in Fig. 10.15.1(d). The collector current I is much
larger than the bese current.
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10-35
Semicondudtor.Devicod
Base
P Collector current

VEE Rc
Voc

Electron collector current

Ic
Fig. 10.15.1(d) : Operation of the
npn transistor
Simplified operation of npn
The
transistor:
operation of npn transistor discussed earlier can bé
simplified as follows
The forward bias at the
B-E
flow from n-type emitter to junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to
p-type base.
Holes also will flow from
than the p-type base to n-type emitter. But as the
base is more lightdy doped
emitter, almost
all the current
flowing across
entering the base from the emitter. Hence electrons the B-E junction consists of electrons
are the
transistor. majority carriers in an n-p-n
Some of the electrons
entering into the base region do not reach the collector
flow out of the base terminal
via the base connection as region. Instead they
recombination. As the base region is shown in Fig. 10.15.2, due to
very thin and lightly doped, there are
available in the base region for few holes
recombination. Hence about 2% electrons will very
due to recombination. flow out of base
The. remaining 98% electrons cross the reverse biased
collector current. They cross the
collector junction to constitute the
collector region and are collected
by the supply VcC.
Emitter Base Collector
Electrons N P N Electrons
Collected
Emitted

RE Emitter Recombination B
Rc
current Current Collector
current Direction of
Conventional
flow of current
VEE
l
Vcc
Fig. 10.15.2: Operation of an npn transistor
The emitter current is equal to the sum of
collector and base currents.
Ig = Ic+l
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10.15.2 Operation of pnp Transistor:

difference is
device. The only
The p-n-p transistor behaves exactly in the same way as the n-p-n
the majority charge cariers are holes instead of electrons.
emitted from the p-type emitter across the forward biased EB
As shown in Fig. 10.15.3 holes are

junction, into the base.

In the lightly doped base there are very few number of electrons available for recombination.

Therefore about 25% of total emitted holes will flow out via the base terminal and the remaining
are drawn across the collector by the electric field at the reverse biased collector junction.
Emitter Base Collector
N Holes
Holes Collected
mitted
Direction of
conventional
current
RE Emitter Recombination B
Current Ia Collector
current Current
E

VEE Voc
Fig. 10.15.3: Operation of a pnp transistor
As in case of n-p-n transistor, the forward bias the EB
emitter currents.
at junction controls the collector and

10.15.3 Transistor Currents:

As seen from Fig. 10.15.2 and as discussed

earlier, the electrons injected from emitter into the
base constitute the emitter current
(1).
Out of these electrons very few will combine
with the holes in the thin base
the base current (lp). region to constitute
The remaining electrons pass
through to the collector region and then to the
to constitute the collector
current (Tc). positive end of Vcc
Therefore we can write that,
IE Ie+ Ig
That means, emitter current is .(10.15.1)
always equal to the sum of collector current and base
As Ig is very small curent.
compared to I we can assume the collector current to be
emitter current. nearly equal to the

..(10.15.2)
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10-37 Semiconductor Devices

10.15.4 Circuit Symbols and Conventions

The block diagram and conventional circuit symbols of npn and pnp bipolar transistors are as

shown in Fig. 10.15.4.

Ic npn transistor

P B VoE
E
VBE

(a) (b)

Colc pnp transistor

VCE
VgE

(c) (d)

Fig. 10.15.4: Circuit symbols

and conventions of a bipolar transistor
the emitter terminal and it indicates the direction of flow of
The arrowhead is always placed
on

theconventional emitter current.

current' flows out of the emitter terminal whereas for the pnp
For the npn transistor the emitter
flows into the emitter terminal.
transistor the emitter current
components have been shown. Note that
all these
The current direction for all the.other
current

áre the conventional currents.

 Semiconductor Devices
BEEE(M) 10-38

10.16 Transistor Configurations

are three poSSiDIe
Depending on which terminal is made common to input and output port there
configurations of the transistor. They are as follows:
Common base (CB) configuration Base is common

Common emitter (CE) configuration Emitter is common.

3 Common collector (CC) configuration Collector is common.

In all the configurations, the emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is
reverse biased to operate the transistor in the active region.
We will discuss only about the CE configuration in this chapter.

10.17 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:

The common emitter configuration for the p-n-p and n-p-n transistors is as shown in
Figs. 10.17.1(a) and (b).

Ro
C C

ww E VCE
Vcc R

E VCE
Vcc
VBB VBE VBB VBE

Emitter is
Emitter is
Common common

(a) Common emitter configuration for (b) Common emitter configuration for
n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor
Fig. 10.17.1

The important points about the CE configuration are as follows

Now the emitter acts as a common terminal between input, and output. The input voltage is
applied between base and emitter. Hence VBE is the input voltage and Ip is the input current.
The output is taken between the collector and emitter. Therefore
VcE is the output voltage and Ic
is the output current.
In order to operate the transistor in its active region, the base-emiter (BE) junction is forward
biased and the collector base junction is reverse biased.
B E E E ( M )
10-39 Semiconductor Deviges

10.17.1 Current Gain (Bdc) : > Asked in Exam May 02 !!!

Current gain is defined as the ratio of output current to input current. For CE configuration,
the current gain is denoted by (Pac) or simply B and is given by,

.(10.17.1)

We have seen that IpR is very small as compared to Ic Hence the value of ß is large typically

between 50 to 150.
From Equation (10.17.1), Ic = B Ip. Thus output current I can be controlled by the small

Hence the transistor is called current controlled device.

input current Ip. as a

10.17.2 adc >»[Asked in Exam : May 02 !!! ]

de is called as the current gain of the common base (CB) configuration. It is defined as,

d e or a - ...(10.17.2)

1S always less than but almost equal to Ip. Hence the value of "o" is close to but less
c
than 1.

10.17.3 Relation between ade and Pac > > [ Asked in Exam:May 02 !1! ]

We know that But

Divide numerator and denominator by Ig to get,

dc 1+ ( B

But (/)= Pac

..
de
Pde
1+Pac .(0.17.3)

This is the relation between and ac Similarly we can obtain the expression for Pac in

terms of o a s follows

But E-e
We know that
Pac -
 Semiconductor Bevice
10-40
EM)

Divide numerator and denominator by E to get,

But (/E) =
ae1-/)
dc .(10.17.4)
Pac 1-a
Thus the relations between dc and Bdc are,

ae 1+Pac and Pa1-Gge

10.17.4 Reverse Leakage Current in CE Configuration:

The total collector current in CE
a
configuration is given by,
IBtlCEO .(10.17.5)
In
thisexpression IcEO is called as the reverse leakage current of transistor in CE
contiguration. It is the current due to minority carrier and hence depends on temperature.
The reverse leakage current (IEO) increases with increase in the temperature. This current
flows in the same direction as that of I Therefore the collector current Ie will increase with
increase in temperature even when Ip is constant.
Refer Fig. 10.17.2 which shows that if base is open then the collector current is
cqual to
lCEO
w
lclcEO Open base.
Collector to emitter current.
Vcc
Base
Open E

Fig. 10.17.2 Reverse leakage current in CE configuration

lCEO is the collector to emitter current when the base is open as shows below:

CE O
Open base
Collector to emitter current

CEOs an unwanted current because it makes the collector current Ie temperature dependent.
which is an undesirable.
BEEE(M)
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miconductor Devica
10.18
Characteristics of Transistor in CE
Thecharacteristics of a Configuration
characteristics are of three types transistor help us to understand its behaviour. The transistor
Input characteristics
Output characteristics.
Transfer characteristics
10.18.1 Input Characteristics
>»[ Asked in Exam Dec. 01, May 05 ! ]
Input characteristics is always a
configuration, input graph of input current versus input voltage. For CE
current is I and
input voltage is VBE
Hence input characteristics is
N CE
a
graph of Ip versus VRE plotted at a constant output voltage

Input current Ig (HA)

VcE 5V VcE=15V
80
lc
60
Constant
Re VBE AVBE
VBB. VCE
At constant VgE
40 &VBE
Input characteristics g decreases 20
is the VI characteristics as VcE increases
of the BE
junction -VBE (Volts)
Constant5 1.0 1.5
Input voltage
VBE
(a) (b) Input characteristics of a transistor in
the CE configuration
Fig. 10.18.1

For CE configuration, I is the input current and

VRE is the input voltage.
At constant output voltage VCE the input characteristics of a
n-p-n transistor is as shown in
Fig. 10.18.1 (b). The input characteristics also shows the effect of
VCE
The important points about the input characteristics are as follows:
The input characteristics resembles the forward
reason is that B-E
characteristics of a p-n junction diode. The
junction is a forward biased p-n junction.
 Semiconductor Devices
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BEEE(M)
Dynamic input resistance : or n c
crosses the cut in voltage
The base current increases rapidly as the base-emitter voltage
defined as
BE. p-n junction. The dynamic input resistance is
ABE
A Ve constant .(10.18.1)

is equal to the reciprocal

Its value can be obtained from the input characteristics because "r"
of slope of the input characteristics.
is low for the CE configuration but it is not as
The value of dynamic input resistance ""
low as that of CB configuration.
Eftect of change in VcE on the input characteristics:
In CB configuration, we have seen the effect of change in VcB On the input characteristics
Early effect).
Let us see the effect of change in VcE on the input characteristics.
Fig. 10.18.I shows that at a constant VgE if we increase VcE from 5V to 15V then the base
current decreases from 60 uA to 20 LA.
Thus I decreases with increase in VcE We can explain this as follows.

As VcE increase the CB junction is more reverse biased.

The depletion region at CB junction penetrates more into base.

This reduces the electrical width of the base.

The chances of recombination in the base region reduce.

Hence the base current will reduce

10.18.2 Output Characteristics: >>» Asked in Exam Dec. 01, May 05 !!! ]

Output characteristics is a graph of output current versus output voltage plotted at constant
values of input current. For CE configuration, the output current is Ic and output voltage is

NCE
This is a graph of output current (Ic) versus output voltage ( VCE) for various fixed values
of the input current (1p)
The typical output characteristics of a n-p-n transistor operating in the CE configuration are as
shown in Fig 10.18.2.
As shown in Fig. 10.18.2, there are three regions of operation namely the cutoff region, active
Fegion and saturation region.
 10-43 Semiconductor Devices
BEEE(M)

Ic is proportional only
to lg. Collector junction is RB
and emitter junction is FB

-Forward active region Ig 80 uA

c (mA)
*************

Ig =60uA
4 *******************
Saturatio
region Ig= 40 uA
******a********

3
Ig 20 A
**********o

*******************
lc=lCEO g =0

cE(Volts)

Cutoff region

Fig. 10.18.2: Output characteristics of a n-p-n transistor in CE configuration

operate in any of the following region of operation

:
The transistor can

Cut off region 2. Active region 3. Saturation region.

(1) Cutoff region:

Both the BE and CB junctions are reverse biased to operate the transistor in ecutofi regon.
The base current I = 0 and the collector current is equal to the reverse leakage current cEO The

region below the characteristics for Ip = 0 is cutoff region.

(2) Active region

The B-E junction is forward biased, and C-B junction is Teverse biased to operate the
transistor in the active region.
The collector current Ic increases slightly with increase in the, voltage VCE However
the collector current is largely dependent on the base current
I
At a fixed value of VCE if IB is increased, then it will cause I to increase
substantially.
This is because Ic = Pae 'B This relation is true only for the active region of operation.

(3) Saturation region:

The BE junction as well as the collector junction must be forward biased to operate the
transistor in its saturation region.
The collector base junction can be forward biased if and only if VcE drops down to
about 0.2 volts. Because then VRE = 0.7 volts will forward bias the CB
junction.
This is as shown in Fig. 10.18.3, Usually the saturation voltage of a transistor,
CE (sat) 15 between 0,I to 0.3 volts,
 BEEE(M) 10-44
10.18.2.
increase in VeE as shown in Fig.
Lne Collector current increases rapidly with
Note that in this region Ic is approximately
independent of the base current and function VBC =0.5V
of VCE Therefore in this region the
VcE 0.2 Volts
transistor is considered to be a semiconductor
resistor of very small value. The transistor is
operated as a switch in this region.
VBE0.7
Fig. 10.18.3 Forward biasing
of CB junction
(4) Dynamic output resistance ( r):
The dynamic output resistance ( r ) of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as

AVCE
oAI constant B ...(10.18.3)
The dynamic output resistance can be obtained as reciprocal of slope of output
characteristics. Its value is large in the active region because AL in this region is very
small. However value of r, will be very small in the saturation region. This is because
Al in that region is large for a small value of A VcE

(5) Definition of Bac

We have already defined Pac as

Pace
The value of Pac"can be obtained from the output characteristics. At any point on the
characteristics we can çalculate Pae by taking the ratio of Ie and Ig at that point.
Now let us define AC beta of a transistor as

Alc
A VcE Constant
...(10.18.4)
Thus the value of ac beta can be obtained at a constant value of from the
VCE output
characteristics. The values of Band ac are nearly the same.

(6) Maximum VcE and breakdown

In the active region the collector junction is reverse biased, so there is a limit on the
maximum value of VCE:
If VcE exceeds this maximum value, collector junction will breakdown due to the
punch through effect discussed earlier.
 10-45
BEEE(M) Semiconductor Devicoe
A large current will flow which will generate excessive heat to damage the transistor
Hence for safe operation VCEVCE (maxy

10.18.3 Transfer Characteristics

Transfer characteristics for a CE configuration is the graph of output current (Lc) versus input
current Ip at a constant value of VCE It is as shown in Fig. 10.18.4.

Transfer characteristics is also called as "current gain" characteristics. We can measure the
current gain of the transistor directly from this characteristics. The characteristics in
Fig. 10.18.4 shows that the relation between I and I is linear.

Ic (mA) f VcE =6V

Slope = B-
+VoE=2

lc 2mA Pac 50
Ig= 40uA

I g (GuA)
60
Input current

Fig. 10.18.4: Transfer characteristics for CE configuration

The slope of this characteristics gives us the value of current gain B of the transistor in CE
configuration.
10.18.4 Output Characteristics of a p-n-p Transistor in C.E. Configuration:
Fig. 10.18.5(a) shows the biasing of a p-n-p transistor in the CE configuration. It is biased to
operate in the active region.
Note that VCE is negative. The output characteristics is as shown in Fig. 10.18.5(b).
Note that the characteristics has the same shape as that of an n-p-n transistor.

VcE R
VBB Vcc

Fig. 10.18.5(a) : p-n-p transistor in CE configuration

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Ic mA Active-
-30uA

Saturation -20uA
3
-10uA
-2

-5uA

B0
VoE Volts
5 -10 15
Cut off
Fig. 10.18.5(b) : Output characteristics of a p-n-p transistor in CE configuration
10.18.5 Features of CE Configuration
Common terminal Emitter
Input current

Output current

Input voltage
Output voltage VCE
Current gain Pae High
Voltage gain Medium
Input resistance Moderate (1.1 k2)
Output resistance High (40 k2)
Applications As audio amplifiers

10.18.6 Typical Junction Voltages

The values of junction voltages for the CB and BE junctions under the cut-off, saturation and
active regions will be different, as shown in Table 10.18. 1.

Table 10.18.1: Junction voltages of an n-p-n transistor at 25 C

Voltage Silicon transistor Germanium
transistor

VBE (Cut-of - 0.1 V

VBE (Cut in) 0.5V 0.1V

 10-47
Semiconduotor Dovicos
Voltage Silicon transistor
Germanium
transistor
VBE (active) 0.7V
0.2V
VBE (saturation) 0.8V
0.3V
VCE (saturation) 0.2V
0.1V
The voltages given in Table
the values will 10.18.1 are for an
remain the same but the n-p-n transistor at 25 C For a
sign should be
.

p-n-p transistor
reversed.
10.18.7 Standard Tests for Saturation, Cutoff and Active
Tests for saturation Regions:
It is often
carried
important to know
out to decide about
whether or not a transistor is in saturation. The two tests
the saturation of a transistor are to be

Test No. 1:
Determine Icand Ip separately from the circuit
transistor is in saturation if 1Ip
configuration under consideration. The
I2111/B.
Test No. 2:
Both the
junctions of a transistor should be forward biased for
region. Measure VCE: f it is
positive for p-n-p transistor and operation in the saturation
transistor is in saturation. negative for n-p-n transistor then the

Test for active region

Measure the voltages across the BE
junction and CB junction. If VRE 0.7V i.e. if it is =
forward biased and if
VRC negative (CB junction reverse biased) then the transistor is in active
is
region.
Test for cutoff
region:
If VBE is less than 0.5V and VCR is negative, then both the
junctions remain off and the
transistor is in cutoff region.
10.18.8 Why is CE
Configuration Most preferred Configuration ?
Out of the three
configurations discussed, the CE configuration is the most popular
widely used configuration. The reasons are as follows: and
. It has a high
voltage gain as well as a high current gain.
2. As voltage gain as well current gain are high, it has a
as
because, power gain is the product of
very high power gain. This is
voltage gain and current gain.
3 The CE configuration has moderate values of
R and R Therefore many such stages can be
coupled to each other without using any additional impedance matching circuits. Due
automatic to this
impedance matching, maximum power transfer will take
place from one
the other. stage to
 10-48
SemiconductorDovces
BEEEM)
10.19 Specifications of a Transistor

Most data sheets categories the transistor specifications into the following three categories

1 Maximum ratings
2. Thermal characteristics
3 Electrical characteristics

Important specifications of a transistor are as follows:

1. VCE (max) 2. Ic (ma 3 VCEO
4. ICEO 5. V CE 6 Power dissipation
(breakdown)
7. V CE (sat) 8. a and B

10.20 Transistor Applications:

Some of the important applications of a transistor are as follows:
1. Amplifiers
2. Switching circuits
3. Oscillators
4. Waveshaping circuits
5. Logic circuits

6. Timers and multivibrator

7. Delay circuits.

10.21 University Questions with Answers:

a. 1 Explain the input and output characteristics of a N-P-N transistor in common emitter
configuration. Clearly mark various regions on the characteristics. Show how different
parameters can be determined from the above characteristics. (Dec. 2001, 8 Marks)
(Sections 10.18.1 and 10.18.2)

Q.2 Define and derive the relation between a and B of transistor. (Dec. 2002, 3 Marks)
(Sections 10.17.1, 10.17.2 and 10.17.3)

a. 3 Give the doping profile of BJT. Why so ? (Section 10.13) (Dec. 2002, 3 Marks)
Q. 4 Drawthe circuit-diagram to plot the input and output characteristics of BUT in CE configuration,
plot the curves and explain, and also explain the different operating regions.
(Sections 10.18.1 and 10.18.2) (May 2005, 10 Marks)