FC Notes

FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMPUTER
Fundamentals of Computer
CAC01: Fundamentals of Computer

Total Teaching Hours: 42 No of Hours / Week : 04
Course Content Content Hours
Unit - 1
Fundamentals of Computers: Introduction to Computers - Computer 10
Definition, Characteristics of Computers, Evolution and History of
Computers, Types of Computers, Basic Organisation of a Digital
Computer; Number Systems – different types, conversion from one
number system to another; Computer Codes – BCD, Gray Code, ASCII and
Unicode; Boolean Algebra – Boolean Operators with Truth Tables; Types
of Software – System Software and Utility Software; Computer Languages
- Machine Level, Assembly Level & High Level Languages, Translator
Programs – Assembler, Interpreter and Compiler; Planning a Computer
Program - Algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudocode with Examples.
Unit-2
Introduction to computers: Characteristics of computers, Classification 10

of Digital Computer Systems: Microcomputers, Minicomputers,
Mainframes, Supercomputers. Anatomy of Computer: Introduction,
Functions & Components of a Computer, Central Processing Unit,
Microprocessor, Storage units, Input and output Devices. How CPU and
memory works. Program execution with illustrative examples.
Introduction to microcontrollers.
Unit-3
Operating System Fundamentals : Operating Systems: Introduction, 10

Functions of an operating System, Classification of Operating Systems,
System programs, Application programs, Utilities, The Unix Operating
System, Basic Unix commands, Microkernel Based Operating System,
Booting.
Unit-4
Introduction to Database Management Systems:Database, DBMS, Why 6

Database -File system vs DBMS, Database applications, Database users,
Introduction to SQL, Data types, Classification of SQL-DDL with
constraints, DML, DCL, TCL
Unit-5
Internet Basics: Introduction, Features of Internet, Internet application, 6

Services of Internet, Logical and physical addresses, Internet Service
Providers, Domain Name System.
Web Basics: Introduction to web, web browsers, http/https, URL,
HTML5, CSS
BCA 1st SEM 1

UNIT 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER
Define computer.
Computer is derived from the Latin word ‘Computare’ which means ‘calculate’.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory, that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules (process), produce
results (output), and store the results (storage) for future use.
Computers process data into information. Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can include
text, numbers, images, audio, and video. Information conveys meaning and is useful to people. During
the output operation, the information that has been created is put into some form, such as a printed
report, or it can be stored on the computer for future use.
Explain the Characteristics of Computer.
Computers are electronic devices that process, store, and retrieve data. Computers have several
characteristics that make them powerful and versatile tools.
Word length  A digital computer operates on binary digits – 0 and 1.
 It can understand information only in binary digits (bits).
 The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called
word length.
 Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.
 Word length is the measure of the computing power of a computer.
Speed  Computers are very fast at processing data. They can perform millions of
instructions per second, which is much faster than humans can work.
Accuracy  Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to
data inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence  A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration.
Versatility  Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of
works with same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability  A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if
we give same set of input any number of times
Automation  Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
Storage  Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also
Capacity retrieved whenever required. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and
compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently
BCA 1st SEM 2

Explain the Evolution of Computers
The evolution of computers can be divided into five main generations:
Characteristics: Examples
First Generation  Used vacuum tubes  ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
(1940-1956)  Slow and bulky Integrator and Computer)
 Limited memory  UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic
 Expensive Computer I)
 IBM 701
Second  Used transistors  IBM 1401

Generation  Faster and more reliable than  UNIVAC 1107
(1956-1963) vacuum tubes  DEC PDP-8
 Smaller and more affordable
 Introduced high-level
programming languages
Third  Used integrated circuits (ICs)  IBM System/360

Generation  Smaller, faster, and more  DEC PDP-11
(1964-1971) powerful than previous  UNIVAC 1108
generations
 Introduced minicomputers
 Introduced operating systems
Fourth  Used microprocessors  Apple II

Generation  Personal computers (PCs)  Commodore PET
(1971-1981) became affordable  IBM PC
 Introduced networking
 Introduced graphical user
interfaces (GUIs)
Fifth Generation  Continued miniaturization of  Apple Macintosh

(1981-Present) transistors  IBM PC
 Increased processing power  Smartphones and tablets
and storage capacity
 Introduction of the Internet
 Explosion of mobile
computing
BCA 1st SEM 3

Explain the History of Computer
Until the development of first-generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had been several
developments in computing technology related to mechanical computing devices.
Abacus  Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting of large numbers.
 The word ABACUS means calculating board.
 It consists of bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted.
 The horizontal bars have 10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s Bones  Napier’s Bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication
in 1617 ad. by an English mathematician John Napier.
Slide Rule  Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the
16th century.
 Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
 It was used extensively till late 1970s.
Blaise Pascal  Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal.
 It could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and
cylinders.
Punch Cards  Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in
1801.
 He invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole
in the punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary zero.
 The 0s and 1s are the basis of the modern digital computer.
Charles  Babbage’s Analytical Engine an English man Charles Babbage built a

Babbage: mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year
1823.
 The machine was called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady
Ada Lovelace developed a general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical
engine. Charles Babbage is also called the father of computer
BCA 1st SEM 4

Explain the Types of Computers
1. Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the most powerful computers in the world. They are used
for scientific research, engineering simulations, and other computationally intensive tasks.
Supercomputers are typically very large and expensive, and they are often housed in specialized
facilities.
2. Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are used by
businesses and organizations to process large amounts of data. They are typically very reliable and
can handle many users simultaneously. Mainframe computers are often used for applications such
as financial transactions, airline reservation systems, and customer relationship management.
3. Mini Computer: These are also a general purpose computer, smaller than mainframe computer.
Medium sized computer, occupying approximately 10 sq ft of area. They have slower operating
speed, smaller backup storage, limited hardware and less memory than mainframes.
Minicomputers are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing, database
management, statistical packages for social sciences. More than 50 terminals and large storage
capacity device than microcomputers but smaller than mainframe computers. E.g. Prime 9755
4. Minicomputers: Minicomputers are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers, but
they are still more powerful than personal computers. They are typically used by businesses and
organizations that need a powerful computer that can support a moderate number of users.
Minicomputers are often used for applications such as accounting, inventory management, and
manufacturing control.
5. Analog computers: Analog computers represent data using physical quantities, such as electrical
voltage or mechanical displacement. They are used for applications where speed and accuracy are
not critical, such as measuring temperature or pressure.
6. Digital computers: Digital computers represent data using discrete values, such as 0 and 1. They
are used for a wide variety of applications, including personal computing, business, and science.
BCA 1st SEM 5

7. Hybrid computers: Hybrid computers combine analog and digital components. They are used for
applications that require both the speed and accuracy of analog computers and the versatility of
digital computers.
8. Personal Computer (PC): Personal Computers is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically
a general-purpose computer designed for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a
central processing unit(CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is
suitable for personal work such as making an assignment, watching a movie, or at the office for
office work, etc. For example, Laptops and desktop computers.
9. Special-purpose computers: Special-purpose computers are designed for specific tasks. They are
typically used in industrial or scientific settings. Some examples of special-purpose computers
include:
a) Workstations: Workstations are powerful computers that are designed for specialized tasks such
as graphics design, engineering, and scientific computing. They typically have high-performance
processors, large amounts of memory, and high-resolution displays.
b) Embedded computers: Embedded computers are computers that are embedded in other devices,
such as cars, appliances, and industrial equipment. Embedded computers are typically designed
for specific tasks and are not intended to be used for general-purpose computing.
c) Servers: Servers are computers that are designed to provide services to other computers on a
network. Servers can be used to provide a variety of services, such as file storage, web hosting,
and email.
d) Wearable computers: Wearable computers are computers that are worn on the body, such as
smartwatches and fitness trackers. Wearable computers are typically used to collect data about the
user's health and activity.
Basic organization of digital computer
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.
Input Unit: The input unit is responsible for taking data from the outside world and converting it into
a format that the computer can understand. This data can come in many forms, such as
text, numbers, images, or sound. Common input devices include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and
scanners.
BCA 1st SEM 6
Output Unit: The output unit is responsible for taking data from the computer and converting it into a
format that the user can understand. This data can be displayed on a screen, printed on paper, or played
through speakers. Common output devices include monitors, printers, and speakers.
Processing Unit: The processing unit, also known as the central processing unit (CPU), is the "brain"
of the computer. It is responsible for performing calculations, making decisions, and controlling the
overall operation of the computer. The CPU consists of two main components:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.
 Control Unit (CU): The CU fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and controls the
execution of those instructions.
 Additionally, CPU also has a set of Registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of calculation.
Memory Unit: The memory unit stores data and instructions that the computer needs to access. It is
typically divided into two main types:
 Primary Memory (RAM): Random-access memory (RAM) is volatile memory, which means
that it loses its contents when the computer is turned off. RAM is used to store data and
instructions that the computer needs to access quickly.
 Secondary Memory (Storage): Secondary storage is non-volatile memory, which means that it
retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. 
 Secondary storage is used to store data that does not need to be accessed as quickly as data in
RAM. Common secondary storage devices include hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and
optical discs
Number System: A data stored in computer may be of different kinds as follows:
 Numeric data(0,1,…,,9)
 Alphabetic data (A,B,…..,Z)
 Alphanumeric data- Combination of any symbols-(0,1,…,,9), (A,B,…..,Z) or special
characters(+,-,Blank),etc.
The number systems that are commonly used in the computer are-
 Decimal number system range(0 to 9)
 Binary number system range (0 to 1)
 Octal number system range (0 to 7)
 Hexadecimal number system range (0 to F)
Conversion from Decimal to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal
Conversion of Integer part:
 Divide the given integer part of decimal number by base successively and write down all the
remainders till the quotient is zero.
 Write all the remainders starting with the MSB (Most Significant Bit) i.e. from bottom to LSB
(Least Significant Bit) i.e. top.
Conversion of Fractional part:

BCA 1st SEM 7
 Multiply the given fractional part of decimal number by base successively until the fractional
part becomes zero.
 Note down the integer part starting from first.
Note: If fractional part does not become zero then, result has been taken up to 6 places.
Decimal to Binary Conversion
Decimal to Octal Conversion
BCA 1st SEM 8

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
BCA 1st SEM 9

Conversion of Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal to Decimal
Converting from any base to decimal is done by multiplying each digit by its corresponding positional
weights and summing.
 Binary to Decimal
 Octal to Decimal
BCA 1st SEM 10

 Hexadecimal to Decimal
Conversion of Binary to Octal, Hexadecimal
Binary to Octal: As 8 = 23, for binary to octal conversion groups of 3 binary bits each are formed in
the binary number. After forming groups, each group of three binary bits is converted to its octal
equivalent.
For integer part of the binary number, the group of three bits is formed from right to left. In the
binary fraction the group of three bits is formed from left to right. If there are not 3 bits available at
last, just stuff ‘0’ to make 3 bits group.
Binary to Hexadecimal: As 16 = 24, for binary to hexadecimal conversion groups of 4 binary bits
each are formed in the binary number. After forming groups, each group of four binary bits is
converted to its hexadecimal equivalent.
For integer part of the binary number, the group of four bits is formed from right to left. In the
binary fraction the group of four bits is formed from left to right. If there are not 4 bits available at
last, just stuff ‘0’ to make 4 bits group.
BCA 1st SEM 11

E.g.
Conversion of Octal, Hexadecimal to Binary
Octal to Binary: To convert Octal number to its Binary equivalent, each digit of given octal number is
directly converted to its 3-bit binary equivalent.
Hexadecimal to Binary
To convert Hexadecimal number to its Binary equivalent, each digit of given hexadecimal number
is converted to its 4-bit binary equivalent.
Explain the different Computers codes

BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) is a way of representing decimal numbers using binary code. Each
decimal digit is represented by a four-bit binary number, as shown in the table below.
Decimal Binary
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
BCA 1st SEM 12

6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
Gray code
Gray code is a way to represent binary numbers in which only one bit changes between any two
consecutive codes. This is in contrast to binary code, in which the number of bits that change between
any two consecutive codes can be any number from 0 to n.
Decimal Binary Gray Code
0 0000 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0111
4 0100 1111
5 0101 1101
6 0110 1001
7 0111 1001
8 1000 0001
9 1001 0010
10 1010 0100
11 1011 0110
12 1100 1000
13 1101 1010
14 1110 0010
15 1111 0100
ASCII
· The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is widely used in computers of
all types.
· ASCII codes are of two types—ASCII−7 and ASCII−8.
 ASCII-7 is a 7-bit standard ASCII code. In ASCII-7, the first 3 bits are the zone bits and the
next 4 bits are for the digits. ASCII-7 allows 27 = 128 combinations. 128 unique symbols are
represented using ASCII-7. ASCII-7 has been modified by IBM to ASCII-8.
 ASCII-8 is an extended version of ASCII-7. ASCII-8 is an 8-bit code having 4 bits for zone
and 4 bits for the digit. ASCII-8 allows 28 = 256 combinations. ASCII-8 represents 256
unique symbols. ASCII is used widely to represent data in computers.
· The ASCII-8 code represents 256 symbols.
BCA 1st SEM 13
 Codes 0 to 31 represent control characters (non−printable), because they are used for actions
like, Carriage return (CR), Bell (BEL), etc.
 Codes 48 to 57 stand for numeric 0−9.
 Codes 65 to 90 stand for uppercase letters A−Z.
 Codes 97 to 122 stand for lowercase letters a−z.
 Codes 128 to 255 are the extended ASCII codes.
Unicode
 Unicode is a universal character encoding standard for the representation of text which includes
letters, numbers and symbols in multi−lingual environments. Unicode uses 32 bits to represent
a symbol in the data.
 Unicode allows 232= 4164895296 (~ 4 billion) combinations.
 Unicode can uniquely represent any character or symbol present in any language like Chinese,
Japanese, etc. In addition to the letters; mathematical and scientific symbols are also represented
in Unicode codes.
 An advantage of Unicode is that it is compatible with the ASCII−8 codes. The first 256 codes in
Unicode are identical to the ASCII-8 codes.
Binary to Gray Code Conversion
Gray Code to Binary Conversion
BCA 1st SEM 14

Boolean Algebra Truth Tables
 Boolean Algebra Expressions can be used to construct digital logic truth tables for their respective
functions
 Boolean Expression, the input and output information of any Logic Gate or circuit can be plotted
into standard Boolean Algebra truth tables to give a visual representation of the switching function
of the system.
 The table used to represent the boolean expression of a logic gate function is commonly called
a Truth Table.
Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For A 2-input AND Gate

For a 2-input AND gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A “AND” input B are both true, giving the
Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A and B ).
Note that the Boolean Expression for a two input AND gate can be written as: A.B or just
simply AB without the decimal point.
Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For A 2-input OR Gate

For a 2-input OR (Inclusive-OR) gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A “OR” input B is true,
giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A or B ).
BCA 1st SEM 15

Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For The NOT Gate

For a single input NOT (Inverter) gate, the output Q is ONLY true when the input is “NOT” true, the
output is the inverse or complement of the input giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = NOT A ).
The NAND and the NOR Gates are a combination of the AND and OR Gates respectively with that of
a NOT Gate (inverter).
2-input NAND (Not AND) Gate

For a 2-input NAND gate, the output Q is NOT true if BOTH input A and input B are true, giving the
Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A AND B) ).
2-input NOR (Not OR) Gate

For a 2-input NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B are NOT true, giving the
Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A OR B) ).
BCA 1st SEM 16

As well as the standard logic gates there are also two special types of logic gate function called
an Exclusive-OR Gate and an Exclusive-NOR Gate. The Boolean expression to indicate an Exclusive-
OR or Exclusive-NOR function is to a symbol with a plus sign inside a circle, ( ⊕ ).
The switching actions of both of these types of gates can be created using the above standard logic
gates. However, as they are widely used functions they are now available in standard IC form and have
been included here as reference.
2-input EX-OR (Exclusive OR) Gate

For a 2-input Ex-OR gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A or if input B is true, but NOT both
giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = (A and NOT B) or (NOT A and B) ).
2-input EX-NOR (Exclusive NOR) Gate

For a 2-input Ex-NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B are the same, either true
or false, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = (A and B) or (NOT A and NOT B) ).
BCA 1st SEM 17

Define Software
Software is a collection of instructions, data, or computer programs that are used to run machines and
carry out particular activities.
Explain different Types of Software

It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below
describes the types of software:
1. System Software: System software manages the computer hardware and provides a platform for
application software to run on. It includes:
 Operating Systems (OS): The core software that manages hardware resources, provides a user
interface, and allows other software to run. Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS
 Device Drivers: Software programs that enable communication between the computer and
specific hardware devices, such as printers, scanners, and network adapters.
 Utility Software: Programs that perform specific tasks related to system maintenance,
optimization, and troubleshooting. Examples: Antivirus software, disk defragmenters, file
compression tools
2. Application Software: Application software is designed to perform specific tasks or solve specific
problems for users. It can be categorized into:
 General-Purpose Software: Programs that can be used for a wide range of tasks by a variety of
users. Examples: Word processors, spreadsheets, presentation software, web browsers, email
clients
 Special-Purpose Software: Programs designed for specific tasks or industries. Examples:
Accounting software, CAD software, medical imaging software, engineering simulation software
 Enterprise Software: Software designed to manage business processes and operations within
organizations. Examples: CRM software, ERP software, supply chain management software
BCA 1st SEM 18

Explain different Computer languages
Computer languages are a set of instructions that a computer can understand and execute. They are
used to create software programs that perf
perform
orm various tasks, from managing computer hardware to
solving complex problems.
 Machine Language (low level language): These languages are closest to machine code, the
binary language that computers understand directly. They are difficult to read and write for
humans, but they provide more control over the computer hardware. Examples: machine code
 Assembly Language (middle level language): Middle-level

level language is a computer language in
which the instructions are created using symbols such as letters, dig
digits
its and special characters.
Assembly language is an example of middle-level language. In assembly language, we use
predefined words called mnemonics. Binary code instructions in low
low-level
level language are replaced
with mnemonics and operands in middle
middle-level language.
nguage. But the computer cannot understand
mnemonics, so we use a translator called Assembler to translate mnemonics into machine
language.
 High Level Language: These languages are designed to be more human-friendly,

human using words
and symbols that are easier
er for humans to understand. They provide more abstraction from the
computer hardware, making them more portable and easier to maintain. Examples: C, C++, Java,
Python, JavaScript
Explain different Translator programs
Translator programs, assembler, int

interpreter,
erpreter, and compiler are all types of software that translate code
from one language to another. However, they differ in the type of code they translate and how they do
it.
 Assembler An assembler is a type of translator program that translates assembly language code
into machine code. Assembly language is a low-level programming language that is specific to a
BCA 1st SEM 19
particular computer architecture. It is written in mnemonics, which are symbolic representations of
machine code instructions. The assembler converts the mnemonics into machine code instructions
that the computer can understand. Machine code is the native language of the computer and
consists of binary code, which is a series of 0s and 1s.
 Interpreter An interpreter is a type of translator program that translates high-level programming

language code into machine code one line at a time. High-level programming languages are more
abstract and easier to read and write than assembly language. They are not specific to a particular
computer architecture and are therefore more portable. The interpreter reads the source code line
by line and translates it into machine code instructions that the computer can execute. It does not
generate an executable file, so the code must be interpreted each time it is run.
 Compiler A compiler is a type of translator program that translates high-level programming

language code into machine code all at once. It generates an executable file that can be run
without the need for an interpreter. The compiler first performs syntax analysis to check the
grammar of the source code. Then, it performs semantic analysis to check the meaning of the code.
Finally, it generates machine code instructions that are specific to the target computer architecture.
Explain the steps of Planning a computer program

Planning a computer program: the steps involved in planning a computer program:
1. Define the problem. What do you want the program to do?

2. Analyze the problem. Break down the problem into smaller, more manageable tasks.
3. Design the algorithm. Determine the steps the program will take to solve the problem.
4. Choose a programming language. Select a language that is appropriate for the task.
5. Write the code. Implement the algorithm in the chosen programming language.
6. Test the code. Run the program to make sure it works correctly.
7. Debug the code. Fix any errors that are found during testing.
8. Deploy the code. Make the program available to users.
Define Algorithm.
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem. It is a finite sequence of well-defined,
computer-executable instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a
computation.
Problem: Calculate the factorial of a number
 Step1: Start
 Step 2 : Get the number from the user.
 Step 3: If the number is 0, then the factorial is 1.
 Otherwise, the factorial is the number times the factorial of the number minus 1.
 Step 4: print factorial
 Step 5: End
Define Flow char tand explain the various symbols.
Flowcharts are diagrams that represent a workflow or process. They use a variety of symbols, such as
rectangles, diamonds, and arrows, to illustrate the steps involved in a process and the decisions that
need to be made.
BCA 1st SEM 20

Write a note on Pseudocode

Pseudocodeis a high-level description of an algorithm that uses natural language and keywords to
outline the steps and logic of a program without using specific programming syntax or structure. It's a
way of communicating algorithms in a clear and concise manner, making it easier to understand and
modify algorithms before writing actual code.
Pseudocode typically uses keywords like "if," "else," "while," "for," and "function" to define the
control flow and structure of the algorithm. It also uses variables, data types, and basic operations to
represent the data manipulation and processing steps.
factorial(number):
if number == 0:
return 1
else:
return number * factorial(number - 1)
main():
number = get_number()
factorial = factorial(number)
print(factorial)
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def get_number():
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
return number
Example:
Enter a number: 5
120
BCA 1st SEM 22

UNIT 2
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Explain the Characteristics of Computer.
Computers are electronic devices that process, store, and retrieve data. Computers have several
characteristics that make them powerful and versatile tools.
Word length  A digital computer operates on binary digits – 0 and 1.
 It can understand information only in binary digits (bits).
 The number of bits that a computer can process at a time in parallel is called
word length.
 Commonly used word lengths are 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.
 Word length is the measure of the computing power of a computer.
Speed  Computers are very fast at processing data. They can perform millions of
instructions per second, which is much faster than humans can work.
Accuracy  Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to
data inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence  A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration.
Versatility  Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of
works with same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability  A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if
we give same set of input any number of times
Automation  Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention.
Storage  Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also
Capacity retrieved whenever required. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and
compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently
Computers can be categorized into two main types based on how they process information:
digital and analog
Digital Computers: Data representation: Use discrete values (0s and 1s) to represent information.
Signal type: Process information using discrete signals that change abruptly between states.
Examples: Smartphones, laptops, personal computers, tablets, servers, etc.
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Advantages Disadvantages
High accuracy and precision May not be suitable for real-time applications
Large memory capacity Can be expensive
Versatility - can handle diverse tasks Complex circuitry
General-purpose - can be programmed for various Requires programming
applications
Analog Computers:Data representation: Use continuous physical quantities (voltage, current) to

represent information.
Signal type: Process information using continuous signals that vary smoothly over time.
Examples: Slide rules, operational amplifiers, flight simulators, etc
.
Simple design Low accuracy and precision
Efficient for solving specific types of problems Limited memory capacity
involving continuous functions Special-purpose - designed for specific tasks
Real-time operation Not programmable
Difference between Digital Computer and Analog Computer
Feature Digital Computer Analog Computer
Data
representation Discrete (0s and 1s) Continuous physical quantities
Signal type Discrete Continuous
Slide rules, operational amplifiers,

Examples Smartphones, laptops, PCs flight simulators
High accuracy, large memory, versatile, Simple design, efficient for specific
Strengths general-purpose tasks, real-time operation
May not be suitable for real-time

applications, expensive, complex circuitry, Low accuracy, limited memory,
Weaknesses requires programming special-purpose, not programmable
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What is a microcomputer?
Microcomputers, often known as personal computers (PCs), are a category of small, relatively
inexpensive computers that have revolutionized the way we live, work, and communicate.
A microcomputer is characterized by several key features:

 Small size: Microcomputers are significantly smaller than earlier computers, making them
suitable for individual use and portable applications.
 Microprocessor: The central processing unit (CPU) of a microcomputer is built on a single
integrated circuit called a microprocessor. This miniaturization of the CPU is what makes
microcomputers possible.
 Affordable: Compared to their predecessors, microcomputers are relatively inexpensive, making
them accessible to a wider range of users.
 Versatility: Microcomputers are capable of performing a vast array of tasks, from basic word
processing and web browsing to complex scientific calculations and video editing.
 General-purpose: Microcomputers are not designed for a specific task, but rather for general use.
This versatility allows them to be adapted to a wide range of applications.
Examples of microcomputers:
 Desktop computers: These are the traditional form of microcomputers, typically consisting of a
separate monitor, keyboard, mouse, and central processing unit.
 Laptops: These are portable versions of desktop computers, offering a smaller form factor and
integrated keyboard and trackpad.
 Tablets: These are touch-screen devices with a smaller screen size than laptops, designed for
mobile computing and entertainment.
 Smartphones: These are powerful mobile devices that combine the functionality of a phone with
features like web browsing, gaming, and multimedia playback.
 Embedded systems: Microprocessors are also used in a wide range of embedded systems, such as
medical devices, household appliances, and industrial automation systems.
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What is Minicomputers
Minicomputers, also known as "minis," emerged in the mid-1960s as a bridge between the large and
expensive mainframes and the smaller and less powerful microcomputers that were just beginning to
appear.
Key characteristics of minicomputers:

 Smaller size and lower cost: Compared to mainframes, minicomputers were significantly smaller,
cheaper, and more energy-efficient. This made them more accessible to a wider range of users.
 Multi-tasking and multi-user capabilities: Minicomputers could support multiple users and
applications concurrently, making them ideal for small businesses, universities, and research
institutions.
 Increased processing power: Minicomputers offered more processing power than
microcomputers, allowing them to handle more complex tasks.
 Variety of operating systems: A range of operating systems were available for minicomputers,
including UNIX, VMS, and CP/M, each offering different strengths and functionalities.
 Diverse applications: Minicomputers were used for various purposes, including scientific and
engineering calculations, business data processing, file management, and database management.
Examples of minicomputers:
 HP 3000: Popular in business applications for its reliability and ease of use.
 Data General Nova: A powerful minicomputer used in scientific and engineering applications.
 IBM System/3: Aimed at small businesses and departments within larger organizations.
What is Mainframes?
Mainframes, often nicknamed "big iron," are powerful, high-performance computers designed for
critical applications requiring massive data processing, high availability, and unwavering security.
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Key characteristics of mainframes:
 High performance: Mainframes boast immense processing power, capable of handling millions
of transactions per second.
 Reliability: Built to last, mainframes offer exceptional uptime and reliability, crucial for mission-
critical applications.
 Security: Mainframes are designed with robust security features, protecting sensitive data from
unauthorized access.
 Scalability: Mainframes can be scaled to meet growing needs by adding additional processing
power and storage.
 Centralized data management: Mainframes serve as central repositories for large datasets,
ensuring data integrity and accessibility.
 Wide range of applications: Used across diverse sectors, mainframes power banking transactions,
process airline reservations, manage government databases, and fuel scientific research.
Examples of mainframes:
IBM z16: Leading the pack in terms of performance and scalability.

IBM System z15: A powerful and secure platform for business-critical applications.
What are supercomputers?

Supercomputers are the pinnacle of computing power, capable of performing complex calculations at
astonishing speeds. Supercomputers are incredibly powerful computers designed to tackle problems
beyond the reach of even the most high-end personal computers.
They are characterized by their:

 Parallel processing: Supercomputers employ thousands or even millions of processors working
together simultaneously to solve problems.
 High-speed interconnects: These interconnects allow processors to communicate with each other
seamlessly, ensuring efficient data exchange.
 Massive memory capacity: Supercomputers require vast amounts of memory to store data for
complex simulations and calculations.
 Custom-designed hardware: Often, specialized hardware is built specifically for supercomputers
to optimize performance for specific tasks.
Types of supercomputers:
 Vector processors: These excel at processing large amounts of data in a single instruction,
making them ideal for scientific simulations and weather forecasting.
 Massively parallel processors (MPPs): These utilize thousands or even millions of processors
working together on smaller tasks, making them suitable for complex problems requiring massive
parallel processing power.
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Anatomy of a Computer
A computer is a complex system made up of various hardware and software components that work
together to process and store information.
The main components and their functions:
Hardware:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): Considered the "brain" of the computer, the CPU executes
instructions and performs calculations. It consists of two main parts:
 Control Unit (CU): Decodes instructions and controls the flow of data within the computer.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.
 Memory: Stores data and instructions temporarily. There are two main types:
 Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile memory that holds data and programs currently in
use. Loses data when the computer is turned off.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory that stores permanent data and instructions.
 Input Devices: Allow users to communicate with the computer and enter data. Examples include
keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, etc.
 Output Devices: Present processed information to users. Examples include monitor, printer,
speaker, etc.
 Storage Devices: Store data permanently. Examples include hard disk drive (HDD), solid-state
drive (SSD), USB flash drive, etc.
 Motherboard: Connects all the hardware components together and acts as the central
communication hub.
 Power Supply Unit (PSU): Provides power to all the hardware components.
Software:
 Operating System (OS): Manages the hardware resources and provides a platform for other
software to run. Examples include Windows, macOS, Linux, etc.
 Applications: Programs that perform specific tasks, such as word processing, web browsing,
gaming, etc.
 Drivers: Software that allows the operating system to communicate with specific hardware
devices.
Additional Components:
 Network Interface Card (NIC): Allows the computer to connect to a network.
 Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): Handles graphics processing tasks, especially useful for
gaming and video editing.
 Sound Card: Processes audio inputs and outputs.
Functions & Components of a Computer
1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.
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Input Unit: The input unit is responsible for taking data from the outside world and converting it into
a format that the computer can understand. This data can come in many forms, such as
text, numbers, images, or sound. Common input devices include keyboards, mice, touchscreens, and
scanners.
Output Unit: The output unit is responsible for taking data from the computer and converting it into a
format that the user can understand. This data can be displayed on a screen, printed on paper, or played
through speakers. Common output devices include monitors, printers, and speakers.
Processing Unit: The processing unit, also known as the central processing unit (CPU), is the "brain"
of the computer. It is responsible for performing calculations, making decisions, and controlling the
overall operation of the computer. The CPU consists of two main components:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations.
 Control Unit (CU): The CU fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and controls the
execution of those instructions.
 Additionally, CPU also has a set of Registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of calculation.
Memory Unit: The memory unit stores data and instructions that the computer needs to access. It is
typically divided into two main types:
 Primary Memory (RAM): Random-access memory (RAM) is volatile memory, which means
that it loses its contents when the computer is turned off. RAM is used to store data and
instructions that the computer needs to access quickly.
 Secondary Memory (Storage): Secondary storage is non-volatile memory, which means that it
retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. Secondary storage is used to store data
that does not need to be accessed as quickly as data in RAM. Common secondary storage devices
include hard drives, solid-state drives (SSDs), and optical discs
Define microprocessor.
Microprocess sometimes called a central processing unit (CPU), is the brain of a computer. It's a
complex integrated circuit (IC) that contains millions of transistors and other components
working together to execute instructions and process information. Microprocessors are essential
for all modern electronic devices, from smartphones and laptops to cars and medical equipment.
Explain the Storage units.
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Explain computer memory
Memory is an essential component of any digital computer. It is storing device. It stores programs and
data, which is required by the CPU, and the results generated after processing.The storage capacity of
a computer is measured in terms of Bytes
.
Primary Memory
 The Primary memory is the main memory of the computer.
 It stores the programs and data, which are currently needed by the CPU.
 The size of the main memory is comparatively much smaller than that of the secondary memory
because of its high cost.
 The CPU communicates directly only with the main memory.
 As the CPU works at very high speed, its matching memory must be very fast.
 Only primary memory devices can provide the matching speed.
 RAM and ROM’s are used as the main memory of the computer.
Primary memory is of two types.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
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2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
Define Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM: This is the primary type of memory, directly accessible by the CPU. It's volatile, meaning data
is lost when the computer is turned off.
Explain the Types of RAM
Define Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM: Read-only memory stores permanent data that cannot be changed, such as the BIOS firmware..
Explain the Types of ROM
 PROM (Programmable ROM): It is a memory on which data can be written only once. A
variation of the PROM chip that is not burnt at the manufacturing time, but can be programmed
using PROM programmer or a PROM burner.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Erasable Programmable ROM: The information can
erased and re-programmed using a special PROM – programmer. AN EPROM differs from a
PROM in that PROM can be written only once and cannot be erased. But an ultraviolet light is
used to erase the contents of EPROM.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM ): This is equivalent to EPROM, but
does not require ultraviolet light to erase its content. It can be erased by exposing it to an electrical
charge.
 Flash Memory EPROM: Flash EPROM has become a popular user-programmable memory chip.
and for good reasons. First, the erasure of the entire contents takes less than a second, or one
might say in a flash, hence its name, Flash memory.
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Define Cache memory:
A small, high-speed memory that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU, storing frequently
accessed data for faster retrieval.
It stores instructions and data, which are to be immediately executed. It is used to reduce the average
access time reading data, which normally stored in the main memory. The cache memory increases the
operating speed of the system. But it is much costlier than main memory. There are two levels of cache
memory L1 and L2. L1 cache memory will present inside the CPU, whereas L2 cache will be present
on the motherboard.
Explain Secondary storage device

Secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, refers to any storage device that is not directly
accessible by the CPU. It acts as the long-term storage solution for your computer, holding data and
programs that are not currently in use. Unlike RAM, which is volatile and loses its contents when the
power is turned off, secondary storage is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even when the computer
is not running.
Common types of secondary storage:
 Hard disk drives (HDDs): Traditional storage devices with rotating magnetic platters, offering
large storage capacity at an affordable price.
 Solid-state drives (SSDs): Faster and more reliable than HDDs, use flash memory chips for
storing data, offering faster access times and higher durability.
 Optical discs: CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are used for long-term archival storage of data like
media files and backups.
 Tape drives: Offer the highest storage capacity but are the slowest and least used type of
secondary storage due to their limited accessibility.
 Cloud storage: Remote servers store your data on the internet, allowing access from any device
with an internet connection.
BCA 1st SEM 32

Explain various Input Devices.
Input devices are the tools and technologies we use to interact with computers and provide them with
instructions and data. They are the gateways through which we translate our thoughts, ideas, and
actions into a form that computers can understand. Without input devices, computers would be nothing
more than inert machines, incapable of fulfilling their potential.
Here are some of the most common types of input devices and their uses:
 Keyboard: The most widely used input device, allowing us to enter text, numbers, and special
characters. It is crucial for communication, document creation, and various other tasks.
 Mouse: Used to point and click on objects on the screen, allowing us to navigate through menus,
select items, and interact with software interfaces.
 Touchscreen: A display screen that responds to touch, allowing users to interact with applications
and devices directly on the screen. Touchscreen technology is increasingly common in
smartphones, tablets, and laptops.
 Scanner: Converts physical documents and images into digital formats that can be stored and
manipulated by computers. Scanners are essential for document management, archiving, and
image editing.
 Microphone: Captures sound and converts it into digital signals, enabling us to communicate
through voice chat, record audio, and use voice commands.
 Webcam: A small camera that captures video and transmits it to a computer, allowing for video
conferencing, online streaming, and video recording.
 Joystick, gamepad, and controller: Used to control movement and actions in video games,
providing a more immersive and interactive gaming experience.
 Light pen: A pointing device shaped like a pen that emits light, used to draw, write, and select
objects on a computer screen.
 Optical character recognition (OCR): Software that converts scanned text images into editable
text format, allowing for easier editing and manipulation.
 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): Technology used to read special characters
printed with magnetic ink, commonly used for processing checks and other financial documents.
 Barcode reader: Scans and reads barcodes, which are printed codes containing product
information, for inventory management, point-of-sale systems, and other applications.
 Biometric input devices: These devices capture and recognize unique biological characteristics
like fingerprints, iris patterns, and facial features for user identification and security purposes.
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Explain various Output Devices.
Output devices are the hardware components that transform the information processed by a computer
into a format that humans can perceive. They act as the bridge between the digital world and our
senses, translating data into visual, audio, tactile, and other forms of output.
Here are some of the most common types of output devices and their functions:
 Monitor: Displays information visually on a screen, allowing us to view text, images, videos, and
other content. Monitors are essential for interacting with software, accessing information, and
experiencing entertainment.
 Printer: Produces physical copies of documents, images, and other digital content on paper or
other media. Printers are ideal for creating hard copies of documents, preserving information, and
sharing physical copies.
 Speakers: Convert digital audio signals into sound waves, enabling us to hear music, sound
effects, and other audio content. Speakers are crucial for entertainment, communication, and
accessing information through audio channels.
 Headphones: Similar to speakers but provide individual audio output for each ear, offering a
more immersive and personalized listening experience. Headphones are ideal for private listening,
gaming, and reducing noise pollution.
 Projector: Projects images and videos onto a larger surface, like a wall or screen, suitable for
presentations, lectures, and home entertainment. Projectors offer a large display area, making them
suitable for group viewing and presentations.
Explain different types of Monitor
Monitors are essential components of any computer system, providing the visual interface through
which we interact with the digital world. They come in various shapes, sizes, and technologies, each
offering unique benefits and drawbacks depending on your specific needs.
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Types of Monitors:
1. CRT monitor: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) are older, significantly heavier, and take up more space
than LCD and LED monitors. This is an outdated technology as well, which results in higher energy
consumption.
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): This is the most common and affordable type of monitor. It uses
fluorescent or LED backlights to illuminate the screen, offering good image quality and energy
efficiency.
3. LED (Light Emitting Diode): A sub-type of LCD that uses LEDs for backlighting, offering
brighter and more energy-efficient displays compared to traditional LCDs.
4. Plasma monitor: A Plasma monitor panel uses minuscule coloured fluorescent lights that produce
image pixels. Each pixel is composed of three red, green, and blue fluorescent lights, which resemble
small neon lights. along with the intensity of these lights. A plasma display is thinner because it is flat
rather than slightly curved, like an LCD. However, plasma monitors are heavier and produced in small
quantities.
Explain various types of printers.

Printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper. By printing you create a ‘hard copy’ of
data. There are different kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print quality.
The two main types of printer namely
Impact printers: were the dominant printing technology for decades, offering reliable and affordable
printing solutions. While their popularity has waned in favor of non-impact technologies like inkjet
and laser, impact printers still hold a niche in specific applications.
1. Dot-matrix printers: A matrix of pins strikes an inked ribbon, forming characters and images dot
by dot.
2. Daisy wheel printers: A rotating wheel with pre-formed characters presses against an inked
ribbon, transferring the character onto paper.
3. Line printers: A chain or band with raised characters hammers against an inked ribbon, printing
entire lines at once.
Non-Impact Printers: Non-impact printers have revolutionized the printing landscape, offering a
clean, quiet, and efficient alternative to their mechanical predecessors. Unlike impact printers, which
rely on physical contact to create characters on paper, these printers employ various technologies to
achieve high-quality printing without the noise and limitations.
4. Inkjet printers: Tiny nozzles spray ink droplets onto the paper, forming precise characters and
images.
5. Laser printers: A laser beam creates an electrostatic image on a drum, which attracts toner
powder and transfers it onto the paper.
6. Thermal printers: Heat is applied to heat-sensitive paper, causing it to change color, creating text
and images.
BCA 1st SEM 35
How CPU and Memory works.
 The CPU fetches an instruction from memory.
 The instruction is decoded by the CU and sent to the ALU for execution.
 The ALU performs the necessary calculations or operations.
 The results are stored back in memory.
 This process repeats continuously as the CPU executes various instructions.
Program execution with illustrative examples.

Program execution is the process by which a computer takes a set of instructions (a program) and
carries them out step-by-step. It's the magic behind turning lines of code into real-world actions and
results.
program execution with illustrative examples:

Stages of Execution:
 Compilation: (For compiled languages) Converts human-readable code into machine code
understandable by the computer.
 Interpretation: (For interpreted languages) Reads and executes the code line by line without prior
conversion.
 Loading: The program is loaded into the computer's memory.
 Execution: The CPU fetches and executes each instruction in the program.
 Output: The program produces the desired results.
Illustrative Examples:
Example 1: Printing "Hello, world!"
Code print("Hello, world!")
This simple program demonstrates basic execution steps:

 Compilation: (Assuming Code is compiled) The code is converted into machine code.
 Loading: The machine code is loaded into memory.
 Execution: The CPU fetches the instruction "print('Hello, world!')".
 Output: The computer prints "Hello, world!" to the console.
What are Microcontrollers?

Microcontrollers (MCUs) are tiny, integrated circuits designed to control specific tasks within
electronic devices. They are the brains behind countless devices we use daily, from simple appliances
like washing machines and microwave ovens to complex systems like robots and self-driving cars.
BCA 1st SEM 36

UNIT 3
Operating System Fundamentals
Define operating system.

Operating system (OS) acts as an interface between the user and the computer System It is system
software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common service for
computer programs. Boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer
Example MS DOS, WINDOWS, UNIX, LINUX
Explain the Functions of operating system.

Functions of an operating system are:
CPU: Allocates processing time to different applications based on their priority.
Memory: Manages the allocation and use of RAM
Resource Storage: Organizes and controls access to data stored on storage devices like
Management: hard drives and SSDs.
Device Management: Handles communication between the CPU and various
hardware components like printers, scanners, and network adapters.
Creates and terminates processes (running programs).
Process Schedules processes for execution on the CPU.
Management: Provides an environment for processes to run safely and securely.
Handles inter-process communication and resource sharing.
Creates, deletes, and manages files and directories.
Provides access control mechanisms to protect sensitive data.
File Management:
Enables searching, sorting, and filtering of files.
Backs up data to prevent loss
Protects the system from unauthorized access and malicious attacks.
Enforces user authentication and access control measures.
Security:
Provides encryption and decryption capabilities for sensitive data.
Detects and responds to security threats.
Provides a graphical user interface (GUI)
User Interface: Allows users to launch and manage applications, access files, and configure
system settings. Provides tools for error handling and troubleshooting.
Manages network connections and communication protocols.
Networking: Enables data transfer between different devices on a network.
Provides internet access and file sharing capabilities.
Detects and recovers from system errors and crashes.
Error Handling: Provides error messages and debugging tools for troubleshooting.
Ensures system stability and prevents data loss.
Performance Allocates resources efficiently to optimize system performance.
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Optimization: Monitors system utilization and identifies bottlenecks.
Provides tools for performance tuning and optimization.
Classification of Operating Systems

Based on the manner in which the user’s jobs are executed, operating systems are classified as fellow.
1. Batch Operating System
2. Multiprogramming Operating System
3. Time sharing Operating System
4. Parallel system
5. Distributed system
6. Real Time Operating System
BATCH OPERATING SYSTEM

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator which
takes similar jobs having same requirement and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of
operator to sort the jobs with similar needs.
1. It is very difficult to guess or know the time required by 1. The computer operators should be
any job to complete. Processors of the batch systems well known with batch systems
know how long the job would be when it is in queue 2. Batch systems are hard to debug
2. Multiple users can share the batch systems 3. It is sometime costly
3. The idle time for batch system is very less 4. The other jobs will have to wait for
4. It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch an unknown time if any job fails
systems
MULTIPROGRAMMING OPERATING SYSTEM

Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred
as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming
increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
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1. High and efficient CPU utilization. 1. CPU scheduling is required.

2. User feels that many programs are allotted 2. To accommodate many jobs in memory,
CPU almost simultaneously. memory management is required.
TIME-SHARING OPERATING SYSTEMS

Each task is given some time to execute, so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets time of
CPU as they use single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be
from single user or from different users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum.
After this time interval is over OS switches over to next task.
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix etc.

1. Each task gets an equal opportunity 1. Reliability problem

2. Less chances of duplication of software 2. One must have to take care of security and integrity
3. CPU idle time can be reduced of user programs and data
3. Data communication problem
PARALLEL PROCESSING (MULTI -PROCESSING SYSTEM)

Most computer systems are single processor systems i.e. they only have one processor. However,
multiprocessor or parallel systems are increasing in importance nowadays. These systems have multiple
processors working in parallel that share the computer clock, memory, bus, peripheral devices etc.
1. Save money 1. Implementation is complex

2. Increase reliability 2. Requires resource management and protection
3. Increased throughput
BCA 1st SEM 39

DISTRIBUTED OPERATING SYSTEM

Is one of the important types of operating system. Multiple central processors are used by Distributed
systems to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Accordingly, Data processing jobs
are distributed among the processors.
Processors communicate with each other through various communication lines (like high-speed buses
or telephone lines). These are known as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in
this system may vary in size and function. They are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
1. With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be 1. Implementation is complex
able to use the resources available at another. 2. Required memory and
2. Speedup the exchange of data with one another via resource management and
electronic mail.
protection
3. Failure of one site in a distributed system doesn’t affect
the others; the remaining sites can potentially continue
operating.
4. Better service to the customers.
5. Reduction of the load on the host computer.
6. Reduction of delays in data processing.
REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEM

These types of OSs serve the real-time systems. The time interval required to process and respond to
inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are times requirements are very strict like missile systems, air
traffic control systems, robots etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
Hard Real-Time Systems: These OSs are meant for the applications where time constraints are very
strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like
automatic parachutes or air bags which are required to be readily available in case of any accident.
Virtual memory is almost never found in these systems.
Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.
BCA 1st SEM 40

1. Multitasking operation is accomplished by 1. There is time limited allocation for each

scheduling processes for execution event.
independently of each other. 2. Implementation is too costly
2. Memory management in real time systems is 3. It can’t manage thousands of interrupts per
comparatively less demanding than in other second without missing a single events
types of operating systems.
3. File management in real-time systems usually
increases the speed of access.
4. Using onboard automotive controller may not
even have any secondary storage device.
Explain System programs in details.

System programs are the foundational software that runs in the background and provides the essential
framework for a computer system to function. They act as the intermediary between the hardware and
the application programs, managing resources and ensuring smooth operation.
Types of System Programs:

 Operating Systems: The core software controlling the entire computer system, providing basic
services like memory management, process management, device drivers, and security. (Examples:
Windows, macOS, Linux)
 Device Drivers: Software that enables communication between the operating system and specific
hardware components like printers, scanners, and network adapters.
 File Systems: Organize and manage data storage on disks and other storage devices. (Examples:
FAT32, NTFS, ext4)
 Boot Loaders: Programs responsible for loading the operating system into memory when the
computer starts up. (Examples: GRUB, NTLDR)
 System Utilities: Tools that perform specific tasks to maintain and optimize system performance.
(Examples: Task Manager, Disk Defragmenter, Antivirus software)
 Language Processors: Translate high-level programming languages (like C++ or Python) into
machine code that the computer can understand. (Examples: Compilers, Interpreters)
 Network Services: Programs enabling communication between computers over a network.
(Examples: Web servers, file servers, email servers)
Explain Application programs in details.

Application programs, often referred to as simply "apps," are the software tools we use to perform
specific tasks on our computers, smartphones, and other devices. They are the interface between the
user and the system, allowing us to interact with the digital world in meaningful ways.
Types of Application Programs:

 Productivity Applications: Word processors, spreadsheets, presentation software, email clients,
calendar apps, etc. (Examples: Microsoft Office, Google Workspace, LibreOffice)
 Media Applications: Music players, video players, photo editors, video editors, audio editors, etc.
(Examples: VLC Media Player, Adobe Photoshop, Audacity)
 Communication Applications: Web browsers, email clients, messaging apps, social media
platforms, video conferencing tools, etc. (Examples: Chrome, Skype, WhatsApp, Facebook)
 Gaming Applications: Games of all genres, ranging from simple mobile games to complex 3D
virtual worlds. (Examples: Minecraft, Fortnite, League of Legends)
BCA 1st SEM 41

 Educational Applications: Learning platforms, language learning apps, educational games, etc.
(Examples: Duolingo, Khan Academy, Lumosity)
 Utility Applications: Backup software, antivirus software, file compression tools, system
optimization tools, etc. (Examples: Acronis True Image, Norton Antivirus, WinRAR)
Explain Utilities.
Utilities, often overshadowed by flashier applications, are the unsung heroes of the software world.
These small but essential programs are designed to perform specific tasks that enhance the
functionality and efficiency of your computer or device.
Types of Utilities:
 Disk Management: Defragment disks, manage partitions, format drives.
 Backup and Recovery: Backup important data, recover lost files.
 Performance Optimization: Optimize system settings, clean up
System Utilities: temporary files, boost memory.
 Security and Privacy: Antivirus software, firewalls, anti-malware tools.
 File Management: File compression tools, PDF readers, archive
managers.
 Driver Management: Update and manage device drivers.
 Printer Management: Configure printers, troubleshoot printing issues.
Device Management:
 Network Management: Configure network settings, troubleshoot
connectivity problems.
 Screen Capture Tools: Capture screenshots and screen recordings.
 Password Managers: Securely store and manage passwords.
 Media Converters: Convert audio or video formats.
Specialized Utilities:  Virtualization Software: Run multiple operating systems on a single
computer.
 Remote Access Tools: Access your computer remotely from another
device.
Define Unix Operating System.

 UNIX is a powerful Operating System initially developed by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie at
AT&T Bell laboratories in 1970.
 Originally designed for use on minicomputers and later extended to workstations and servers.
 Written primarily in the C programming language, promoting portability and flexibility.
Explain the layers of Operating System.

The Unix operating system is renowned for its modular design, built upon distinct layers that work
together to provide a powerful and versatile platform. Understanding these layers is crucial for
appreciating the architecture and functionality of Unix.
BCA 1st SEM 42

Hardware Layer: This is the physical foundation of the system, encompassing the CPU, memory,
storage devices, and other hardware components.
The hardware layer interacts directly with the kernel, providing the raw
resources needed for the system to function
Kernel: The kernel acts as the core of the operating system, managing essential
resources and providing fundamental services.
Its responsibilities include:
Process management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
Memory management: Allocating and managing memory for running programs.
Device management: Controlling and communicating with hardware devices.
File system management: Organizing and managing data stored on disk and
other storage devices.
Security: Enforcing user access control and protecting the system from
unauthorized access.
Shell: The shell acts as a user interface, providing a way for users to interact with the
system and execute commands.
Two primary types of shells exist:
Command-line interface (CLI): Text-based interface where users enter
commands directly.
Graphical user interface (GUI): User-friendly interface with icons and windows
for interacting with the system.
The shell interacts with the kernel to translate user commands into actions that
the system can understand and execute.
Utilities: Utilities are small programs that perform specific tasks, such as file
management, text processing, and network communication.
They provide essential functionality for users to interact with the system and
manage their data.
Utilities typically rely on the services provided by the kernel and shell to
perform their tasks.
Applications: Applications are larger programs that provide specific functionality to users,
such as word processors, web browsers, and games.
They rely on the services offered by the kernel, shell, and utilities to access
resources and interact with the system.
Applications are the building blocks of user experience, allowing them to
perform various tasks and interact with the digital world.
Explain the Features of Unix:

 Multitasking and multi-user: Allows multiple users and processes to run concurrently.
 Command-line interface (CLI): Text-based interface for interacting with the system, offering
high control and efficiency.
 Hierarchical file system: Organizes files and directories in a tree-like structure for easy access.
 Shell scripting: Allows users to automate tasks and create complex workflows.
 Pipes and filters: Enables data processing by chaining together different programs.
 Powerful command set: Provides a wide range of commands for managing files, processes, users,
and other system resources.
Benefits of Unix:
 Portability: Runs on various hardware platforms due to its reliance on C programming.
 Flexibility: Open-source nature allows for customization and modification.
 Security: Robust security features protect against unauthorized access and data breaches.
 Stability: Highly reliable and resistant to crashes.
 Performance: Efficiently utilizes system resources for smooth operation.
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Explain the Basic Unix Commands
ls: Lists the contents of a directory.

cd: Changes the current directory.
File and directory mkdir: Creates a new directory.
management: rmdir: Removes an empty directory.
cp: Copies files or directories.
mv: Moves or renames files or directories.
rm: Deletes files or directories.
cat: Displays the contents of a file.
more: Displays the contents of a file one page at a time.
less: allows you to move backwards in the file.
File viewing and editing: head: Displays the first few lines of a file.
tail: Displays the last few lines of a file.
nano: A simple text editor.
vi: A more powerful text editor.
pwd: Shows your current working directory.
whoami: Shows your current username.
Information and process
date: Shows the current date and time.
management:
ps: Shows a list of running processes.
top: Shows a list of processes and their resource usage.
kill: Terminates a running process
ping: Checks if a host is reachable.
Networking: netstat: Shows network connections and statistics.
ifconfig: Shows information about network
etwork interfaces.
traceroute: Traces the route packets take to a host.
man: Shows the manual page for a command.
help: Provides help and information about a command.
Other useful commands:
clear: Clears the terminal screen.
exit: Logs out of the current session.
What is Microkernel Based Operating Systems

A microkernel is a minimal operating system kernel that provides only the most essential
functionalities, such as:
Memory Management: Allocates and manages memory for applications.

Process Management: Creates, schedules, and terminates processes.
Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Enables processes to communicate with each other.
Low-Level Device Drivers: Provides basic access to hardware devices.
BCA 1st SEM 44

Define Booting
Booting is the process of starting up a computer and loading the operating system into memory. It
involves a series of steps, each crucial for the successful launch of the system.
Explain different types of Booting.

There are two main types of booting:
1. Cold Boot:This is a full boot from a powered-off state. It involves all the steps mentioned in the
previous section, from the Power On Self-Test (POST) to loading the user interface.
When you press the power button on your computer, it initiates a cold boot. This type of boot is
typically slower than a warm boot, as it requires the computer to go through all the necessary checks
and initialization processes.
2. Warm Boot: This is a restart of the system without completely powering it off. It is often used to
recover from minor system errors or to restart the operating system without losing unsaved data.
Explain the Booting steps
Step Description
Power On Self-Test
(POST) The computer checks all of its hardware to make sure it is working properly.
The computer looks for a bootable device, such as a hard disk, solid-state drive,
Boot Device Selection or optical drive, that contains the operating system.
Loading the The bootloader is a small program that is loaded from the boot device. It is
Bootloader responsible for loading the operating system kernel into memory.
Loading the
Operating System The kernel is the core of the operating system. It is responsible for managing
Kernel the computer's resources and providing services to applications.
Initializing System The kernel initializes essential system services, such as memory management,
Services device drivers, and process management.
The kernel loads the user space, which is the environment where user
Loading User Space applications run. The kernel also loads any applications that are configured to
and Applications start automatically when the computer boots.
The login screen is displayed, allowing users to log in and begin using the
Login Screen computer.
BCA 1st SEM 45

Unit-4
Introduction to Database Management Systems
Define Database.
A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored electronically
in a computer system.
Define DBMS.
DBMS stands for Database Management System. It's the software that manages the creation, access,
and overall operation of a database. Essentially, it serves as the intermediary between users and the
actual data stored in the database.
What is a field?
Each column is identified by a distinct header called attribute or filed.
What is a record?
A single entry in a table is called a record or row. A record in a table represents set of related data.
Records are also called the tuple.
What is an entity?
An Entity can be any object, place, person or class.  In E-R Diagram, an entity is represented using
rectangles
Why Databases
Databases are fundamental to modern technology and play a crucial role in various aspects of our lives.
Organize and manage Databases provide a structured way to store and manage vast datasets,
large amounts of data: making them easily searchable and accessible.
Improve data efficiency Improve data efficiency and accuracy: Databases offer efficient data
and accuracy: storage and retrieval mechanisms
Ensure data integrity and Databases implement various security measures, such as access control,
security: data encryption, and audit trails, to protect valuable information from
unauthorized access, modification, or loss.
Facilitate data sharing Databases enable multiple users to access and share information
and collaboration: simultaneously.
Enable data analysis and Databases provide a foundation for data analysis and reporting tools.
reporting:
Support critical Databases are the backbone of numerous critical applications, including
applications: banking systems, e-commerce platforms, healthcare records, and
government services.
Scalability and future- Databases are designed to scale with your data needs.
proofing:
Data integration and Databases facilitate data integration and interoperability by providing a
interoperability: standardized way to store and exchange data between different systems
and applications.
Automation and Databases automate routine tasks like data backup, recovery, and
optimization: optimization, freeing up valuable time and resources for other crucial
tasks.
Improved decision- By providing access to organized and reliable data, databases empower
making users to make informed and data-driven decisions.
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Explain File system vs DBMS
Feature File System DBMS
Purpose Store individual files Manage structured data
Data Structure Unstructured Structured (tables)
Data Access File path, limited queries SQL queries, complex filtering
Data Sharing Limited sharing Multi-user access, permissions
Concurrency Control Limited Robust, prevents data conflicts
Security Basic Advanced, encryption, access control
Performance Efficient for files, limited for queries Optimized for queries, slower for files
Scalability Horizontal Vertical & Horizontal
Cost Lower Higher
Mention the Applications Databases.

Databases are used in various applications, including:
 Business: Inventory management, customer relationship management (CRM), sales and marketing
data
 Finance: Banking transactions, stock market data, fraud detection
 Healthcare: Medical records, patient information, drug research
 Education: Student records, course management, learning analytics
 Science: Scientific research data, experiments, simulations
 Government: Census data, tax records, public services
 Personal: Contact lists, photos, music collections
Explain the different Database Users

Database users are individuals or applications that interact with a database to store, access, or modify
data. They can have different levels of access and privileges depending on their role and
responsibilities.
 Responsible for overall management and security of the database.
Database  Performs tasks like creating and managing user accounts, granting
Administrator permissions, monitoring performance, and backing up data.
(DBA):  Requires extensive knowledge of database technology and security best
practices.
 Design and develop applications that use the database to store and retrieve
data.
Application
 Write queries to access and manipulate data within the database.
Developers:
 May need to create database objects like tables, views, and stored
procedures.
 Individuals who use applications that rely on the database.
 May include customer service representatives, marketing analysts, or sales
End Users: managers.
 Typically have limited access to the database and only need to perform
basic tasks like entering or viewing data.
 Analyze business requirements and design database systems to meet those
requirements.
System Analysts:  Work closely with DBAs and developers to ensure the database meets the
needs of the organization.
 May also be involved in data migration and integration projects.
 Extract and analyze data from the database to identify trends, patterns, and
insights.
Data Analysts:  Use data visualization tools to present their findings in a clear and
understandable way.
 Support decision-making by providing data-driven recommendations.
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 Individuals who have specific needs that require specialized access to the
database.
Specialized Users:  May include data scientists, statisticians, or researchers.
 May need to access and manipulate large amounts of data or require custom
query functionalities.
 Individuals with limited knowledge of databases who only need to perform
Naïve Users: basic tasks.
 May require extensive training and support to use the database effectively.
 Individuals with advanced knowledge of databases who can perform
Sophisticated complex tasks.
Users:  May be able to write their own queries and scripts to automate tasks.
 May also be responsible for training other users on how to use the database.
What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is a powerful and widely used language for accessing
and manipulating data stored in relational databases. These databases organize data into tables, where
each table contains rows and columns.
Explain the Data Types in SQL.

Data types play a crucial role in SQL by defining the format and meaning of data stored in a database.
Data type Description

CHAR(size) A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters).
VARCHAR(size) A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters).
DATE A data type is used to store the data of date in a record
TIME A data type is used to store the data of time in a record
DATETIME A data type is used to store both the data,date, and time in the record.
INT(size) The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
Classification of SQL Commands

There are five main categories of SQL commands.
1. Data Definition Language (DDL): Defines and manages the structure of the database, including
tables, columns, and data types.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML): Manipulates data within existing tables.
3. Data Control Language (DCL): Controls user access and permissions to the database and its
objects.
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL): Manages transactions, which are groups of operations
BCA 1st SEM 48
treated as a single unit.
5. Data Query Language (DQL): Retrieves data from existing tables.
What are SQL Constraints?

SQL constraints are rules applied to database tables and columns to ensure data integrity and
consistency.
There are five main types of SQL constraints:
 Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each row in a table. A table can only have one primary key, and
its values must be unique and not NULL.
 Foreign Key: Establishes a relationship between two tables.
 NOT NULL: Makes a column mandatory, requiring a value for every row.
 Unique: Prevents duplicate values in a specific column.
 Check: Defines a custom condition that values in a column must satisfy.
CREATE
Create command is use to create table and user
The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.
Syntax: EXAMPLE
ALTER Statement:
 The table can be modified or changed by using the ALTER command.
Syntax:
EXAMPLE
BCA 1st SEM 49

DROP TABLE:
 The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all data, indexes, triggers,
constraints, and permission specifications for that table.
Syntax: EXAMPLE
INSERT:
 The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.
Syntax:
EXAMPLE
UPDATE:
 SQL provides the ability to change data through UPDATE command.
 The UPDATE command used to modify or update an already existing row or rows of a table
Syntax:
DELETE command:
 In SQL, an already existing row or rows are removed from tables through the use of DELETE
command.
Syntax:
BCA 1st SEM 50

GRANT:This command grants the "user_name" user the permission to SELECT data from the "users"
table.
Example : GRANT SELECT ON users TO user_name;
SELECT:These commands retrieve data from the "users" table. The first one selects all columns for all
users, while the second one selects users whose usernames contain the string "John".
Example: SELECT user_id, username, email FROM users;
SELECT * FROM users WHERE username LIKE '%John%';
REVOKE:This command revokes the permission to SELECT data from the "users" table from the
"user_name" user.
Example: REVOKE SELECT ON users FROM user_name;
COMMIT:This code snippet begins a transaction, updates the username of the user with ID 1, and then
commits the changes to the database.
Example: BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE users SET username = 'updated_username' WHERE user_id = 1;
COMMIT;
ROLLBACK:This code snippet begins a transaction, attempts to delete the user with ID 2, but then
rolls back the changes if there is an error.
Example:BEGIN TRANSACTION;
DELETE FROM users WHERE user_id = 2;
ROLLBACK;
BCA 1st SEM 51

Unit-5
Internet Basics
Define Internet
The internet is a vast network of interconnected computers and other devices that allows us to
communicate, share information, and access a wealth of resources.
Explain the Features of Internet.
Information  Unlimited Information, Search Engines, Diverse Sources

Access:
Communication:  Global Reach, Real-Time Interaction, Diverse CommunicationMethods
Entertainment:  Streaming Services, Online Games, Music Streaming

E-commerce:  Online Shopping Platforms, Global Marketplace, Online
Payment Systems
Education:  Online Courses, Educational Resources, Research and
Information Resources
Productivity:  Project Management Tools, Cloud Storage Services,
Communication and Collaboration Tools
Social  Connect with Others, Social Interaction, Stay Informed
Networking:
Additional  Accessibility, Global Reach, Decentralization, Scalability,
Features: Constant Evolution
Explain the Internet application

The internet has many applications, but some of the most common include:
Communication:  The internet allows us to communicate with people all over the world, regardless of their
location.
 We can use email, instant messaging, social media, and video conferencing to stay in
touch with friends and family, collaborate on projects, and conduct business.
Access to  The internet is a vast resource of information.
information:  We can use it to research anything from history to current events to science to hobbies.
 We can also use it to access educational materials, government documents, and medical
information.
Entertainment:  The internet offers a wide variety of entertainment options, including movies, TV
shows, music, games, and books.
 We can also use the internet to listen to radio stations, watch live streaming events, and
participate in online communities.
Business:  The internet has revolutionized the way businesses operate.
 Businesses can use the internet to reach a global audience, sell products and services
online, and collaborate with partners.
 The internet has also created new opportunities for businesses, such as e-commerce and
cloud computing.
BCA 1st SEM 52

Education:  The internet can be a powerful tool for education.
 Students can use the internet to access educational materials, collaborate with other
students, and take online courses.
 The internet can also be used to provide pprofessional
rofessional development for teachers and other
educators.
Government:  The internet can be used to provide government services to citizens.
 Citizens can use the internet to pay their taxes, apply for permits, and access
government information.
 The internett can also be used to facilitate communication between government agencies
and citizens.
Healthcare:  The internet can be used to provide healthcare services to patients.
 Patients can use the internet to access medical information, schedule appointments, and
communicate with their doctors.
 The internet can also be used to provide telemedicine services, which allow patients to
see doctors remotely.
Transportation:  The internet can be used to book flights, hotels, and rental cars.
 The internet can also be used to track the status of flights and to get real-time traffic
information.
Finance:  The internet can be used to bank online, invest in stocks and bonds, and shop for
financial products.
 The internet can also be used to get real-time financial information,
information such as stock quotes
and currency exchange rates.
Explain the Internet Services in details

Internet services are the services that are provided to users over the internet.
They can be divided into two main categories:
1. Communication services: These services vices allow users to communicate with each other.
They include email, instant messaging, voice over IP (VoIP), and social media.
2. Content services: These services allow users to access and use content.
They include web browsing, file sharing, streaming media, and online gaming.
The most popular internet services:

1. Email:
Email is a service that allows users to send and receive electronic messages. It is
one of the most popular internet services, and it is used by billions of people around
the world.
2. Instant messaging:
Instant messaging is a service that allows users to communicate with each other in
real time. It is a popular way to stay in touch with friends and family, and it is also
used by businesses for communication with customers and employees.
3. Voice over IP (VoIP):

VoIP is a service that allows users to make and receive phone calls over the internet.
It is a more affordable alternative to traditional landlines, and it is also more
convenient, as users can make calls from anywhere with an internet connection.
BCA 1st SEM 53

4. Social media:
Social media is a service that allows users to connect with friends and family, and
to share content. It is one of the most popular internet services, and it is used by
billions of people around the world.
5. Web browsing:
Web browsing is a service that allows users to access and view websites. It is the
most popular internet service, and it is used by billions of people around the world
to access information, shop, and entertain themselves.
6. File sharing:
File sharing is a service that allows users to share files with each other. It is a
popular way to share music, movies, and other content.
7. Streaming media:
Streaming media is a service that allows users to watch or listen to audio or video
content without having to download it first. It is a popular way to watch movies,
TV shows, and music videos.
8. Online gaming:
Online gaming is a service that allows users to play games with each other over the
internet. It is a popular way to socialize and compete with others.
What are physical and logical addresses?

Logical addresses are generated by CPU during execution whereas physical address refers to location in
a physical memory unit (the one that is loaded into memory).
What is ISP
Internet service provider (ISP), company that provides Internet connections and services to individuals
and organizations. ISPs may also provide software packages (such as browsers), e-mail accounts, and a
personal website or home page. ISPs can host websites for businesses and can also build the websites
themselves. ISPs are all connected to each other through network access points, public network
facilities on the Internet backbone.
DOMAIN NAME
The domain name is the most prominent part of a web address.
Typically, different pages on the same site will continue to use the same domain name.
BCA 1st SEM 54

For example, all pages on this site share the GCFLearnFree.org domain name.
Each segment of the domain
name separated by a period is called
a domain.
The domain on the right is called a top-level domain, with the domain to the left of it called
the second-level domain, then third-level domain, and so on.
What is a web ?
The World Wide Web—commonly referred to as WWW, W3, or the Web—is a system of
interconnected public webpages accessible through the Internet. The Web is not the same as the
Internet: the Web is one of many applications built on top of the Internet.
What is webpage?
A web page is a document written in hypertext (also known as HTML) that you can see online, using a
web browser. Most web pages include text, photos or videos, and links to other web pages. A group of
many web pages managed by one person or company is a website.
What is a website ?
A website is a collection of files accessed through a web address, covering a particular theme or
subject, and managed by a particular person or organization. Its opening page is called a home page.
What is web browser?

Web Browser Definition: A software application used to access information on the World Wide
Web is called a Web Browser. When a user requests some information, the web browser fetches the
data from a web server and then displays the webpage on the user's screen.
Define HTTP, HTTPS, URL, HTML5, and CSS

 HTTP: Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It's the underlying communication protocol that
allows web browsers to request and receive content from web servers. It's like the language web
browsers and servers use to talk to each other.
 HTTPS: Stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It's the secure version of HTTP that uses
encryption to protect data transmitted between the browser and the server. This ensures the
privacy and integrity of your information, especially important for sensitive websites like online
banking or shopping portals.
 URL: Stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It's the unique address of a web page or other
internet resource. It's like a map that tells your browser where to find specific information online.
For example, the URL for Google's search engine is https://www.google.com/.
 HTML5:Stands for HyperText Markup Language version 5. It's the standard markup language for
creating web pages and web applications. It defines the structure and content of a web page,
including text, images, videos, and links. HTML5 provides features like multimedia support,
BCA 1st SEM 55
improved accessibility, and offline web applications.
 
 CSS: Stands for Cascading Style Sheets. It's a language used to style and control the appearance
of web pages. It defines how text, images, and other elements are displayed on the screen. CSS
makes web pages visually appealing and consistent across different browsers.
BCA 1st SEM 56

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FUNDAMENTALS OF

CAC01: Fundamentals of Computer

Introduction to computers: Characteristics of computers, Classification 10

Operating System Fundamentals : Operating Systems: Introduction, 10

Introduction to Database Management Systems:Database, DBMS, Why 6

Internet Basics: Introduction, Features of Internet, Internet application, 6

BCA 1st SEM 1

Explain the Characteristics of Computer.

BCA 1st SEM 2

The evolution of computers can be divided into five main generations:

Second  Used transistors  IBM 1401

Third  Used integrated circuits (ICs)  IBM System/360

Fourth  Used microprocessors  Apple II

Fifth Generation  Continued miniaturization of  Apple Macintosh

BCA 1st SEM 3

Explain the History of Computer

Charles  Babbage’s Analytical Engine an English man Charles Babbage built a

BCA 1st SEM 4

Explain the Types of Computers

BCA 1st SEM 5

Number System: A data stored in computer may be of different kinds as follows:

Conversion from Decimal to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal

Conversion of Integer part:

Conversion of Fractional part:

Decimal to Binary Conversion

Decimal to Octal Conversion

BCA 1st SEM 8

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion

BCA 1st SEM 9

BCA 1st SEM 10

Conversion of Binary to Octal, Hexadecimal

BCA 1st SEM 11

Conversion of Octal, Hexadecimal to Binary

Explain the different Computers codes

BCA 1st SEM 12

Decimal Binary Gray Code

Binary to Gray Code Conversion

Gray Code to Binary Conversion

BCA 1st SEM 14

Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For A 2-input AND Gate

Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For A 2-input OR Gate

BCA 1st SEM 15

Boolean Algebra Truth Tables For The NOT Gate

2-input NAND (Not AND) Gate

2-input NOR (Not OR) Gate

BCA 1st SEM 16

2-input EX-OR (Exclusive OR) Gate

2-input EX-NOR (Exclusive NOR) Gate

BCA 1st SEM 17

Explain different Types of Software

BCA 1st SEM 18

 Assembly Language (middle level language): Middle-level

 High Level Language: These languages are designed to be more human-friendly,

Explain different Translator programs

Translator programs, assembler, int

 Interpreter An interpreter is a type of translator program that translates high-level programming

 Compiler A compiler is a type of translator program that translates high-level programming

Explain the steps of Planning a computer program

1. Define the problem. What do you want the program to do?

BCA 1st SEM 20