CH 37

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Chapter 37

Relativity
Views of an Event
 An event is some physical
phenomenon
 Assume the event occurs
and is observed by an
observer at rest in an
inertial reference frame
 The event’s location and
time can be specified by
the coordinates (x, y, z, t)
Galilean Space-Time Transformation
Equations (Newtonian Mechanics)
 An observer in S describes the event with space-
time coordinates (x, y, z, t)
 An observer in S’ describes the same event with
space-time coordinates (x’, y’, z’, t’)
 Assume the origins of S and S’ coincide at t=0
 The relationship among the coordinates are
 x’ = x – vt

 y’ = y

 z’ = z

 t’ = t
Notes About Galilean
Transformation Equations

 The time is the same in both inertial frames


 Within the framework of classical
mechanics, all clocks run at the same rate
 The time at which an event occurs for an
observer in S is the same as the time for the
same event in S’.
 This turns out to be incorrect when v is
comparable to the speed of light.
Galilean Velocity Transformation
Equation

 Suppose that a particle moves through a


displacement dx along the x axis in a time dt
 The corresponding displacement dx’ is
dx ' dx
= −v
dt ' dt
or u ' x = u x − v
 u is used for the particle velocity and v is
used for the relative velocity between the
two frames
Michelson-Morley Experiment

 First performed in 1881 by Michelson


 Repeated under various conditions by
Michelson and Morley
 Designed to detect small changes in the speed
of light
 By determining the velocity of the Earth
relative to the ether
Michelson-Morley Equipment
 Used the Michelson interferometer
 Arm 2 is aligned along the
direction of the Earth’s motion
through space
 The interference pattern was
observed while the interferometer
was rotated through 90°.
 The effect should have been to
show small, but measurable, shifts
in the fringe pattern.
Michelson-Morley Expected
Results

 The speed of light measured in the Earth frame


should be c − v as the light approaches mirror
M2.
 The speed of light measured in the Earth frame
should be c + v as the light is reflected from
mirror M2.
 The experiment was repeated at different times
of the year when the ether wind was expected
to change direction and magnitude.
Michelson-Morley Results
 Measurements failed to show any change in the
fringe pattern
 No fringe shift of the magnitude required was ever
observed
 The negative results contradicted the ether hypothesis
 They also showed that it was impossible to measure the
absolute velocity of the Earth with respect to the ether
frame
 Light is now understood to be an electromagnetic
wave, which requires no medium for its
propagation
 The idea of an ether was discarded
The Constancy of the Speed of
Light

 Explains the null result of the Michelson-


Morley experiment
 Relative motion is unimportant when
measuring the speed of light
 We must alter our common-sense notions of
space and time
Concept of Relative Motion
 In Newtonian mechanics
 Simultaneity, time intervals, and length are absolute
for all observers.
 Newtonian:
?

 In relativistic mechanics
 There is no such thing as absolute length.
 There is no such thing as absolute time.
 Events at different locations that are observed to
occur simultaneously in one frame are not observed to
be simultaneous in another frame moving uniformly
past the first.
Simultaneity Speed of light is absolute  simultaneity is relative
Simultaneity, cont.
The Relativity of Time
Speed of light is absolute  time duration is relative
The Relativity of Time, cont.

When two events occur at the same location in an inertial


reference frame, the time interval between them,
measured in that frame, is called the proper time interval
or the proper time. Measurements of the same time
interval from any other inertial reference frame are
always greater (time dilation).
Albert Einstein
 1879 – 1955
 1905
 Special theory of relativity
 Brownian motion
 Nature of light
 E = m c2
 1915
 General relativity
 1921
 Nobel prize of physics
 1920’s
 Didn’t accept quantum theory
 1940’s or so
 Search for unified theory - unsuccessful
The Postulates of Relativity
 The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are
the same for observers in all inertial reference
frames. No one frame is preferred over any other.

 The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light


in vacuum has the same value c in all directions
and in all inertial reference frames. This ultimate
speed has been defined to be exactly
The Lorentz Transformation
The equations are written with the assumption that t = t' = 0
when the origins of S and S' coincide.

β is called speed parameter and γ the Lorentz factor.


S moves at a velocity of –v' with respect to S'.
The Lorentz Factor
Time Dilation

Δt ′ = t 2′ − t1′ = γ (t 2 − vx 2 / c 2 ) − γ (t1 − vx1 / c 2 )

Two events occur at the position in S (i.e. x2 = x1 or Δx = 0).


Δt is defined as the proper time.
Δt ′ = γ (t2 − t1 ) = γΔt  Δt < Δt ′ : time dilation
Example:

Classical physics:

Special relativity: 0.1237 μs is the time in the rest frame of K+ but not the time in the lab frame
Length Contraction
x1, x1’ x2, x2’
is still in S’.
Δx ′ = x 2′ − x1′
= γ ( x 2 − vt 2 ) − γ ( x1 − vt1 )
S must measure the length
at the same time, i.e. t2=t1.
Δx ′ = γ ( x 2 − x1 ) = γΔx
 Δx = Δx ′ γ < Δx ′
The length Δx’ of an object measured in the rest frame of the
object is its proper length or rest length. Measurements of
the length from any reference frame that is in relative motion
parallel to that length are always less than the proper length
(length contraction).
Proper Length vs. Proper Time
 The proper length and proper time interval are
defined differently.
 The proper length is measured by an observer
for whom the end points of the length remained
fixed in space.
 The proper time interval is measured by
someone for whom the two events take place at
the same position in space.
The Lorentz Transformation, Example
Sam
Event Blue: x1 = −L/2, t1.
Event Red: x2 = L/2, t2.
Δt = t2 − t1 = 0.
Sally
Event Blue: t1′.
Event Red: t2′.
What is Δt′?  vx2 vx1 
Δt ′ ≠ γΔt Δt′ = t2′ - t1′ = γ  − 2 + 2 
 c c 
Can’t use the equation?! < 0.
The Relativity of Velocities
The Speed of Light
c+v
u ′ = c, u = =c
1 + cv 2
c

The Lorentz transformation satisfies the speed


of light postulate (i.e. the speed of light in
vacuum has the same value c in all directions
and in all inertial reference frames).
Example:
Causality
&
Speed Limit

e: explosion; b: burst

???

However, the travel speed of the burst: > c!


The Relativity of Velocities in the
Transverse Direction
The Lorentz Transformation:


1 /

Δ Δ ′ ′
Δ Δ′ Δ ′/ 1 /
Doppler Effect for Light
Let f0 represent the proper frequency of the source—that is,
the frequency that is measured by an observer in the rest
frame of the source.

Low-speed Doppler effect ( )

+ ……

λ0 is the proper wavelength.


Proof of Doppler Effect
Δtobs = the duration of two consecutive wave peaks arriving the
observer in the frame of observer.
Δtsource = the duration of two consecutive wave peaks arriving the
observer in the frame of source.

γ (Δtobs ) = Δt source , because Δtobs is the proper time.

λ0 1 c 1 1
In the frame of source, Δt source = = =
c − v c − v f 0 1 − (v c ) f 0

1 1 1 1 1 − (v c ) 2 1 1 + (v c ) 1
= Tobs = Δtobs = = =
f γ 1 − (v c ) f 0 1 − v c f0 1 − (v c ) f 0

1 − (v c )
 f = f0
1 + (v c )
A New Look at Momentum
In S’, u’ = 0.
The new definition:

where Δx is observed by S and Δt0 (the proper time) is


observed by S’.

Hence, is the momentum of a particle moving at


a velocity of v with respect to S.
A New Look at Energy
An object’s mass m and the equivalent energy E0 are
related by
This energy that is associated with the
mass of an object is called mass energy or
rest energy.

If the object is moving, its total energy is .

Total energy E is the sum of its mass energy and its kinetic
energy:
 K = γ mc 2 − mc 2 = (γ − 1)mc 2  ( pc) 2 = K 2 + 2 K mc 2
The relation between the momentum and the kinetic energy.

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