s5 Biology End of Units Questions&Answers

BOOK OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS S5BIOLOGY
UNIT 1: Interdependence between Organisms within their

Environment
1. SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................ is the competition where individuals of the same species compete.
(ii) .................... states that two species requiring same ecological requirements cannot occupy the
same ecological niche.
(iii) ..................... is a parasite that takes advantage of the interaction of other organism.
(iv) Parasites that live ............................ are called ectoparasites.
Answers
(i) Intraspecific
(ii) Gause exclusive principle
(iii) Social parasite
(iv) on the host
2. Self-Evaluaton
(i) Thorn is an adaptation of plant against ................................. .
(ii) Process of evolution taking place side-by-side on two closely associated species is called
a ........................................ .
(iii) ................................. prevents a single species from becoming dominant.
(iv) Some ................................. exhibit bright colouration signalling as poisonous individuals.
Answers
(i) Predator
(ii) Natural selection
(iii) Predation
(iv) batesian mimicry
3. Self-Evaluation
(i) Mutualism ........................ both organisms.
(ii) (+, 0) sign exhibits ............................

(iii) ..................... helps in nutrient recycling.
(iv) Cattle egret follows water buffalo and exhibits .....................
1
Answers
(i) benefits
(ii) commensalism
(iii) Saprophytes
(iv) commensalism
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

Questions
I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or False (F) On 21-22p.
1. Organisms’ interaction does only harm.
2. Commensalism harms both species.
3. Competing for food is an example of interspecific competition.
4. Herbivory is the act of predation.
5. Predation never promotes species richness.
6. There is a regular pattern of increase and decrease population in oscillation.
7. Parasitism doesn’t promote coexistence of biodiversity.
II. Multiple Choice Questions
1. Both species are denoted by (+, +) in
(a) Mutualism (b) Saprophytism
(c) Commensalism (d) Protocooperation
2. When two species compete for a shared resource, it is called
(a) Predation (b) Exploitative competition
(c) Interference competition (d) Apparent competition
3. Adaptations of a predator are
(a) Sharp teeth of lion
(b) Acute sense of smell of moles
(c) Echolocation of bats
(d) All the above
4. Mineral recycling in a rainforest is done by a
(a) Saprophyte (b) Commensal
(c) Predator (d) Ectoparasite
5. Brood parasitism is an interaction where
(a) A parasite kills the host
(b) A parasite lives in the host
(c) A parasite deposits its sperms to the other species’ nest
(d) A parasite deposits its eggs to the other species’ nest
2
6. In sexual cannibalism, normally
(a) Males eat females (b) Males eat the younger males
(c) Females eat males (d) Females eat the younger females
7. A flea on a dog is an example of
(a) Parasitism (b) Commensalism
(c) Predation (d) Coevolution
8. Saprophytes are
(a) Predators (b) Plants
(c) Parasites (d) Detrivores
9. A commensal is
(a) species that benefits association
(b) species that benefits from the association
(c) species that is negatively affected from the association
(d) species that negatively affects the association
10. The interaction of bees and flowers is an example of
(a) Protocooperation (b) Commensalism
(c) Mutualism (d) None of these
III. Long Answer Type Questions
1. Giving suitable examples, explain the various interactions of organisms in nature.
2. Giving examples, describe in your own words, the adaptations of predator species
to catch and kill prey and the adaptions of prey species to avoid predators.
3. What are saprophytes? With one example, describe how saprophytes help
in recycling minerals.
4. Briefly compare interspecific and intraspecific competitions with suitable examples.
5. Draw a predator-prey relationship graph and interpret it.
6. Give two examples of the following:
(a) Predation (b) Parasitism
(c) Commensalism (d) Mutualism
7. How does interrelationship among organisms commit for a sustainably
developed environment? Cite examples to support your answer.
8. With examples, state in your own words, the significance of organisms’ interactions in nature.
Answers
I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or False (F):
1. False; Organisms interactions can be both beneficial or harmful.
2. False; Commensalism benefits both species.
3. True; Competing for food involves fewer similar needs and different
adaptations.
4. True; Herbivory involves a predator like goat feeding on prey as grass.
3
5. False; When keystone predator feeds on dominant prey, it generally
promotes
species richness by releasing the inferior prey species to coexist with the
dominant species.
6. True; Oscillation is characterized by regular pattern of increase and
decrease population.
7. False; Parasitism promotes coexistence in biodiversity.Usually in an
ecosystem, competitively dominant species out-competes a competitively
inferior species and doesn’t allow coexistence with this species.
II. Multiple choice questions:
1. (a), (d), (c); Commensalism, mutualism and protocooperation involves
species benefitting.
2. (c); Interference competitions are a form of species interaction in
which two species compete for a shared resource.
3. (d); All the above.
4. (a); Saprophytes recycle minerals.
5. (d); Brood parasitism is an interaction where the parasite, typically a
bird, deposits its eggs in the nest of another species. Example: Cuckoo
bird.
6. (c); Sexual cannibalism is type of cannibalism in which a female
organism kills and consumes a conspecific (same species) male before,
during, or after copulation. Rarely, males eat females. Examples: black
widow spider, praying mantis, and scorpion.
7. (a); Flea on dog is an example of parasitism.
8. (d); Saprophytes are living organisms which feed on dead organic
matters such dead plant or animal tissue. In this regard, they are
detrivores. They break down organic matters into simpler forms that can
be taken up and recycled by plants. Thus, they play very important role
soil biology. Examples are most fungi (molds), bacteria, and few flowering
plants such as Indian pipe and some orchids.
9. (b); A commensal is a species that benefits from the association.
10. (c); In mutualism, bees depend on flowers for food in the form of
nectar and pollen. And the flowering plants depend on bees or other
pollinators to carry their male reproductive cells specifically to the
female parts of other flowers of the same species.
III. Long answer type questions:
1. The basic species interactions are competition, commensalism,
parasitism, predation, mutualism and saprophytism.
Competition
4
Competition is an interaction of two organisms striving for the same
resource. It is of two types: Interspecific competition is a competition of
individuals of the same species competing for a limited resource, while
intraspecific competition is a competition of different species competing
for a limited resource.
Competition helps in structuring ecological communities and also plays
an important role in character displacement.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship between two organisms where one benefits
and the other is harmed. The two types of parasitism are: Ectoparasite
and endoparasite. A social parasite is a parasite that takes advantage of
the interaction of other organisms.
Parasitism alters the behaviour and morphology of their hosts; it
promotes coexistence in biodiversity; it affects the keystone species and
modifies the structure of ecosystem.
Predation
Predation is an interaction between species in which one species
(predator) uses another species as food (prey). It can be divided into:
Carnivory, parasitism, cannibalism, herbivory.
Predation prevents a single species from becoming dominant; it also
either increases or decreases species’ richness; and it acts as a source
of natural selection.
Mutualism
Mutualism is an interaction of two or more species where the interacting
species mutually benefit from each other so much that they become
completely dependent on one another. Example: Bees and flower.
Mutualism helps in moulding or structuring community towards better
species interactions.
Commensalism
Commensalism is an interaction of two or more species in which one
species is benefited while the other species is neutral or is not benefited.
Example: Cattle egret and cattle.
It helps in determining the function and structure of populations and
communities.
Saprophytism
Saprophytism is a condition of certain living organisms feeding and living
on dead organic matters. Example: Molds (mushrooms).
Many micro saprotrophs and other decomposers, involving insects, snails,
beetles, help in recycling valuable nutrients such as iron, calcium,
5
potassium and phosphorous from dead organic matter which is released
back into the soil to be reabsorbed by plants.
2. Adaptation in Predator Species
Based on their experience, predators also undergo certain adaptations to
be an efficient hunter or killer. These adapted traits are passed down
from generation to generation. Predators exhibit traits such as sharp
teeth, claws, and venom that enhance their ability to catch food. They
also possess extremely acute sensory organs that help them to find the
potential prey. Depending upon the requirement that arises, predators
also adapt themselves to become much more efficient. Examples of some
adapted animals are:
(a) The ability of raptors to spot potential prey from over a kilometre
away.
(b) The acute sense of smell of moles.
(c) The ability of owls to locate mice by sound.
(d) The ability of pit vipers to sense body heat while tracking prey.
(e) The ability of bats and dolphins to echolocate.
Predators catch their prey either by pursuing potential prey or by
ambushing them. Organisms that give chase are capable of short bursts
of speed like Cheetah. Those that lie in wait tend to be camouflaged to
avoid detection.
Adaptation in Prey Species
In the same way, as much as predator adapts itself to capture its prey,
preys also adapt as much as possible to escape from the predators. Many,
such as leaf insects, moths, a variety of frogs and small lizards, and
herbivorous mammals, are cryptically coloured to make them more
difficult to see.
Behaviourally, they freeze after detecting the presence of a predator. This
lack of movement helps them better blend in with their background and
inhibits the ability of the predator to find them. But when the predators
venture too close, prey will take flight, running or flying to escape. When
a chase ensues, prey will typically survive if they stay out of reach until
the predator tries.
Some species take extra time by distracting the predator. Examples
include moths that flash brightly coloured hind-wings, lizards that drop
their tails, and insect larvae that discharge slime. Such actions surprise
the predator and give the prey a few extra moments to escape.
Mimicry
Some prey exhibit bright colouration signalling as poisonous individuals.
Such aposematic colouration helps prevent predation by signalling to
6
potential predators that the vividly-coloured individual is toxic. Toxins
may be manufactured within the body, as with the red-spotted newt, or
they may be acquired passively via consumption of toxic plants, as with
the monarch butterfly.
Not all the species that exhibit vivid colouration are truly toxic. Some
have evolved patterns and colours that mimic those of toxic species.
Examples of such Batesian mimicry include the extraordinarily
polymorphic Papiliodardanus swallow tail butterfly in southern Africa and
Madagascar. Females of this species occur in a wide variety of physical
appearances, nearly all of which mimic distasteful species of the
Danaeus and Amauris genera with which they co-occur.
Adaptation in Herbivory
Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by animals, and herbivores
are animals adapted to eat plants. As in predator-prey interactions, this
interaction drives adaptations in both the herbivore and the plant species
it eats.
Adaptation in Plants
Though plants cannot move like animals, they also develop certain
mechanism to escape from herbivores. For example, plants have evolved
defences, including thorns and chemicals, to keep themselves away from
being eaten by herbivores. Scientists have identified thousands of plant
chemical defense compounds, including familiar compounds such as
nicotine and cocaine.
Adaptation in Herbivores
To counteract the adaption of plants and maximize the nutrient intake,
herbivores also have adapted themselves that allow them to determine
which plants contain fewer defensive compounds and more high-quality
nutrients.
Some insects, such as butterflies, have chemical sensors on their feet
that allow them to taste the plant before they consume any part of it.
Mammalian herbivores often use their keen sense of smell to detect bitter
compounds, and they preferentially eat younger leaves that contain fewer
chemicals.
3. The term “saprophyte” is a misnomer. By definition, “Phyte” means a
plant, and bacteria and fungi are not categorized as plants. Most of the
saprophytes lack chlorophyll, and therefore, cannot perform
photosynthesis. Thus, they depend on the food energy they absorb from
the decaying organic matters. This means that they are heterotrophs and
are considered consumers in the food chain.
7
They are characterized by their use of a particular kind of digestion
mechanism, called extra-cellular digestion. In this process, they secret
digestive substances into the surrounding environment through which
they break down organic matter into simpler substances. The nutrient-
rich broken organic substances are then directly absorbed through the
membrane of the organism’s cells and are metabolized.
One of the most common saprophytic fungi belongs to Rhizopus family.
These fungi have an extensive network of hyphae, similar to tiny roots,
which grow through the organic matter. They grow in a network called a
mycelium. Mycelium helps the fungus to penetrate the organic matter
where the hyphae secrete digestive enzymes and absorb the resulting
nutrients.
Many micro saprotrophs and other decomposers, involving insects, snails
and beetles help in recycling valuable nutrients from dead organic matter
which is released back into the soil to be reabsorbed by plants. For
example— in a rainforest ecosystem, to promote healthy rainforest,
nutrients such as iron, calcium, potassium and phosphorous are
essentially required. The decomposers derive these essential nutrients
from decaying organic matters and then release into the soil where the
plants reabsorb it again.
5. Predator-prey relationships are characterized by oscillation of both

predator and prey populations over a period of time. By oscillation, we
8
mean there is a regular pattern of increase and decrease of populations
of both predator and prey. Generally, the predator is a carnivore, while
the prey is a herbivore. However, this general truth may vary depending
upon the kind of predator-prey interactions. For example, parasites
become predator when they feed on their host (prey); herbivores become
predator when they feed on plants (prey).
The main reason of oscillation is that as the predator population

increases, it progressively consumes larger number of prey until the prey
population starts to decline. Then the declining prey population no longer
supports the large increasing predator population. As the prey population
declines, the predator now faces a food shortage, and many of them
starve or fail to reproduce. As a result, the predator population declines
sharply to a point where the reproduction of prey more than balances its
losses through predation. Eventually, the population of prey increases,
which is followed by an increase in the population of predators. In this
manner, there is a regular pattern of increase and decrease in the
population of both prey and predator over a time period.
6. (a) Predation: It is an interaction between the two species, i.e.,

predator and prey, in which one species (predator) uses another species
as food (prey). Examples-Lion attacking buffaloes, Herbivory: Deer eating
grass.
(b) Parasitism: It describes a relationship between two organisms where
one benefits and the other is harmed. Examples-A flea on a dog’s skin,
Tapeworms are endoparasites.
(c) Commenalism: It is an interaction of two or more species in which one
species is benefited while the other species is neutral or is not benefited.
Examples–crab inside oyster, cattle egrets and cattle.
9
(d) Mutualisms: It is an interaction of two or more species where the
interacting species mutually benefit from each other. Examples–Bee and
flower, Human intestine harbouring E.coli.
7. Interrelationship among organisms include various interactions
prevalent in the environment. These include competition, commensalism,
parasitism, predation and mutualism. The impact organisms have on one
another also influences the environment. These interactions play a major
role in evolution of the organisms. The one that survives evolves
according to the environment thus leading a sustainable way paving way
for evolution.
Not only do interactions create evolution but also maintain and balance
the energy flow of matter by feeding on one another. This way they help
in the continuity of proper functioning of food chain. For example:
Parasitism in organism promotes coexistence in biodiversity. Herbivory
and carnivory impose strong selective pressures on the predators to
evolve into most effective predator against the prey. Thus, evolving the
two parties together resulting in coevolution. Interrelationships also help
in structuring communities of organisms for a better future. This creates
favourable environment for both the organisms to sustain harsh and
unfavourable conditions and thrive in the ecosystem. For example:
A lichen is an organism that results from a mutualistic relationship
between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism. The other organism is
usually a cyanobacterium or green algae. The fungus grows around the
bacterial or algal cells.
Further, the interrelationships aid in recycling valuable nutrients from
dead organic matter, releasing the nutrients back into the soil to be
reabsorbed by plants.
For example: Decomposers or saprophytes decay organic matters and
release iron, calcium, phosphorous and other essential minerals back into
the soil for the plants to reabsorb.
8. The three main ecosystem roles an organism can occupy are
producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers can synthesize sugars for energy from an abiotic source in
processes such as the following:
• Photosynthesis in plants and algae, where the energy in sunlight is
absorbed and transformed into the chemical bonds of sugar.
• Chemosynthesis in deep ocean bacteria, where the oxidation of
inorganic compounds exuded from hydrothermal vents act as an energy
source. This is done in the absence of light.
10
onsumers rely on the consumption of other organisms as a source of
organic compounds, other nutrients, and energy.
Herbivores, organisms which consume only plants, are known as primary
consumers. Carnivores, organisms which predate on (“eat”) other
animals, are known as higher level consumers (secondary, tertiary,
quaternary, etc).
Decomposers obtain energy and organic compounds from decaying dead
organisms, recycling nutrients (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) back to
producers in the process.
Food chains can be used to visualize the relationship of these three

groups. However, ecosystems are more accurately represented by
multiple combinations of food chains called a food web.
Roughly 90% of energy is lost through each connection in a food web due
to heat and waste loss in organisms. Therefore, producers tend to be
more abundant (in biomass) than herbivores, herbivores more abundant
than carnivores, etc., in order for each group to have enough energy to
sustain their populations. This produces what is known as an ecological
pyramid.
Questions,Fill in the blanks:

1. ................... butterfly acquire toxins via consumption of plants.
2. Bats and dolphins have ability to ................... .
3. Fleas, ticks and mites are ................... .
4. ................... affects the keystone species and modifies structure of
ecosystem.
11
Answers. 1. Monarch, 2. Echolocate, 3. Ectoparasites, 4. Parasitism
Question in one word:

1. A hawk preys on both squirrel and mice. It shows which competition.
2. Shark eating a tuna is an example of which interaction.
3. A competition where species exploits a resource.
Answers. 1. Apparent competition, 2. Carnivory predation, 3. Exploitative
competition
UNIT 2 Transport Across the Cell Membrane

QUESTION SELF EVALUATION
(i) In hypotonic solution, a cell ................................. .
(ii) In lungs, CO2 diffuses out of blood by the process of ............................. .
(iii) Purification of blood by kidneys takes place by the process of .................. .
(iv) The pressure exerted by plants’ cells on cell wall is ................................ .
(v) The larger the surface area of membrane, the ........................ is the rate of diffusion.
Answers for Self-evaluation (Page 35 of Student's Book)

(i) shrinks
(ii) diffusion
(iii) osmosis
(iv) Turgor pressure
(v) higher
QUESTION FOR SELF EVALUATION

(i) The process of cell drinking is known as ..................... .
(ii) Ca2+ ions are required for .............................. .
(iii) When two molecules are transported in opposite direction, it is .................... .
(iv) ............................ involves ingestion of bacteria.
(v) Who coined the term endocytosis?
Answers for Self-evaluation (Page 41 of Student's Book)

(i) pinocytosis
(ii) active transport
(iii) antiport
(iv) Phagocytosis
(v) Christian de Duve
12
END UNIT ASSESSMENT
QUESTION I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. Passive transport occurs by diffusion or osmosis.
2. Simple diffusion involves uphill transport of ions or molecules.
3. Osmosis is the movement of water or solvent molecules from the region of their
higher chemical potential (free energy) to the region of their lower chemical potential
(free energy) across a semipermeable membrane.
4. Not all transport mechanisms occurring across a cell membrane require ATP utilization.
5. Molecules or substances that are large in size are transported across the membrane by active
transport.
6. In the human body, nutrients (in the form of ions and small molecules) are absorbed from the food
by the surrounding blood cells in the vessels by way of osmosis.
7. Purification of blood by kidneys involves diffusion.
8. Reverse osmosis is used to purify water.
9. In the intestinal lining, glucose is absorbed by active transport from a lower concentration to a
higher concentration in the cells lining the intestine.
10. Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food.
1. ………………….. is the movement of ions or molecules from a region of lower
concentration to higher concentration across the plasma membrane.
(a) Active transport (b) Passive transport
(c) Pinocytosis (d) Exocytosis
2. In the absence of ………….. eyes would dry out.
(a) osmosis (b) diffusion
(c) endocytosis (d) exocytosis
3. Gaseous exchange during the process of respiration and photosynthesis takes place
with the help of
4. Transpiration involves the process of
5. ……………………… is important for the transport of nutrients into the cells
and toxic substances out of the cell.
(a) Active transport (b) Passive transport
(c) Pinocytosis (d) Exocytosis
6. For transport by simple diffusion,
(a) Particles should be small in size (b) Particles should be soluble in lipid
(c) Both of the above (d) None of the above
13
7. Which of the following transport mechanisms describes the process by which a macrophage
engulfs bacteria?
(a) Passive transport (b) Active transport
(c) Endocytosis (d) Transcytosis

1. In your own words, explain the processes by which materials move in and out of cells.
2. Give four examples, showing significance of diffusion in living systems.
3. Give four examples, showing the importance of osmosis in living systems.
4. In your own words, explain the significance of Active transport in living organisms.
5. With examples, explain how can you apply the knowledge of hypertonic environments in food
preservation by salting?
6. How do plants and animals adapt to salty conditions?
7. Distinguish between endocytosis and exocytosis giving suitable examples.
8. Justify the statement—
The interplay between HIV and the plasma membrane has much to offer in terms of understanding
viral tropism and pathogenicity and normal cellular functions, and for developing new antiviral
approaches.
ANSWERS TO STUDENT'S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT (Pages 42–44 of Student's Book)

1. True 2. False 3. False
4. True 5. False 6. True
7. False 8. True 9. False
10. True
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b)
4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c)
7. (c)
1. Transport mechanisms can be broadly classified into two types:
Passive Transport: It involves the movement of molecules along the
electrochemical gradient without the use of ATP (Downhill transport).
Occurs by diffusion or osmosis.
Active Transport: It drives the molecules against their electrochemical
gradient by hydrolysis of ATP (Uphill transport).
14
Below is an account of different means of transport across the plasma
membrane:
Passive Transport
Simple diffusion
It is the simplest mechanism in which a molecule dissolves in the
phospholipid bilayer, diffuses across it and then dissolves in the aqueous
solution present on the other side of the cell membrane. It neither
requires ATP nor any protein. The direction of movement is determined by
the concentration gradient (i.e., molecules flow from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration) or electrical gradient.
Therefore, any molecule that is soluble in the phospholipid layer is
capable of crossing the plasma membrane. This is the reason why only
small, relatively hydrophobic (water repelling) molecules (example–
benzene), gases (O2, CO2) and even small polar, uncharged molecules
diffuse easily across the plasma membrane while other larger molecules
are restricted.
Osmosis
In osmosis, the movement of water (solvent) occurs due to the difference
of chemical potential (water potential in case of water) on the two sides.
The kinetic energy or free energy possessed by the molecules of a
substance is called chemical potential. The chemical potential of water is
called water potential. The chemical potential of pure water (solvent) is
higher than that of the same in a solution. Presence of solute particles
decreases the chemical potential (free energy) of water. The lowering of
chemical potential (free energy) is due to attraction and collision
15
between solvent (water) and solute molecules. Thus, in terms of
thermodynamics, ‘Osmosis is the movement of water or solvent
molecules from the region of their higher chemical potential (free energy)
to the region of their lower chemical potential (free energy) across a
semipermeable membrane’.
Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of ions or molecules from a region of
lower concentration to higher concentration across the plasma
membrane (Uphill transport). For this, the energy is provided either by
another coupled reaction or by direct hydrolysis of ATP.
2. Diffusion plays an important role in living systems. Below are a few
examples where its diverse significance can be understood.
(i) In the human body, nutrients (in the form of ions and small molecules)
are absorbed from the food by the surrounding blood cells in the vessels
by way of diffusion.
(ii) In the lungs, CO2 diffuses out of blood in alveolar sacs whereas O 2
(present in high concentration in the inhaled air) diffuses into the cells in
the blood vessels (with low O2 concentration).
(iii) Cutaneous respiration (through skin) is the most common mode of
respiration in lower non-chordates wherein gases directly diffuse through
the air into the surface epithelium of the organisms.
(iv) The eyes lack a large number of blood vessels (which carry oxygen)
and therefore needs an extra supply of oxygen. The atmosphere provides
this extra needed oxygen, which is taken up by the eye through direct
diffusion of O2 into the cornea, the hard outer covering on the eye. In
absence of diffusion, the eyes would dry out.
3. Listed below are a few examples that illustrate the importance of
osmosis:
(i) Osmosis is of prime importance in living organism, where it influences
the distribution of nutrients and the release of metabolic waste products.
Living cells of both plants and animals are enclosed by a partially-
permeable membrane called the cell membrane, which regulates the flow
of liquids and of dissolved solids and gases into and out of the cell.
(ii) It helps maintain the pressure on either side of the cell membrane
thereby preventing the cells to become turgid and burst or to become
flaccid.
(iii) Plant roots absorb water and minerals from soil and take it upwards
to the leaves and other plant parts which are essential for plant growth.
16
(iv) Purification of blood by kidneys also involves osmosis. Osmosis
maintains the balance of inter-and intracellular fluids.
4. Significance of Active Transport in Organisms:
(i) In the intestinal lining, glucose is absorbed by active transport from a
lower concentration to a higher concentration in the cells lining the
intestine.
(ii) Na+ and K+ gradients established by the Na+ – K+ pump is required for
the propagation of electric signals in nerves and muscles.
(iii) Ca2+ ions are actively transported by Ca 2+ pump which is required for
muscle contraction.
(iv) H+ ions are actively pumped out of the cell lining the stomach which
results in the acidity of gastric fluids which help in the digestion. H+ ions
are actively transported into the endosomes and lysosomes with the help
of pumps.
Active transport is also important for the transport of nutrients, including
ions, sugars, amino acids into the cells and transport of toxic substances
out of the cell (e.g., ABC transporters in bacteria and eukaryotic cells).
5. When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water actually flows out
of the cell into the surrounding solution thereby causing the cells to
shrink and lose its turgidity. Hypertonic solutions are used for
antimicrobial control.
Salt and sugar are used to create hypertonic environment for
microorganisms and are commonly used as food preservatives.
Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. It is related to
pickling (preparing food with brine, i.e., salty water). It is one of the
oldest methods of preserving food, and two historically significant such
foods are dried and salted cod (usually referred to as salt fish) and salt-
cured meat. Salting is used because most bacteria, fungi and other
potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly salty
environment, due to the hypertonic nature of salt. Any living cell in such
an environment will become dehydrated through osmosis and die or
become temporarily inactivated.
Salting Methods
Cut your vegetables up in pieces before you put them into the salt water
to preserve food by salt-curing. As you chop a vegetable and put it into
the salt water, it makes its own juice. Nowadays, you might want to use a
smaller container. Just make sure the water has plenty of salt added. Let
the vegetables stand in the salt water for at least 10 days in order to
“pickle.” Pickle simply means preserved in brine. Then cover tightly with
a lid.
17
Preserve meats by salt-curing. Rub meat completely with salt pellets and
allow it to cure for 4 to 8 weeks. At the end of this time, the meat will be
almost dry. It can be stored this way for a long time. This method is
called “dry-curing.”
Soak meat in a solution of brine for a period of 3 to 4 weeks. It will be
ready to eat, but it won’t last long this way. You can also use a syringe to
inject brine
into the muscles of the meat in order to preserve the food by salt-
curing. It will be ready to eat in 2 to 3 weeks. Just remember that
these wet methods of salt-curing meat do not preserve it as long as
the dry method does.
6. Plants in salty areas take up more salt from the soil resulting in an
increase in salt concentration in the cells and thus maintaining a water
potential that is more negative than that of the soil.
The difference in osmotic potential between plant cells and soil water
leads to the movement of water into the cells through the cell membrane
via osmosis. Water is evaporated from the leaves.
This also helps the movement of water from the roots up the stem to the
leaves. Some plants restrict the opening of stomata to conserve their
water in salty conditions and some turn down leaves to decrease the
surface area of evaporation. Plants have glands to store the salt which
burst when concentration of salt increases and cause the release of salt
to the soil again. Some plants regulate salt levels by transporting sodium
and chloride ions into the central vacuole. High salt concentration in the
vacuole causes more water uptake and swelling. Some plants avoid salt
stress by releasing leaves in which excess sodium chloride accumulates
in petioles.
Animals adapt to the salty conditions very well as plants. For example,
fishes in salt water intake a lot of water and reduce the loss of water by
excreting less amount of urine by having a kidney with relatively few
small glomeruli. Fishes also have chloride secretory cells on their gills
which actively transport salts from the blood to the surroundings. Salt
glands are also found in other animals inhabiting salty conditions.
Therefore, specially developed kidneys, gills, and body functions help
equalizing salt concentrations across membranes through osmosis.
18
8. In the life of a cell, the plasma membrane fulfills a range of functions
that go far beyond the shaping and maintenance of architectural features
and the absorption of nutrients. The plasma membrane is a highly
sophisticated structure whose phospholipidic backbone is loaded with
proteins responsible for channelling the stream of information that
continuously flows between a cell and its environment. The translation of
genetic content of a cell is constantly modulated by signals triggered and
often integrated at the level of the plasma membrane. The cell exposes
on or releases from its surface a wide variety of molecules that regulate
its recognition by other cells and that sometimes influence the
homeostasis of the whole organism.
19
The plasma membrane is also the site where intracellular pathogens first
clash with their target and the place from which the immune system is
subsequently called to the rescue. Correspondingly, the study of viruses
has provided great strides in the comprehension of such fundamental
processes as membrane fusion, protein transport, endocytosis, signal
transduction, and antigen presentation, all phenomena that are intimately
intertwined with the biology of membranes and their associated proteins.
Recent progress in the analysis of the HIV, probably by now the most
extensively characterized of all human pathogens, provides a good
illustration of this paradigm. Just as the composition of the plasma
membrane influences viral infectivity, the virus in turn uses components
of the plasma membrane that are to its advantage and modifies others to
suit its purposes.
To infect a cell, a membrane-enveloped virus such as HIV must transfer
its genome across both the viral and cellular membranes—not a trivial
task given the inherent stability of biological membranes. Enveloped
viruses accomplish this feat by encoding and expressing on their surface
integral membrane proteins that, under the right conditions, undergo
conformational changes that cause the viral and cellular membranes to
fuse with one another, providing a portal of entry. The entry process is
divided into three components: attachment of the virus to the cell
surface, involving recognition and binding to specific cell surface
receptors; a triggering event that causes the viral fusion protein to
undergo conformational changes; and the membrane fusion reaction
itself. The presence or absence of molecules on the cell surface
necessary for attachment and triggering greatly influences viral tropism:
the ability of a given virus to infect only specific cell types.
Question Fill in the blanks:

1. .................... process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution.
2. In passive transport, ions/molecules move from ....................
concentration to .................... concentration.
3. .................... leads to destruction of vesicles.
4. Christian de Duve (1963) coined the term .................... .
Answers. 1. Plasmolysis, 2. higher, lower, 3. Exocytosis, 4. Endocytosis

1. When two molecules are transported in the opposite direction.
2. Wastes are eliminated by.
20
3. Special cells in fishes by which they actively transport salts from the
blood
to the surroundings.
Answers. 1. Antiport, 2. Osmosis, 3. Chloride secretory cells
UNIT 3: Chromosomes and Nucleic Acids

(i) ............................ is a segment of DNA that encodes for traits.
(ii) The two Purines are ............................... and ................................... .
(iii) Uracil is present in .................................. .
(iv) Two nucleotides are covalently joined by ..................................... .
(v) A-T bases and G-C bases are called ................................... base pairs.
Answers Self-evaluation (Page 54 of Student's Book)

(i) Gene
(ii) adenine, guanine
(iii) RNA
(iv) phosphodiester bond
(v) complementary

(i) Watson and Crick proposed the model of .................................... .
(ii) Enzyme ..................................... maintains the length of telomere.
(iii) ...................................... can be used to cure cancer.
(iv) ..................................... bonds are seen in both DNA and RNA.
(v) ...................................... directs synthesis of proteins in the body.

(i) DNA structure
(ii) Telomerase
(iii) Study of telomere
(iv) Hydrogen
(v) RNA

(i) The phenomenon of change in genetic constitution is called ......................
21
(ii) Two of the same alleles result in ............... pair.
(iii) Alleles can be ......................... or ............................ .
(iv) The sense codon AUG, is a ............................ codon.

(i) mutation
(ii) homozygous
(iii) dominant, recessive
(iv) start
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. In DNA, the pentose sugar is ribose.
2. RNA has a hydrogen atom at 2’ carbon position.
3. Pyrimidine is a single-ringed structure.
4. DNA contains adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
5. Out of these five histone proteins, H1 is loosely attached to the rest of the histone core proteins.
6. Non-histone proteins are acidic proteins.
7. Purine bases use its 9 position nitrogen to attach with 1’ carbon in pentose sugar.
8. DNA is left-handed double helix.
9. UAG, UGA and UAA nucleotides are stop codons.
10. In genetic code, degeneracy means degeneration of DNA.
1. Codon is a group of
(a) 2 nucleotides (b) 3 nucleotides
(c) 4 nucleotides (d) 5 nucleotides
2. Newborn babies have telomeres ranging from around
(a) 8,000 to 13,000 base pairs (b) 8,000 to 16,000 base pairs
(c) 8,000 to 12,000 base pairs (d) None of these
3. Split genes are
(a) Genes with splitting chromosomes
(b) Genes separated from one another
(c) Genes where exons are interrupted with introns
(d) Genes where introns are interrupted with exons
4. Mutant gene is
(a) A gene with different mother genes
(b) A gene where nucleotide sequence has changed due to mutation
(c) A gene where different genes exist together
22
(d) A gene of different shape and size
5. Splicing is process of
(a) Removing exons (b) Removing introns
(c) Removing coding genes (d) Removing DNA
6. Recessive allele will express only when
(a) It occurs with dominant alleles (b) It occurs with other recessive allele
(c) It is absent (d) It is present with proteins
7. DNA Replication is the process of
(a) Copying DNA from RNA (b) Copying DNA from proteins
(c) Copying DNA from DNA (d) Copying DNA from ribosome
8. Nitrogenous bases of the two strands of DNA are linked with
(a) Hydrogen bonds (b) Covalent bonds
(c) Ionic bonds (d) Phosphodiester bonds
9. DNA does not have
(a) Adenine (b) Cytosine
(c) Guanine (d) Uracil
10. Gene codes for
(a) Polypeptides (b) Blood
(c) Specific trait (d) Specific genome
1. In your own words, describe the composition of chromosomes.
2. List at least three differences between the structures of DNA and RNA.
3. Why is DNA important in chromosomes?
4. What is telomere? Give the significance of telomere in replication and its importance in cancer
treatment.
5. Describe structure of a Genetic code.
6. In your own words, explain why the structure of DNA is described as a ladder twisted into a spiral.
7. Draw the structure of DNA having at least 6 base pair sequence.
8. How did Watson and Crick determine the nucleotide base pairing pattern? Explain in your own
words.
9. In your own words, describe the nature of genes.
10. (i) Identify the structure shown in figure.
(ii) Write the measurement (distance) of the parts marked (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5).
(iii) How many H-bonds are there at the place marked (6)?
(iv) How many different forms of the shown structure have been reported to occur in the living
organisms? Give their names.
(v) Which of them has/have left-handed spiral and which of them right handed spiral?
(vi) Mention any 2 other special features of the form having left-handed spiral.
23
11. Explain the role of nucleic acids in detecting HIV-AIDS. Describe NAT and also tell why NAT is
not suitable for detecting ultra-law HIV-I DNA and RNA within host cellular compartments.
ANSWERS I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or

False (F):
1. False; In DNA, the Pentose sugar is deoxyribose.
2. False; In RNA the pentose sugar is ribose: hydroxyl group (OH) is
attached at the 2 carbon position.
3. True; Pyrimidines are six-membered, single-ringed structures.
4. True; DNA contains adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, while RNA
has adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine.
5. True; H1 protein is loosely attached to the rest of the histone core
proteins.
6. True; Non-histone proteins are acidic and negatively charged.
7. True; Purine bases use the 9th position of nitrogen to attach with 1’
carbon of pentose sugar, while pyrimidine bases use the 1st position of
nitrogen to attach with 1’ carbon of pentose sugar.
24
8. False; Two polynucleotide chains wind around each other in a right-
hand double helix.
9. True; UAG, UGA and UAA nucleotides are stop codons, while AUG is a
start codon generally.
10. False; More than one codon can code for a particular amino acid, with
two exceptions of AUG and UGG. This multiple coding by a single codon
is called the degeneracy or redundancy of the code.

1. (b); A codon is made of three nucleotides.
2. (a); Newborn babies have telomeres ranging froms around 8,000 to
13,000 base pairs.
3. (c); Split genes are genes where exons are interrupted with introns.
4. (b); Mutant gene is a gene whose nucleotide sequence has changed
due to mutation.
5. (b); It is through splicing mechanism that introns are removed from pre-
m-RNA. Then exons are joined together to form mature m-RNA.
6. (b); Recessive allele will express itself only when it occurs with other
recessive allele. As long as dominant allele is present, recessive allele
will not be expressed.
7. (c); During DNA replication, a copy of DNA is made from a template
DNA. Therefore, it is a process of copying DNA from DNA.
8. (a); Nitrogenous bases are linked to one another by hydrogen bond
following complimentary base pairing rule. Example: A with T, C with G.
9. (d); Uracil (U) is present in RNA.
10. (c); A gene codes for a specific trait.

1. Composition of chromosome:
Chromosome is basically composed of three components:
(A) Nucleotides: The monomers that make up Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are called as nucleotides. Nucleotide
has three components:
Pentose Sugar: Pentose sugar has five carbon atoms, which are
numbered 1’ to 5’ respectively. In DNA, the pentose sugar is deoxyribose:
a hydrogen atom (H) is attached at the 2’ carbon position. In RNA the
pentose sugar is ribose: hydroxyl group (OH) is attached at the 2’ carbon
position.
25
Nitrogenous Bases: There are two classes of nitrogenous bases: Purines
and Pyrimidines. Purines are nine-membered, double-ringed structures. In
these purines, the carbons and nitrogens are numbered 1 to 9. There are
two purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). Pyrimidines are six-membered,
single-ringed structures. The carbons and nitrogens in these pyrimidines
are numbered 1 to 6. Pyrimidines are of three types: Thymine (T),
Cytosine (C ), and Uracil (U).
Structures of nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA

Phosphate Group: The phosphate group (PO 42–) is attached to the 5,
carbon of the sugar in both DNA and RNA. Due to this phosphate
group, DNA is negatively charged.
26
(B) Histones Proteins: Histone proteins play an important role in
organizing the physical structure of the chromosome. They are most
abundantly found in chromatin where they are wrapped around by DNA
strands. Moreover, they are small basic proteins with a net positive
charge that assist their binding to the negatively charged DNA (due to
phosphate groups which are negatively charged).
In eukaryotes, there are five main types of histone proteins. They are: H1,
H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. H1 is loosely attached to the rest of the histone
core proteins. That is why H1 can be easily separated from the rest of the
histone proteins. And two each of H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 form core of
eight histone proteins. These core proteins are also called as histone
octamers. A strand of DNA measuring 147 bp segments wraps around this
histone octamers for about 1.7 times. Each nucleosome is connected by a
strand of DNA called linker DNA. For example, Human linker DNA ranges
from 38–53 bp long.
(C) Non-histone Proteins: Excluding histone proteins, the rest of the

proteins associated with DNA come under the category of non-histone
proteins. Non-histone proteins in so many ways are different from histone
proteins. Some of the differences are:
(i) The number of non-histone proteins is much lesser than histone
proteins.
27
(ii) Non-histone proteins are acidic proteins, which are negatively
charged.
(iii) They play an important role in the process of DNA replication, DNA
repair, transcription, gene regulation, and recombination.
(iv) They vary in number and type from cell type to cell type within an
organism at different times in the same cell type, and from organism to
organism.
2. The main structural differences between RNA and DNA

There are three major differences of RNA from that of DNA are:
(i) RNA contains ribose sugar instead of 2’-deoxyribose. It means that
ribose has a hydroxyl group (OH) at the 2’ position, whereas, deoxyribose
has hydrogen (H) at 2’ position in pentose sugar.
(ii) RNA has Uracil (U), whereas, DNA has thymine (T).
(iii) Unlike DNA which consists of two polynucleotide chains, in most
cases, RNA is found in a single polynucleotide chain.
3. In chromosomes, DNA is important due to the following reasons:
(i) Protection: The packaging of DNA in chromosomes helps in protecting
DNA from being damaged.
(ii) Conserve Space: If we take the DNA from all the cells in a human body
and line it up, end-to-end, it would form a strand 6000 million miles long!
In order to store this very long important material, DNA molecules are
tightly packed around proteins called histones to make the structures
called chromosomes.
The packaging of DNA in chromosomes helps in conserving space in cells.
Approximately, about two metres of human DNA can fit into a cell that is
28
only a few micrometres wide.
(iii) Control of Gene Expression: Chromatin is a complex of DNA and

proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
In its extended form, chromatin looks like beads on a string under the
microscope. The beads are called nucleosomes, while the link between
them is a strand of DNA.
The packaging of DNA in chromatin form helps in controlling gene
expression. Highly compacted chromatin is not accessible to the
enzymes involved in DNA transcription, replication, or repair.
Chromatin has two main regions. The less condensed regions of
chromatin are the regions where active transcription takes place. This
region is called euchromatin. On the other hand, the condensed region of
chromatin is where transcription is inactive or is being actively inhibited
or repressed. This region is called heterochromatin.
4. A telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each of a
chromosome. It protects the end of the chromosome from being deleted
or from fusion with neighbouring chromosomes. In vertebrates, the
29
repetitive sequence of nucleotides in telomeres is TTAGG. In humans,
this sequence is repeated about 2500 times.
Significance of Telomere In Replication

1. Telomeres help in organising the chromosomes in the nucleus of the
cell.
2. Telomeres protect the loss of important genes: During DNA replication,
the chromosomes are shortened by about 25–200 bases per replication. If
this process of shortening the chromosomes continues, there will be a
loss of important genes. However, fortunately, the ends of the
chromosomes are protected by telomeres; and telomeres are non-coding
regions. Thus, even if there is loss at the tip of chromosomes in every
round of replication, the loss of telomeres (non-coding regions) doesn’t
affect the important genes.
3. Telomeres prevent the end of chromosomes from fusing with its
neighbouring chromosomes.
30
Telomeres and Cancer
Cancer cells are characterized by their rapid and uncontrollable division
of cells. These cells have active telomerase to help them divide
uncontrollably and become immortal. In the absence of telomerase, the
cancer cells would become inactive and would stop dividing resulting into
death of the cancer cells. Cancer therapies can take advantage of this
concept by designing drugs that can inhibit telomerase activity, thereby,
killing the cancer cells. Telomere biology is an important aspect of human
cancer. Many scientists are hoping and working hard to understand the
best way to use anti-telomerase therapy and advance the treatment of
cancer.
31
5. The structure of genetic code is related to a series of exciting
discoveries.
It was George Gamow (1954), a phyicist, who argued that since there are
only 4 bases and if they have to code for 20 amino acids, the code should
constitute a combination of bases. In order to code for all the 20 amino
acids, he suggested that the code should be made up of three nucleotides
(triplet code). The permutation and combination of three nucleotides 43 (4
× 4 × 4) would generate 64 codons. Proving that codon was triplet (i.e.,
three nucleotides) was quite a challenging task. But the chemical method
developed by Har Govind Khurana for synthesizing RNA molecules with
defined combinations of bases (homopolymers and copolymers), and
Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free system for protein synthesis finally helped
the genetic code to be deciphered. In the 1968, both of them, Marshall
Nirenberg and Hare Gobind Khurana along with Robert Hollye were
awarded Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. Finally, a checker board
for genetic code was prepared which is as follows.
Genetic Code: The first, second and third bases as read from 5’ to 3’
direction constitute the triplet code in RNA. The codon AUG specifies
methionine and is usually the starting point for protein synthesis. The
word ‘stop’ indicates codons serving as singals to terminate protein
synthesis. For each amino acid, more than one codon have been
identified. It would be clear from the Figure that while the first and
32
second bases remain the same for a particular amino acid, the third base
can be different.
6. A typical ladder has two long wooden or metal side strands or pieces
between which a series of rungs or bars are set in suitable distances. In
the structure of DNA, the pentose sugars and phosphate groups make up
the “long two side strands or pieces” of a typical ladder. And the A-T and
G-C base pairs which are bonded by hydrogen bonds make up the “rungs
or bars” of a typical ladder.
But unlike a typical ladder which is straight, the two strands of DNA are
twisted into spiral. Scientists call this a double helix. DNA also folds and
coils itself into more complex shapes. The coiled shape makes it very
small. In fact, it is small enough to easily fit inside any of our cells. If a
DNA from a cell is unfolded, it would stretch out to length of about six
feet. The structural twisted nature of DNA has been attributed to enhance
its stability and strength. Thus, for these simple similarities with a typical
ladder, DNA is also referred to as a twisted ladder structure.
7.
33
Structure of DNA having 6 base pair sequences. Here the base pairs are:
A-T, G-C, T-A, A-T, C-G, and G-C.
8. The rules of base pairing (or nucleotide pairing) are:
• A with T: the purine adenine (A) always pairs with the pyrimidine
thymine (T)
• C with G: the pyrimidine cytosine (C) always pairs with the purine
guanine (G)
This is consistent with there not being enough space (20 Å) for two
purines to fit within the helix and too much space for two pyrimidines to
get close
of nucleotides on one strand of DNA, we can immediately deduce the

complementary sequence on the other strand.
The rules of base pairing explain the phenomenon that whatever the
amount of adenine (A) in the DNA of an organism, the amount of thymine
34
(T) is the same (called Chargaff’s rule). Similarly, whatever the amount of
guanine (G), the amount of cytosine (C) is the same.
9. The following are some natures of genes:
(a) A complete set of an organism’s DNA is called genome. A gene is a
segment of DNA that encodes for a particular trait. For example—black
hair, brown hair etc.
(b) Chromosomes are the structures that hold genes; they are made up of
strands of DNA tightly wrapped around histone proteins.
(c) Genes are located on the chromosomes.
(d) In the chromosome, a gene is found in a pair or alternative forms
called alleles. An allele is one of two or more versions of the same gene
or gene locus. Two alleles for each gene, one from each parent, are
passed on to offspring. Homozygous pair refers to two of the same alleles
and heterozygous pair refers to two different alleles.
(e) Each gene allele occupies a specific position in each chromosome
called locus (plural- loci).
(f) Alleles are either dominant or recessive. Dominant allele will be
expressed wherever it is present, even if it is paired with recessive allele.
But recessive allele is expressed only when it is paired with another
recessive allele.
(g) Genes duplicate themselves very accurately by DNA replication. DNA
replication is the process of producing two identical DNA replicas from
one original DNA molecule during cell cycle. It occurs in all living
organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance.
10. (i) Double helix model of DNA (Watson-Crick model of DNA)
(ii) (1) 2 nm (2) 3.4 nm (3) 0.34 nm (4) 2.2 nm (5) 2.83 Å (0.28 nm)
(iii) Three
(iv) Four ; A, B, C and Z DNAs.
(v) Z-DNA ; B-DNA.
(vi) 12 base pairs per turn of helix ; 4.5 nm is the length of one turn of
helix ;
1.8 nm is the diameter of the molecule.
11. The HIV capsid surrounds two copies of genomic ribonucleic acid
(RNA). Replication proceeds with reverse transcription of genomic RNA
into a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) intermediate. This DNA intermediate is
integrated into the host genome where it is referred to as proviral DNA.
Unintegrated DNA is present in cells in linear and circular forms. It has a
short half-life and disintegrates soon after it is formed.
35
HIV replicates in an error-prone manner that generates a mutation
virtually every time the virus replicates. This ongoing mutation allows the
emergence of different variants in the host, such as drug-resistant strains
or immunological escape mutants.
The NAT system is capable of detecting more infectious donations than
current tests because it detects viral genes rather than antibodies or
antigens (proteins from the virus). Detection of viral genes permits
detection earlier in the infection since the appearance of antibodies
requires time for the donor to develop an immune response, and since
detection of antigens requires time for a higher level of virus to appear in
the bloodstream.
This new technology detects very small amounts of genetic material by
copying the genes numerous times, resulting in a billion-fold amplification
of the target gene. The approved test system can detect ribonucleic acid
(RNA) from HIV-1 and HCV when tested in pools of 16 samples obtained
from multiple donors. In a less automated format, it can also be used to
test individual samples from whole blood collections. If a test pool is
positive for either virus, the individual donation suspected of containing a
virus can be identified and not transfused. The donor can be deferred
from donating blood and notified.
Currently, donors of blood and plasma are tested for antibodies to HCV,
antibodies to HIV and HIV-1 antigens, which are the virus's own proteins.
However, there is still a "window period" during which a donor can be
infected, but have negative screening tests. With the use of NAT for HCV,
the window period is reduced by approximately 57 days (from an average
of 82 days to 25 days). For HIV-1, the average window period with
antibody is 22 days. This window period is reduced approximately to 16
days with antigen testing and to 12 days with NAT.
The most sensitive FDA approved HIV Nucleic Acid Test (NAT) on the
market today is the Abbott Real Time HIV-1 Assay. It has an analytical
sensitivity of approximately 25 copies/ml for the 1 ml application. It is
approved for the detection of HIV RNA in plasma samples. This assay is
not suitable for detecting ultra-low HIV-1 DNA and RNA within host
cellular compartments.

1. The presence of DNA in chromosomes is important for three main
reasons— ..................., ................... and ....................
2. ................... has major and minor grooves.
36
3. ................... is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each of
the tip of chromosomes.
Answers. 1. Protection from damage, conserve space, and control of gene
expression
2. DNA, 3. Telomere

1. The flow of genetic information.
2. In RNA, adenine pairs with.
3. IA and IB alleles of human blood are called.
Answers. 1. Central dogma, 2. Uracil, 3. codominant alleles.
UNIT 4 : DNA
Replication
(i) .................. is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself.
(ii) ................ and ................. proposed the semi-conservative model of DNA replication.
(iii) .................. and .................. are two other models of DNA replication.
Answers Self-evaluation
(i) Replication
(ii) Meselson, Stahl
(iii) Conservative, dispersive
(i) The full form of ORC is ......................... .
(ii) The tension ahead of replication fork is relaxed by ......................... .
(iii) The newly synthesized strand is ......................... in nature.
(iv) It takes about ......................... hours to replicate entire genome in Eukaryotes.
(v) DNA replication in Eukaryotes is ......................... in nature.
37
(i) Origin Recognition Complex
(ii) DNA gyrase
(iii) continuous
(iv) 8
(v) complex

(i) ............................ is an example of lethal mutation.
(ii) ............................... plays an important role in proofreading mechanisms.
(iii) Alkaptonuria is also known as ................................... disease.
(iv) ...................................... provides variation that can result into beneficial evolution.
(v) Base pairing in DNA occurs due to ................................... bonding.
(i) Tay Sachs
(ii) DNA polymerase
(iii) Black Urine disease
(iv) Mutation
(v) Hydrogen
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTION
I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. In conservative DNA replication model, two identical daughter DNA strands are formed.
2. Meselson and Stahl experiment proved dispersive DNA replication model after
two replication cycles.
3. Without dNTPs, new DNA cannot be synthesized.
4. In Chargaff'’s rule of base pairing. Adenine base pairs with Cytosine.
5. DNA polymerase I has 3′-5′ exonuclease activity.
6. Tay-Sachs disease (TSD) is a fatal autosomal dominant genetic disorder.
7. Topoisomerase II acts as a swivel to prevent supercoiling of DNA.
8. Mutation can be both beneficial and lethal.
9. Synthesis of DNA in lagging strand is discontinuous.
10. Primer is required again and again in leading strand of DNA.
1. DNA replication plays an important role in
38
(a) reproduction (b) growth of organisms
(c) DNA repair (d) All of the above
2. Meselson and Stahl are known for
(a) Complementary base pairing
(b) Genetic Code
(c) Semi-conservative DNA replication
(d) Conservative DNA replication
3. DNA helicase has a role to
(a) Seal the nick at the end of DNA replication.
(b) Relax the tendency of DNA to reform double helix structure.
(c) Unwinds or unzips double stranded DNA.
(d) Cut DNA randomly.
4. Which of the following is not an ingredient to make DNA in a test tube?
(a) dNTPs (b) Primers
(c) Magnesium ion (d) Calcium ion
5. The mechanisms that ensure accurcacy of DNA replications are
(a) complementary base pairing (b) Proofreading
(c) Mismatched DNA repair (d) All of the above
6. This happens when mistakes are not corrected by DNA repair mechanism.
(a) Mutation (b) Replication
(c) Repair (d) Growth
7. Syntherized fragments of DNA on lagging strand are
(a) Origin complex (b) Mini chromosome
(c) Okazaki fragments (d) Autonomously replicating sequence
8. Mut family protein is important in
(a) Semi-conservative DNA replication
(b) Mismatched repair
(c) Hydrogen bonding
(d) Organizing DNA structure
9. DNA polymerase d appears to perform
(a) Synthesis of DNA on the lagging strand
(b) Synthesis of DNA on the leading strand
(c) Prevention of supercoiling in DNA
(d) Unwinding of DNA
10. The main initiator proteins of DNA replication in eukaryotes consist of three proteins except
(a) Origin recognition complex
(b) Helicase loaders
(c) Single-stranded binding proteins
(d) Minichromosome maintenance proteins
III. Long Questions
1. State how complementary base pairing in DNA devises the Meselson
and Stahl’s semiconservative model of replication.
39
2. Explain different types of DNA replication models.
3. Describe the roles of enzymes involved in DNA replication.
4. Explain the mechanism to show how the structure of DNA enables it to reproduce itself accurately.
5. Describe the importance of DNA replication in organisms.
(ii) Write the label (a) to (d).
(iii) Describe the process wherein DNA unzips and each new molecule of DNA forms daughter
DNA.
7. List out the ingredients used to make DNA in a test tube.

8. Mutation are the ultimate fuel for evolution. Describe mutations as a key genetic
factor in both positive and negative terminology of biology.
Also tell how some people get more sick from bacteria and viruses than others.
What role does our genes play to get that difference?
9. DNA replicates and form a part of HIV-cure-related research. Investigate on the various aspects of
DNA replication detecting HIV DNA.
ANSWERS
1. False; In semi-conservative replication model, two identical daughter
DNA strands
are formed.
40
2. False; Meselson and Stahl's Experiment proved the semi-conservative
Model of DNA Replication.
3. True; dNTPs are the precursors for the nucleotide formation in DNA.
Without these dNTPs, new DNA cannot be synthesized.
4. False; In Chargaff’s rule of base pairing, Adenine base pairs with
thymine.
5. True; DNA polymerase I has 3’–5’ exonuclease activity and it is helpful
in proofreading.
6. False; Tay-Sachs disease (TSD) is a fatal autosomal recessive genetic
disorder.
7. True; Topoisomerase II acts as a swivel to prevent supercoiling of DNA.
8. True; Mutation provides variation that can result into beneficial
evolution.
A genetic mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that
makes up
a gene; this mutation is lethal.
9. True; Synthesis of DNA lagging strand is discontinuous, whereas
synthesis
of DNA in leading strand is continuous.
10. False; Primer is only required once in a leading strand of DNA, while
primer
is required again and again in lagging strand of DNA.
II. Multiple choice Answers:

1. (d); all the options suggest importance of DNA replication.
2. (c); Meselson and Stahl conducted the experiment to prove that DNA
replication takes place in a semiconservative manner.
3. (c); During DNA replication, it is the enzyme DNA helicase that unwinds
double stranded DNA.
4. (d); DNA reuires: a DNA template, dNTPs, DNA polymerase 1, primers,
magnesium ions and buffer solutions.
5. (d); all the options ensure accuracy of DNA replication.
6. (a); mistakes not corrected by DNA repair mechanism causes mutation.
7. (b); okazaki fragments are small fragments formed on lagging strand of
DNA.
8. (b); The Mut family of enzymes plays an important role in mismatched
repair of DNA.
9. (a); It appears to perform synthesis of DNA on the lagging strand.
41
10. (c); A protein called single-strand DNA-binding (SSB) proteins bind to
each single-strand DNA and stabilise them, so that the separating two
strands of DNA do not reform double stranded DNA by complementary
base pairing.
III. Long answers:
1. In 1958, Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl performed the
experiment to test and prove that DNA replication is semi-conservative.
In their experiment, they used two isotopic forms of nitrogen, 14N (light)
and 15N (heavy), to distinguish newly synthesized strands of DNA from old
strands.
Initially, Meselson and Stahl grew E.coli (bacteria) for many generations
in a medium containing 15N-labelled ammonium chloride (15NH4Cl) to
incorporate this heavy isotope of nitrogen into their DNA molecule. As
expected, the DNA strands in the bacteria had 15N-15N (heavy) DNA.
In the second stage, they transferred the 15N-labelled bacteria to a
medium containing nitrogen in the normal 14N form (light). Then the
bacteria were allowed to reproduce for several generations.
Since, the bacteria were grown in the normal 14N form, the entire newly
synthesized DNA after the transfer was now labelled with 14N.
Samples of E.coli were taken at various time periods as the bacteria
continued to reproduce in the medium. The DNAs from these bacteria
were extracted and analysed to determine its density. They determined
the density of extracted DNAs by using equilibrium density gradient
centrifugation technique. This technique uses Cesium Chloride (CsCl), a
heavy metal salt that forms solutions of very high density. Thus, they
analysed the extracted DNA by simply mixing it with a solution of cesium
chloride and then centrifuged at high speed.
42
As a density gradient of cesium chloride is established by the centrifugal
force, the DNA molecules float “up” and sink “down” within the gradient
to reach their equilibrium density positions. The difference in density
between the heavy (15N) DNA and the light (14N) DNA causes DNA
molecules to rest at different positions by forming bands in the gradient.
Final Observations
First Generation (After One Replication Cycle)
When the observation was made after one replication cycle in the 14N
medium, the entire DNA had a density that was exactly intermediate
between that of 15N-15N DNA and that of 14N-14N DNA. The intermediate
composition was 15N-14N DNA.
Second Generation (After Two Replication Cycles)
Again when the observation was made after two replication cycles, half
of the DNA was that of intermediate density (15N-14N DNA) and half was
that of the density of 14N-14N DNA. The observations made in this
experiment exactly tested and proved the predication of the semi-
conservative model. Therefore, through this experiment, it has been
known that DNA replication follows semi-conservative model. At the same
43
time, it disproved the claim that DNA replication follows either
conservative or dispersed replication models.
2. Types of DNA Replication Models
Semi-conservative Model
In 1953, Watson and Crick proposed their classic paper postulating a
double helix for DNA. A month later, they published another paper
suggesting how such base-paired structures in DNA might duplicate itself.
The essence of Watson and Crick suggestion is that if DNA molecule was
untwisted and the two strands get separated, each strand could act as a
template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand of DNA. And
this new complementary strand could then be bound to the parental
strand of DNA. This model replication model is known as the semi-
conservative model. It is because half of the parent strand of DNA is
retained by newly formed daughter DNA strand.
Conservative DNA Replication Model
In this model, the two parental DNA strands come together right after
replication; and as whole, these two parental DNA strands serve as
template for the synthesis of completely new daughter DNA strands. As a
result, one daughter DNA molecule contains parental DNA strands, while
the other daughter DNA molecule contains newly synthesized DNA
strands.
Dispersive DNA Replication Model
In this model, the parental double helix is broken or cleaved into double-
stranded DNA that acts as templates for the synthesis of new double
helix molecules. The segments then reassemble into complete DNA
double helices, each with parental and daughter DNA segments
interspersed. After the replication, although the two daughter DNA
molecules are identical in their base-pair sequence, the parental double
stranded DNA has become dispersed throughout both in the daughter DNA
molecules.
3. Roles of Enzymes involved in DNA Replications
DNA Polymerase
In 1955, Arthur Kornberg and his colleagues were the first ones to identify
an enzyme that could synthesize DNA. Back then this enzyme was
originally called as Kornberg enzyme. But now it is called as DNA
polymerase I. And the term DNA polymerase by definition encompasses
enzymes that catalyses the synthesis of DNA.
There are five DNA polymerases:
(a) DNA polymerase I
(b) DNA polymerase II
44
(c) DNA polymerase III
(d) DNA polymerase IV
(e) DNA polymerase V
On one hand, DNA polymerase I and III are functionally required for
replication. On the other hand, DNA polymerase I, II, IV, V are involved in
DNA repair.
DNA Helicase
DNA helicase is an enzyme that unwinds or unzips the double stranded
DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases.
The action of DNA helicase can be compared with a zipper. When we open
a zip, the zipper runs on a zip and makes a Y-shape structure with the two
strands of interlocking teeth. In the same way, DNA helicase unzips the
double stranded DNA and form a Y-shaped fork known as a replication
fork.
Single-strand DNA-binding Proteins (SSB)

In DNA replication when helicase unwinds the double stranded DNA, the
two separating strands of DNA have the tendency to reform or reanneal
into double stranded DNA. A protein called single-strand DNA-binding
(SSB) proteins bind to each single-strand DNA and stabilise them, so that
the separating two strands of DNA do not reform double stranded DNA by
complementary base pairing.
DNA Ligase At the end of DNA replication right after the DNA Pol I
removed and replaced all the RNA primer nucleotides with DNA
45
nucleotides, normally as single-strand
A flow diagram showing DNA ligase sealing the gap in a new DNA strand
nick (gap) is left between the two DNA fragments. This nick is the point
where the sugar-phosphate backbone between adjacent nucleotides is
unconnected. So what DNA ligase does is that it joins the two fragments
resulting into a longer and continuous DNA strand.
Chemically, DNA ligase catalyses the formation of a phosphodiester bond
between the 3’-OH and the 5’-phosphate groups on either side of a nick.
As a result, it seals the nick(gap).
4. Mechanisms that Ensure Accuracy of DNA Replication
(A) Complimentary Base Pairing
The nitrogen bases of DNA follow the Chargaff’s rule of base pairing. In
simple words, this rule says that Adenine (A) base pairs with Thymine (T);
Guanine (G) base pairs with Cytosine (C). This base pairing is very strict
and accurate. Thus, the complimentary base pairing directs the DNA to
replicate very accurately and prevents any mistake to occur.
46
Base pairing between purines and pyrimidines is possible because of
hydrogen bonds. We can simply define hydrogen bond as the attractive
force between the hydrogen attached to an electronegative atom of one
molecule and an electronegative atom of a different molecule. In the
structure of DNA, both the strong electronegative atoms, oxygen (O) and
Nitrogen (N), are partially negatively charged (d-), while the hydrogen (H)
has the partial positive charge (d+). Hydrogen bonds or interactions play
very important role in binding the two bases of the opposite strands in the
DNA.
(B) Semi-conservative Nature of DNA
In DNA replication, two of the original strands of DNA act as templates for
new DNA to be synthesized. So when the new strands of DNA are
synthesized, they are just the complimentary bases of the two original
template strands of DNA. In this way, original sequence of DNA is semi-
conserved with the two original strands of DNA. Thus, the semi-
conservative nature of DNA makes the DNA replication highly accurate.
(C) Proofreading
DNA Pol I and DNA Pol II polymerase enzymes have 3 to 5 exonuclease
activity, which means that they can remove incorrectly inserted
nucleotides from the 3 end to 5 end of the DNA chain. Thus, they play
an important role in proofreading mechanism. The insertion of incorrect
nucleotides by both DNA Poly I and DNA Poly III occurs at a frequency of
one base in a million (10–6).
When incorrect nucleotides are inserted in the newly synthesized DNA,
the 3–5 exonucleases move backward and remove the incorrect
nucleotide from the newly synthesized DNA. Then they resume the
47
forward movement and insert the correct nucleotides in place of the
incorrect nucleotides. With this proofreading mechanism, the chances of
error occurrence in DNA replication is reduced to one base in a billion (10 –
9) instead of one base in a million (10 –6).
(D) Mismatch Repair

After DNA Replication if there are any mismatched base pairs on the
newly synthesized strand, it can be corrected by methyl-directed
mismatch repair. In contrast to proofreading mechanism where only one
base is repaired by DNA polymerase, the mismatch repair mechanism can
replace about thousand bases to make one repair. The Mut family of
enzymes plays an important role in mismatched repair.
5. Importance of DNA Replication
Reproduction: One of the most fundamental properties of all living things
is the ability to reproduce. It is through reproduction that parents
faithfully pass on their genetic information specifying their structure and
function to their young ones. At organism level, organisms reproduce
either by a sexual or sexual reproduction methods. At cellular level, cells
duplicate by cellular division. And at the genetic level, the genetic
material duplicates by DNA replication.
Repair: DNA is the centre of instructions that govern the cell’s protein
production, growth, and many other activities in the cells. With this
enormity of precise responsibility, any minor mistakes in the replication
process can bring potentially harmful changes in the cell’s behaviour or
for that matter, the whole organism. Therefore, DNA employs various
error repair mechanisms to ensure accurate DNA replication.
Growth: DNA Replication is required for the growth of organisms. DNA
replication occurs in two different forms of cellular division. They are
mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, a single parent cell divides and gives rise
to two identical daughter cells. Each of the daughter cells has the exact
amount of genetic material. Example: Growth of limbs, organs, hair etc.
On the other hand, in meiosis, cells divide and give rise to two haploid
sex cells. Thus, DNA replication plays a vital role in both mitosis and
meiosis.
6. (i) DNA Replication Fork
(ii) (a) DNA Gyrase, (b) Lagging strand template, (c) Okazaki fragment, (d)
Leading strand template (iii) The mechanism of DNA Replication can be
clearly discussed in the following points.
1. DNA replication starts when DNA helicase unwinds or unzips the DNA
at the origin of replication in both the directions.
48
2. The locally denatured segment of DNA is called replication bubble. The
two separated parent DNA strands are called template strands.
3. A Y-shaped structure which is formed when DNA unwinds or unzips to
expose the two parent single template strands for DNA replication is
called as a replication fork. In most of the cases, replication forks are
formed in both sides and, thus, move simultaneously in two opposite
directions. In other words, the movement of replication fork is
bidirectional.
4. In the next step, DNA helicase recruits DNA primase enzyme. Primase
enzyme synthesizes a short RNA primer (about 5–10 nucleotides) on the
two template strands through which new nucleotides are added by DNA
polymerase III.
5. The denaturing or separating two strands of DNA have the tendency to
reform (reanneal) double stranded DNA. A protein called single-strand
DNA-binding (SSB) proteins bind to each single-strand DNA and stabilise
them, so that the separating two strands of DNA do not reform double
stranded DNA.
6. As the two single-strands of DNA are held in Y-shaped position and are
stabilized by SSB proteins, the DNA polymerase III now comes and starts
adding nucleotides by forming phosphodiester bonds at the 3'-OH of the
primer.
7. The DNA polymerase III can add nucleotides only in 5'–3' directions.
However, the two strands of DNA run in opposite directions forming a
49
polarity. Thus, to maintain the 5'–3' polarity of DNA synthesis on both of
the two single templates, DNA is simultaneously made in opposite
directions of the two template strands.
(a) The new DNA strand that is synthesized in the same movement of the
replication fork is called the leading strand. This strand requires a single
primer for the complete DNA replication.
(b) On the contrary, the other new DNA strand that is synthesized in the
opposite direction of the movement of replication fork is called the
lagging strand. This strand requires primers again and again. Therefore,
the newly synthesized DNA strand is discontinuous in nature. And the
newly synthesized fragments of DNA on lagging-strand are called Okazaki
fragments.
8. The unwinding of the DNA to form a replication fork creates a tension
is relaxed by DNA gyrase or topoisomerase.
9. At the end of the DNA replication, the RNA primers on the previous
Okazaki fragments are removed by DNA polymerase I.
10. After the DNA polymerase I left, a single-stranded nick is left at the
site of the removal of primer. DNA ligase seals the nick. This completes
the process of DNA replication.
7. To synthesize DNA, the following components are required for making
DNA in a test tube.
(i) A DNA template: The template (original) DNA that is to be copied. A
template is a molecule which is used to make a complementary DNA
molecule in the DNA synthesis. Normally, the two parental DNA strands
act as DNA templates.
(ii) DNTPs (deoxynucleotides): A mixture of four deoxyribonucleoside 5’-
triphosphate (dNTPs) precursors namely: dATP, dGTP, dTTP, and dCTP.
These dNTPs are the precursors for the nucleotide formation in DNA.
Without these dNTPs, new DNA cannot be synthesized.
(iii) DNA polymerase I (DNA Pol I): An enzyme to carry out DNA synthesis.
(iv) A primer: A primer is a short DNA sequence that will bind with the
single parent DNA strand and start the DNA synthesis reaction. Without
primer, the coming nucleotides cannot directly base-pair with parent DNA
template.
(v) Magnesium ions (Mg2+): It is required for DNA polymerase activity to
run optimally.
(vi) Buffer: Provides a suitable chemical environment for optimum activity
and stability of the DNA polymerase.
8. Over the years, advantageous mutations, examples of which we look at

later, have allowed life to develop and diversify from primitive cells into
50
the multitude of species—including Homo sapiens —that exist on Earth
today. If DNA replicated perfectly every time, without errors, the only life-
forms existing now would be those that existed about three billion years
ago: single-cell organisms. Mutations, therefore, are critical to the
development of diverse life-forms, a phenomenon known as speciation.
Mutations that allow an organism to survive and reproduce better than
other members of its species are always beneficial, though a mutation
that may be beneficial in some circumstances can be harmful in others.
Mutations become especially important when an organism's environment
is changing—something that has happened often over the course of
evolutionary history.
The majority of mutations, however, are less than favourable, and this is
illustrated by the relationship between mutation and certain hereditary
diseases. An example is Huntington disease, a condition that strikes
people in their forties or fifties and slowly disables their nervous systems.
It produces shaking and a range of other symptoms, including depression,
irritability, and apathy, and is usually fatal. The gene associated with
Huntington's is dominant.
Most hereditary diseases are, by definition, linked with a mutation. Such
is the case with haemophilia, for instance (see Non-infectious Diseases),
and with cystic fibrosis, a lethal disorder that clogs the lungs with
mucous and typically kills the patient before the age of 30 years. Cystic
fibrosis, like Huntington, occurs when a person inherits two copies of a
mutated gene.
People with healthy immune systems can be exposed to certain viruses,
bacteria, or parasites and have no reaction to them—but people living
with HIV/ AIDS can face serious health threats from what are known as
“opportunistic” infections (OIs). These infections are called
“opportunistic” because they take advantage of your weakened immune
system, and they can cause devastating illnesses. OIs are signs of a
declining immune system. Most life-threatening OIs occur when your CD4
count is below 200 cells/mm3. OIs are the most common cause of death
for people with HIV/AIDS. One of the goals of HIV treatment is to lower
your risk of getting OIs. Antiretroviral therapy can help by increasing your
number of CD4 cells, which will help protect you from OIs.
9. HIV begins its life cycle with the infection of target cells through cell
surface receptors. Following viral entry, the viral RNA genome is reverse
transcribed into a double-stranded DNA molecule and enters the nucleus
as a nucleic acid-protein complex (the preintegration complex), which
mediates the integration of viral DNA into the host chromatin. The
integrated provirus then serves as a template for the transcription of viral
51
genes. Integration is a decisive step for stable maintenance of the viral
genome and an obligatory process for viral replication. Nevertheless,
some HIV-1 integrase mutants have been shown to replicate
unexpectedly in certain T cell lines. These cell lines were transformed
with human T-cell leukaemia virus (HTLV-1). Possible synergistic effects
or complementation between HIV and HTLV may contribute to the
replication of integration negative viruses. Rare, non-viral mediated
integration of retroviral DNA has also been observed in infection with
integration negative viruses. The non-viral integration is characterized by
extremely low efficiency, deletions at the viral-cellular DNA junction or
oligomerization of viral DNA.
Retroviral integration is a specific process mediated by viral encoded
integrases, which are biochemically both necessary and sufficient for
integration. Although integration occurs randomly in vitro in assay
conditions, in vivo, it preferentially occurs in the upstream portion of
active genes or near DNAse-hypersensitive sites. In addition, not all
regions of the genome are equally favoured for integration. Integration
into active genes could be an advantage for viral replication. Presumably
the local chromatin environment of transcribing genes would favour
proviral transcription.
Several different tests can be used to establish whether a person is in the
early stages of HIV infection. PCR viral load is the most sensitive test for
detecting HIV infection in seroconversion, though greater sensitivity may
be achieved when used in conjunction with the proviral DNA test.
The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test is performed by
doing a routine blood draw. PCR amplifies genetic material (RNA) and
looks for actual virus by using the reverse transcriptase (RT) enzyme to
multiply HIV gene sequences in the blood sample so that they show up
more easily. A chemical reaction marks the virus and these markers are
then measured and used to calculate the amount of virus in the
bloodstream. This test is very reliable for detecting HIV in someone
recently exposed to virus and will be highly accurate within 48 to 72
hours. An ultra-sensitive version of the RT-PCR test can detect as few as
50 copies/ml.
A qualitative PCR test, known as the PCR-DNA test, looks for the
presence of virus, but does not measure the amount found. This is a
useful test for detecting infection in infants because it will detect virus
before viral load is present, but it is a more expensive test.
The branched DNA (bDNA) assay also detects the amount of virus and has
results comparable to RT-PCR. The bDNA test contains a material that
gives off light when it connects with HIV particles.
52
1. Mutation in ......................... causes Tay-Sachs.
2. DNA replication in ......................... occurs at multiple points.
3. The semi-conservative nature of DNA makes the DNA replication
highly ........... .
Answers. 1. Hex-A Gene, 2. Eukaryotes, 3. Accurate

1. Who lives in colon of human beings?
2. Pol d synthesizes
3. Full form of MCM
Answers. 1. Esherichia coli (bacterium),
2. Lagging strand,
3. Minichromosome maintenance.
Unit 5: Cell and Nuclear Division

QUESTIONS SELF EVALUATION
(i) In ................. phase of the interphase DNA, replication occurs.
(ii) Karyokinesis is the division of ................. .
(iii) ................. is the resting phase of cell cycle.
(iv) It approximately takes ................. hours for one round of cell cycle in human beings.
(v) Cancer is the ................. growth of cells.

(i) S (ii) nucleus
(iii) G0 (iv) 24 hours
(v) uncontrolled
(i) Independent assortment of chromosomes takes place at .............. stage of Meiosis I.
(ii) Chiasmata formation occurs at .............. .
(iii) Meiosis is also known as .............. .
(iv) Crossing over and random fertilization brings .............. in life cycles.
(v) Trisomy of chromosome number two leads to .............. syndrome.
53
(i) metaphase (ii) metaphase 1
(iii) reduction division (iv) variation
(v) klinefelter
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1. Cell cycle is a cyclical event of cell growth, mitosis, and cell division.
2. A typical cell spends most of its time in interphase.
3. Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into three identical daughter cells.
4. Cytokinesis is a division of cytoplasm.
5. The process of mitosis is basically divided into 5 phases.
6. Meiosis is divided into three stages: Meiosis I, Meiosis II and Meiosis III.
7. The unrestrained, uncontrolled growth of cells in human beings results into a disease
called cancer.
8. Cancer occurs due to failure in controlling cell division.
9. Proper separation of chromosomes during meiosis is not essential for the normal growth
in humans.
10. The life span of blood cells ranges from less than one day to a few months.
1. Meiosis starts with diploid cell but ends with ......... haploid cells.
(a) one (b) two
(c) three (d) four
2. ........................... is a biological process by which diploid cells undergo cell division
and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes.
(a) Gametogenesis (b) Spermatogenesis
(c) Oogenesis (d) None of these
3. Generally, plants reproducing sexually have life cycle consisting of .......... phases.
(a) two (b) three
(c) four (d) five
4. In telophase, the nuclear envelope re-forms around the ........... set of haploid
daughter chromosomes.
(a) one (b) two
(c) three (d) four
5. The prominent role of stem cells can be seen in—
(a) blood cells (hematopoietic system)
(b) epithelial cells of the skin
(c) epithelial cells lining the digestive tract
54
(d) All of these
6. ............................... is a condition in which the homologues or sister chromatids
fail to separate properly during meiosis.
(a) Disjunction (b) Non-disjunction
(c) Down syndrome (d) None of these
7. Which of the events is not correct in prometaphase
(a) Nuclear envelope breaks down
(b) Spindle fibres invade nuclear area
(c) Kinetochore binds to centromere
(d) Chromatids condense into discrete chromosome
8. Which of the event is correct in anaphase
(a) Sister chromatids separate and give rise to daughter chromosomes.
(b) Chromosomes are aligned at metaphase plate.
(c) Cytokinesis starts occurring.
(d) Chromosomes begin to uncoil.
9. The total chromosome number at the end of meiosis I and II is
(a) 46 (b) 23
(c) 44 (d) 92
10. One round of oogenesis produces
(a) One egg (b) Two eggs
(c) Three eggs (d) Four eggs
11. Which of the following results in genetic variation
(a) Independent assortment of chromosomes
(b) Crossing over
(c) Random fertilization
(d) All of these
12. In mitosis, which of the following occurs?
(a) Chiasmata formation (b) DNA replication
(c) Synapsis (d) None of these
13. Identify the cells which are divided by mitosis.
(a) Skin cells (b) Liver cells
(c) Blood cells (d) All of these
14. Identify the cells which are divided by meiosis.
(a) Intestinal cells (b) Stem cells
(c) Gametes (d) None of these
15. Which part of the plants is/are divided by mitosis?
(a) Stem (b) Flower
(c) Leaves (d) All of these
16. Identify the cells that are divided by meiosis in plants.
(a) Root tips (b) Pollen grains
(c) Ova (d) (b) and (c)
55
III. Long Questions
1. Describe the main stages of cell cycle.
2. In your own words, explain what is meant by homologous pairs of chromosomes.
3. What do you mean by the terms haploid and diploid?
4. In your own words, describe the process of mitosis.
5. In your own words, describe the process of meiosis.
6. Outline the significance of mitosis in cell replacement and tissue repair by stem cells.
7. In your own words, explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in the formation
of a tumour.
8. What is the need for reduction prior to fertilization in sexual reproduction?
9. In your own words, explain the importance of effective cell division.
10. Outline the role of meiosis in gametogenesis in humans and in the formation
of pollen grain and embryo sacs in flowering plants.
11. Explain how crossing over and random assortment of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
and random fusion of gametes at fertilization leads to genetic variation, including the expression of
rare recessive alleles.
ANSWERS I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or

False (F):
1. True 2. True
3. False 4. True
5. True 6. False
7. True 8. True
9. False 10. True

1. (d); four
2. (a); Gametogenesis
56
3. (a); two
4. (d); four
5. (a); blood cells (haematopoietic system)
6. (b); non-disjunction
7. (d); Condensation of chromatids takes place in prophase.
8. (a); Sister chromatids separate and give rise to daughter chromosomes.
9. (d); Simple explanation is given below (Example—Human beings):
Parent cell = 46 chromosomes (Diploid)
Meiosis I = 2 cells (each chromosome with sister chromatids) = 46 * 2 =
92 chromosomes.
Meiosis II = 4 haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes = 92/4 = 23
chromosomes (Haploid)
10. (a); Only one egg matures in oogenesis.
11. (d); All of them lead to genetic variation.
12. (d); None of these occurs at mitosis.
13. (d); All of these cells divide by mitosis.
14. (c); Gametes are sex cells which divide by meiosis.
15. (d); All of them.
16. (d); Both pollen grains and ova divide by meiosis, while root tips divide
by mitosis.
III. Long answers:
1. Cell cycle is a cyclical event of cell growth, mitosis, and cell division.
All somatic cells of an organism’s body divide by mitosis. The cell cycle
basically consists of two phases: Mitotic Phase and Interphase.
(a) Mitotic (M) Phase: It includes mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the
division of nucleus while cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm. As
result of mitotic phase, one cell divides into completely two identical
daughter cells.
(b) Interphase: A typical cell spends most of its time in interphase. It
accounts for about 90% of the whole cell cycle. Interphase involves
growth and DNA replication processes. It is further divided into :
(i) G0: It is a resting phase and it can be temporary or permanent.
(ii) G1-Phase: It is also called first growth phase or post mitotic gap
phase. During this phase, the cell grows in size and there is an active
synthesis of RNA and proteins. In this phase, the cell carries out its
physiological functions and prepares the machinery needed for the cell to
proceed to the next stage. A large number of nucleotides, amino acids for
57
histone synthesis and energy rich compounds are formed. Cell organelles
also increase in number. However, it shows no change in its DNA content.
(iii) S-Phase: It is also called synthetic phase. In this phase, DNA
molecule of each chromosome replicates by the synthesis of a new DNA
on the template of the existing DNA. Thus, the DNA content doubles and
duplicate set of genes are formed. Along with DNAs, chromatin fibres also
replicate. As chromatin fibres are elongated chromosomes, each
chromosome comes to have two chromatin threads or sister chromatids
which remain attached at a common point called centromere. The cell
thus retains the original diploid (2n) chromosome number but now has a
duplicate set of genes. S-phase is also called invisible phase of mitosis,
since in this phase chromosome prepares themselves for equitable
distribution later on. The centriole, also divides into two centriole pairs in
the cells containing the same.
(iv) G2-phase: It is also called second growth phase or premitotic gap
phase. The synthesis of RNA and protein continues in this phase and the
cell prepares itself to go into the mitotic phase. The phase produces
macromolecules for multiplication of cell organelles, spindle formation
and cell growth. During G2-phase a cell contains double DNA content, i.e.,
1C to 2C for haploid cells and 2C to 4C for diploid cells.
Data Related to Time for Different Cell Cycles

The time consumed by each stage in the cell cycle varies from organism
to organism.
In human beings, one round of cell cycle takes 24 hours. The relative
time division is:
(a) G1 phase takes about 5–6 hours.
(b) S phase takes about 10–12 hours.
(c) G2 phase takes about 4–6 hours.
(d) M phase takes about less than one hour.
58
2. The chromosome pairs, one from each parent, which is similar in
length, gene position, and centromere location, is called as homologous
chromosome. In humans, for example, the 23 chromosome pairs are
homologous chromosomes.
3. Diploid: The cells which contain two complete sets (2n) of
chromosomes are called diploid cells. These cells are formed by the
fusion of two haploid gametes, one comes from the female parent and the
other comes from the male parent. For example, all the somatic cells are
diploid cells.
Haploid: In contrast, the cells that contain only one complete set (1n) of
chromosome are called as haploid cells. Example is gamete cells in
humans. Two separate haploid gametes, one from male parent (sperm,
1n) and another from female parent (ova, 1n), come together and fuse to
form a zygote, which is a diploid (2n).
4. Mitosis is one of the phases of cell cycle, which normally last only
about less than
an hour. It is a process where a single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells.
And it is normally followed by cytokinesis but not always. The process of
mitosis
is basically divided into five phases:
A. Prophase B. Prometaphase
C. Metaphase D. Anaphase
59
E. Telophase
A. Prophase
• The chromosome fibres become more tightly coiled.
• The chromatids condense into discrete chromosome.
• Each chromosome can be seen to consist of two sister chromatids.
• Nucleolus shrinks and eventually disappears in most species.
• Two pairs of centrioles are seen. The mitotic spindle assembles outside
the nucleus.
• The radial arrays of shorter microtubules are called as asters.
• In most animal cells, the centrioles are the focal points for spindle
assembly. Higher plants do not have centrioles, though they do have a
mitotic spindle.
B. Prometaphase
• The nuclear envelope breaks down at the end of prophase.
• The developing spindle now enters or invades the former nuclear area.
• The chromosomes have even become more condense.
• Kinetochores, a specialized multiprotein complex, bind to each
centromere.
• Kinetochore microtubules extend from both the poles and bind to
kinetochores of chromatids.
• Non-kinetochore microtubules originate from the two opposite poles and
enter into the nuclear area where they overlap in the middle of the
spindle.
C. Metaphase
• The centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell.
• The kinetochore microtubules from the two poles orient the
chromosomes in such a way that their centromeres become aligned at
the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane that is equidistant between the
two poles of the spindle apparatus.
D. Anaphase
• Once the centromeres are attached to the two sister chromatids, they
start separating and move towards the opposite poles. Consequently, the
joined centromeres of sister chromatids separate and give rise to two
daughter chromosomes.
• The separation continues until the two poles of the cell have equivalent
and complete chromosomes.
E. Telophase
60
• The two sets of daughter chromosomes are assembled into two groups
at opposite ends of the cell.
• The chromosomes begin to uncoil and assume the elongated state
characteristic of interphase.
• A nuclear envelope starts forming around each group of chromosomes.
• The spindle microtubules disappear; and the nucleolus or nucleoli
reform.
• At this point, nuclear division is complete and the cell now has two
identical nuclei.
Cytokinesis is a division of cytoplasm. It compartmentalizes the two

new nuclei into separate daughter cells, completing mitosis and cell
division. In animal cells, cytokinesis is characterized by a constriction in
the middle of the cell. The constriction continues until two daughter cells
are produced. In plant cells, a new cell membrane and cell wall are
assembled between the two new nuclei to form a cell plate. Cell wall
material coats each side of the plate, and the result— two progeny cells.
5. Meiosis is a reduction division where the number of chromosomes are
reduced to half from diploid parent cell to haploid daughter cells. It is
divided into two stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. The process of Meiosis
alternates with an interphase, which is subdivided into G1, S, and G2
61
phases. Meiosis I is further subdivided into prophase I, metaphase I,
anaphase I, and telophase I.
In the same way, Meiosis II is also subdivided into prophase II,
metaphase II,
anaphase II, and telophase II.
Meiosis I
Prophase I
The DNA in prophase I coils tighter, and individual chromosomes first
become visible under the light microscope as a matrix of fine threads.
Since the DNA has already replicated during the S phase of interphase
prior to meiosis I, each of the chromosomes actually consists of two
sister chromatids joined together at their centromeres.
Pairing or synapsis
In prophase I, homologous chromosomes become closely associated in
synapsis. Synapsis includes the formation of an elaborate structure called
the synaptonemal complex, consisting of homologous chromosomes
paired closely along a lattice or zipper-like structure of proteins between
them. The components of synaptonemal complex include a meiosis-
specific form of cohesin, that helps the two homologous chromosomes to
be closely associated along their length.
Crossing over or recombination Crossing over in meiosis I allows the
homologous chromosomes to exchange their chromosomal material.
During this, the crossing over between sister chromatids is suppressed.
Reciprocal crossing over occurs only between non-sister chromatids and
62
is controlled in such a way that each chromosome arm usually has one or
a few crossovers per meiosis. In human beings, the crossovers are
typically two to three in number.
Once the crossing over process is complete, the synaptonemal complex

breaks down, and the homologous chromosomes become less tightly
associated. But the homologous chromosomes remain attached at one
particular point called chiasmata (chiasma-singular). At this point, there
are four chromatids of the two homologous chromosomes.
Two homologous chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids each.
This structure of four chromatids of the two homologous chromosomes
attached at chiasmata is called as tetrad or bivalent. Some of the other
events that occur along with synapsis are:
1. The nuclear envelope breaks down.
2. Two pairs of centrosome migrate to opposite poles.
3. Spindle fibres formation occurs.
Metaphase I
During metaphase I, the chiasmata have moved down on the paired
homologous chromosomes towards the ends. At this point, chiasmata are
now called as terminal chiasmata. The terminal chiasmata hold the
homologous chromosomes together so that the homologous
chromosomes are now aligned at the equator of the cell. The
kinetochores microtubules from the opposite poles become attached to
the kinetochore of homologues chromosomes.
The attachment of kinetochore microtubules at the monopolar
centromere of each homologue creates a tension on the homologous
chromosomes, which are joined by sister chromatid cohesin at
chiasmata.
Anaphase I
63
During anaphase sister chromatid cohesion is released and the
homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to the opposite poles, but not
the sister chromatids. Now when the spindle fibres have fully contracted,
each pole has a complete haploid set of chromosomes consisting of one
member of each homologous pair.
Telophase I
In telophase I, the chromosomes are segregated into two clusters at the
two opposite poles. Then the nuclear membrane reforms around each
daughter nucleus. At the two poles, each chromosome has sister
chromatids attached to its centromere. And the interesting thing is that
the sister chromatids are no longer identical because of the crossing over
that had taken place in prophase I.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm and its content into
two equal cells. Right after telophase I, cytokinesis may or may not
occur. Meiosis I is followed by meiosis II, which occurs after an interval
of variable length.
Meiosis II
Meiosis II is like mitotic division, which results into division of two equal
cells without DNA replication. Normally, the gap between meiosis I and
meiosis II is interrupted by interphase. But the interphase is very brief
and it does not contain S phase. Like mitosis cell division, meiosis II is
also subdivided into subphases. They are: (a) Prophase II (b) Metaphase II
(c) Anaphase II (d) Telophase II.
Prophase II
64
Prophase II is brief. In prophase II, nuclear envelope breaks down and
formation of new spindle fibres takes place.
Metaphase II
In metaphase II, the kinetochore microtubules extend themselves from
the two poles and bind to kinetochores of each sister chromatid. These
kinetochore microtubules start pulling the sister chromatids toward the
two opposite poles. As a result, the sister chromatids are aligned at the
metaphase plate.
Anaphase II
In anaphase II, as the spindle fibres contract, the cohesion complex
joining the centromeres of sister chromatids is destroyed or cleaved. As a
result, the centromeres are split and the sister chromatids are pulled
towards the two opposite poles.
Telophase II
In telophase, the nuclear envelope reforms around the four set of haploid
daughter chromosomes. Then cytokinesis follows resulting into complete
four set of haploid daughter cells. These haploid daughter cells may
follow different fate depending upon the organisms. In animals, these
haploid daughter cells develop directly into gametes i.e. sperms and
eggs. In plants, fungi, and many protists, they may divide mitotically to
produce greater number of gametes.
6. In the early development of an organism, the embryonic cells rapidly
proliferate and differentiate into specialized cells of adult tissues and
organs. As cells differentiate from time to time, their rate of proliferation
usually decreases. As a result, most cells in adult animals are arrested at
the G0 stage. Some cells at this phase may resume the cell cycle and
proliferate when they receive certain signals.
Some of the differentiated cells enter the G0 resting phase and wait for
the signal to resume the cell cycle to repair injured tissue. There are
numerous examples such as skin fibroblast, endothelial cells, smooth
muscle cells, and liver cells. Skin fibroblasts upon receiving growth
factor, skin fibroblast start secreting collagen and help in repairing cuts
or wounds. Most of the fully differentiated cells no longer posses the
capability of cell division. Therefore, they can be replaced by stem cells.
65
Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into
specialized cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem
cells. The prominent role of stem cells can be seen in—blood cells
(hematopoietic system), epithelial cells of the skin, and epithelial cells
lining the digestive tract. All of these cells have short life spans, and they
must be replaced continually by continual cell proliferation in adult
animals.
The life span of blood cells ranges from less than one day to a few
months. All of these cells are derived from the same population of
hematopoietic stem cells. In fact, there are more than 100 billion blood
cells that are lost every day in humans. If there are no stem cells to
replace the loss of these cells, human beings will not be able to survive.
Hence, these cells are continually being replaced by the cells produced
from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
7. Cancer cells can be dangerous when they start behaving abnormally in
the body. The main problem arises when a single cell in a tissue
undergoes a process called transformation. It is a process where normal
cell is converted into a cancer cell. Normally, the body’s immune system
will recognize the transformed cell as a foreign invading cell and, thus,
destroys it. However, if the transformed cell evades or escapes the
destruction, it may proliferate and form a tumoura mass of abnormal cell.
Tumours can be discussed in three sub-headings:
(a) Benign tumour: The lump of the abnormal cells that remains at the
original site. Most benign tumours do not cause serious problems and can
be completely removed by surgery.
(b) Malignant tumour: These are abnormal cells that have become
invasive enough to impair with the functions of one or more organs. An
individual with a malignant tumour is said to have cancer.
66
(c) Metastasis: A few tumour cells may separate from the original tumour,
enter blood vessels and lymph vessels, and travel to other parts of the
body. In the other parts of the body, they may proliferate and form a new
tumour. This spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original
site is called metastasis.
8. Generally, a cycle of reproduction consists of meiosis and fertilization.
Before sexual reproduction occurs, gametes undergo meiosis and
produce haploid cells. Thus during sexual reproduction, one haploid (1n)
gamete comes from the paternal side and another haploid (1n) gamete
comes from the maternal side; then, they both fuse to form a zygote,
which is diploid (2n). The fusion of gametes to form zygote or new cell is
called as fertilization or syngamy.
If meiosis does not occur before sexual reproduction, the chromosome
number would double up with each fertilization. And after few
generations, the number of chromosomes in each cell would become
impossibly large. For example in humans, in just 10 generations, the 46
chromosomes would increase to about 47104 (46 × 210).
67
9. Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or
more daughter cells. The two types of cell division are generally called
mitosis and meiosis.
Significance of Mitosis in Living Organisms
In the early development of an organism, the embryonic cells rapidly
proliferate and differentiate into specialized cells of adult tissues and
organs. As cells differentiate from time to time, their rate of proliferation
usually decreases. As a result, most cells in adult animals are arrested at
the G0 stage. Some cells at this phase may resume the cell cycle and
proliferate when they receive certain signals.
Some of the differentiated cells enter the G0 resting phase and wait for
the signal to resume the cell cycle to repair the injured tissue. There are
numerous examples such as skin fibroblast, endothelial cells, smooth
muscle cells, and
liver cells. Skin fibroblasts upon receiving growth factor, start secreting
collagen and help in repairing cuts or wounds.
Most of the fully differentiated cells no longer posses the capability of
cell division. Therefore, they can be replaced by stem cells. Stem cells
are undifferentiated biological cells that can differentiate into specialized
cells and can divide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells. The
prominent role of stem cells can be seen in—blood cells (hematopoietic
system), epithelial cells of the skin, and epithelial cells lining the
digestive tract. All of these cells have short life spans, and they must be
replaced continually by continual cell proliferation in adult animals.
Significance of Meiosis
Cells Undergo Reduction Division Prior to Sexual Reproduction
Generally, a cycle of reproduction consists of meiosis and fertilization.
Before sexual reproduction occurs, gametes undergo meiosis and
produce haploid cells. Thus during sexual reproduction, one haploid (1n)
gamete comes from the paternal side and another haploid (1n) gamete
comes from the maternal side; then, they both fuse to form a zygote,
which is diploid (2n). The fusion of gametes to form zygote or new cell is
called as fertilization or syngamy. If meiosis does not occur before sexual
reproduction, the chromosome number would double up with each
fertilization. And after few generations, the number of chromosomes in
each cell would become impossibly large. For example in humans, in just
10 generations, the 46 chromosomes would increase to about 47104 (46 ×
210).
Role and Significance of Meiosis in Producing Gametes
68
Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid cells undergo cell
division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. It occurs
through meiosis. In humans, the male gamete (sperm) is produced by a
process called spermatogenesis and the female gamete (egg) is produced
by a process called oogenesis through meiotic division.
Here, gemete function takes place soon after meiosis but in plants it
happens after gametophyte formation sexual reproduction of plants starts
with spore formation. Sporophyte is a diploids generation of flowering
plant where haploid spores are produced by meiosis which in turns
undergoes mitosis to form multi-celled haploid gametophytes. These
haploid gametophyte differentiate to produce gametes—sperm and egg
cells. Similarly, embryo sac is formed by
reduction division. Each of the cells of embryo sac is haploid. Two of the
nuclei fuse to produce diploid nucleus.
10. Gametogenesis is a biological process by which diploid cells undergo
cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes. It occurs
through meiosis. In humans, the male gamete (sperm) is produced by a
process called spermatogenesis and the female gamete (egg) is produced
by a process called oogenesis through meiotic division.
Here gemete function takes place soon after meiosis but in plants it
happens after gametophyte formation sexual reproduction of plants starts
with spore formation. Sporophyte is a diploids generation of flowering
plant where haploid spores are produced by meiosis which in turns
undergoes mitosis to form multi-celled haploid gametophytes. These
haploid gametophyte differentiate to produce gametes—sperm and egg
cells. Similarly, embryo sac is formed by reduction division. Each of the
cells of embryo sac is haploid. Two of the nuclei fuse to produce diploid
nucleus.
The Role of Meiosis in Reproduction of Plants
Generally, plants reproducing sexually have life cycle consisting of two
phases:
(a) A multi-cellular gametophyte or haploid stage:
It is a haploid stage with n chromosomes. It alternates with a
multicellular sporophyte stage.
(b) A multi-cellular sporophyte or diploid stage:
It is a diploid stage with 2n chromosomes, made up of n pairs.
A mature sporophyte produces spores by meiosis, a process which
reduces
the number of chromosomes from 2n to 1n.
69
Alternation of generations (also known as mutagenesis) refers to the
occurrence in the plant life cycle of both a multi-cellular diploid organism
(sporophyte) and a multi-cellular haploid organism (gametophyte), each
giving rise to the other. This is in contrast to animals, in which the only
multi-cellular phase is the diploid organism (such as the human man or
woman), whereas the haploid phase is a single egg or sperm cell.
In bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), the dominant generation is
haploid, so that the gametophyte comprises the main plant. On the
contrary, in tracheophytes (vascular plants), the diploid generation is
dominant and the sporophyte comprises the main plant.
11. During crossing over, DNA segments of the two parents-paternal and
maternal are combined into a single chromosome producing recombinant
chromosomes, which are non-identical with their sister chromatids. In
humans, an average of one to three crossing over events occur per
chromosome pair, depending on the position of their centromeres and on
the size of the chromosome.
70
Thus, crossing over is an important event of meiosis that brings genetic
variation in sexual life cycles. Besides independent assortment and
crossing over, the random fertilization during sexual reproduction also
increases genetic variation in organisms. During random fertilization the
male gamete and female gamete fuse to form zygote. The most
interesting thing is that this zygote has the possibility of about 70 trillion
diploid combinations. The number 70 trillion comes from possible
combinations of male and female gametes which are 223 × 223 = 70
trillions. The possibility of this enormous number of combinations makes
each and every one of us unique physically and genetically.
12. (i) Anaphase I
(ii) (1) Astral pole (2) chromosome fibres or tractile fibrils (3) spindle fibre
(4) constriction
(iii) Germ cells
(iv) Non-disjunction of homologous chromosomes.
13. HIV is a virus that attacks a type of white blood cell called CD4 cells.
It uses their nucleus, which is an organelle, to reproduce, then it destroys
the cell. Over time, your number of CD4 cells drops extremely low, leaving
you open to infection. This stage of HIV is called AIDS.
71
Most commonly, people get or transmit HIV through sexual behaviours
and needle or syringe use. HIV is not spread easily. Only certain body
fluids from a person who has HIV can transmit HIV:
• Blood
• Semen (cum)
• Pre-seminal fluid (pre-cum)
• Rectal fluids
• Vaginal fluids
• Breast milk
These body fluids must come into contact with a mucous membrane or
damaged tissue or be directly injected into your bloodstream (by a needle
or syringe) for transmission to occur. Mucous membranes are found inside
the rectum, vagina, penis, and mouth.
HIV enters the CD4 Cells and becomes a part of them. When the cell
replicates using mitosis, more of the HIV virus is created.
HIV destroys the CD4 Cells, which makes the body vulnerable to disease.
The HIV cell's life cycle involves its binding to a CD4 cell, its fusion to the
plasma membrane, then the HIV's DNA combines with the cell's nucleus.
The CD4 cell reproduces, creating more HIV. The HIV leaves the cell after
it is replicated, destroying the cell in the process.
72
In earlier times, very little was known about how HIV is transmitted,
which made people scared of those infected due to fear of contagion.
This fear, coupled with many other reasons, means that lots of people
falsely believe:
• HIV and AIDS are always associated with death
• HIV is associated with behaviours that some people disapprove of
(like homosexuality, drug use, sex work or infidelity)
• HIV is only transmitted through sex, which is a taboo subject in some
cultures
• HIV infection is the result of personal irresponsibility or moral fault
(such as infidelity) that deserves to be punished
• inaccurate information about how HIV is transmitted,
creating irrational behaviour and misperceptions of personal risk.
HIV-related stigma and discrimination exist worldwide, although they
manifest themselves differently across countries, communities, religious
groups and individuals.
Research by the International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW)
found the possible consequences of HIV-related stigma to be:
73
• loss of income and livelihood
• loss of marriage and childbearing options
• poor care within the health sector
• withdrawal of caregiving in the home
• loss of hope and feelings of worthlessness
• loss of reputation.
Stigma also varies depending on the dominant transmission routes in a
country or region. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, heterosexual sex is
the main route of infection, which means that HIV-related stigma in this
region is mainly focused on infidelity and sex work. These people are
increasingly marginalised, not only from society, but from the services
they need to protect themselves from HIV. Half of all new HIV infections
worldwide are among people belonging to key affected populations.
Questions Fill in the blanks:

1. Synapsis includes the formation of an elaborate structure called
the, ................. .
2. In .................. chromosomes are pulled apart.
Answers. 1. synaptonemal complex, 2 Anaphase
Questions in one word:

1. Spread of cancer cells.
2. Female gamete is produced by
Answers. 1. metastasis, 2. Oogenesis
Unit 6: Protein Synthesis

74
(i) A .............. is a sequence of nucleotide which codes for specific polypeptide.
(ii) .............. allows an organisms to translate genetic information into proteins.
(iii) .............. is a start codon.
(iv) .............. and .............. contributes to stability of DNA.
(i) gene
(ii) Genetic code
(iii) Methionine
(iv) Hydrogen bond, base stacking

(i) ................... is a DNA dependent polymers.
(ii) The base pairs of eukaryotic gene are ............... with the bases of transcribed mRNA.
(iii) mRNA coding information for more than one gene is called ...................
(iv) ................... is a process of adding poly A tails to pre mRNA.
(v) ................... are removed by RNA splicing.
(i) RNA
(ii) collinear
(iii) polycistronic
(iv) Polyadenylation
(v) Introns

(i) Process of translation occurs in three stages as ..............., .................. and ........ .
(ii) tRNA is also known as ................... .
(iii) .................. consists of upto 50 nitrozones in same mRNA and they speed
up polypeptide synthesis.
(iv) Eukaryotes have ………….. ribosomal complex.
(i) Initiation, Elongation, Termination
(ii) Aminoacyl-tRNA
(iii) Polyribosome/Polysome
(iv) 80
75
(i) ................. distorts red blood cells and cause sickle-cell anaemia.
(ii) ................. people are sensitive to light.
(iii) Mutations are of two types ................. and ................. .
(iv) Sickle cell anaemia is an ................. disorder.

(i) Valine
(ii) Albinism
(iii) Missense mutation, Nonsense mutation
(iv) red blood cell
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1. Genetic code is composed of A, C, G, and T nucleotides.
2. The main role of t-RNA is to decode the codons on m-RNA.
3. The main role of m-RNA is to carry genetic information in a series of codons.
4. Ribosomes are made up only by proteins.
5. TATA box is found 10 base pairs downstream from +1 start site.
6. RNA polymerase doesn’t need any factor to initiate transcription.
7. Hairpin loop structure is formed in rho dependent terminators.
8. Pre-m-RNA needs to undergo RNA processing to become functional m-RNA.
9. In prokaryotes, the first amino acid to bind at the P-site is N-formylmethionine.
1. Sickle-cell anaemia is caused due to change in
(a) Nucleotide T by A in the DNA (b) Nucleotide A by T in the DNA.
(c) Nucleotide G by U in the DNA (d) Nucleotide U by G in the DNA.
2. Which of the following are the characteristics of genetic code?
(a) Triplet code (b) Almost Universal
(c) Nonoverlapping (d) All of these.
3. The wrong stop codon is
(a) UUA (b) AUU
(c) UAG (d) UGA
4. The word “wobble” means
(a) Jumping (b) Synthesis
(c) Unsteady (d) Stable
76
5. Which of the following is located in the upstream of a bacterial gene?
(a) Promoter (b) Terminator
(c) RNA-coding sequence (d) None of the above
6. RNA polymerase I doesn’t catalyze the synthesis of
(a) 28S molecule (b) 5S molecule
(c) 5.8S molecule (d) 18S molecule
7. Which of the following components is not involved in eukaryotic transcription?
(a) General transcription factors (b) RNA polymerase II
(c) Sigma factor (d) Enhancers
8. Which of the following are related to eukaryotes?
(a) RNA Processing (b) Introns & exons
(c) Poly (A) tail (d) All of these
9. Scanning model is related to
(a) Charging of t-RNA (b) Initiation
(c) Elongation (d) Termination
10. In sickle-cell anaemia, valine amino acid replaces
(a) Serine (b) Threonine
(c) Glutamic acid (d) Tyrosine
1. In your own words, state features of a genetic code.
2. Describe the process of transcription in bacteria.
3. Using diagrams, compare the process of bacterial and eukaryotic transcriptions.
4. Describe the process of translation in bacteria.
5. State the roles of t-RNA, m-RNA, and ribosomes in the formation of polypeptides.
6. What is sickle-cell anaemia? Explain its cause and symptoms.
7. In Genetic code (Figure 6.2), CUU codes for leucine (leu) amino acid. If we change the third letter
of CUU i.e., U with C, A, G, which amino acid will the changed codon code for during translation?
Orginal codon Change codon Amino acid
CUU CUC
CUU CUA
CUU CUG
8. UUU codon codes for phenylalanine (Phe). If we change the third base “U” with C, A, G, which
amino acid will the changed codon code for during translation?
Orginal codon Change codon Amino acid
UUU UUC
UUU UUA
UUU UUG
77
9. During translation, what will happen if there is mutation on a codon UAU (codes for tyrosine)
where the third letter “U” is replaced by either one of the bases A or G or C?
Orginal codon Chande codon Amino acid
UAU UAC
UAU UAA
UAU UAG
10. State that ribosomes provide surface area for the attachment of mRNA
during polypeptide synthesis.
11. Construct a flow chart, in proper sequence, for the stages of transcription and translation.
12. Using the evidence, predict the effect of change in genetic code on the structure
of the protein manufactured during protein synthesis.
13. Briefly describe the alteration of nucleotide sequence attacking the deadly AIDS. Also show how
it can be an essential step towards poverty alleviation.
ANSWERS
I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F):
1. False; Genetic code is composed of A, C, G, and U (not T). It is because
genetic code is made up of m-RNA. RNAs have U in place of T.
2. True; The primary role of transfer RNA (t-RNA) is to decode (translate,
like an interpreter) the codons on m-RNA and use the message in codons
to direct the process of synthesising polypeptide chain.
3. True; The primary role of messenger RNA is to carry the genetic
information copied from DNA in the form of a series of codons (three-
base code), each of which specifies a particular amino acid.
4. False; Ribosomes are made up both by proteins and RNAs.
5. False; TATA box is found -10 base pairs upstream from +1 start site.
6. False; RNA polymerases need initiation factors to initiate transcription.
Example: RNA polymerase requires sigma (s) factor to initiate
transcription in prokaryotes.
7. False; Hairpin loop is formed in rho independent termination.
8. True; In eukaryotes, pre-m-RNA needs to undergo RNA processing to
become functional m-RNA.
9. True; In prokaryotes, the first amino acid to bind at the P-site is N-
formylmethionine. In contrast, in eukaryotes, the first amino acid to bind
at the P-site is just methionine.
78
1. (b); The mutation causing sickle cell anaemia is a single nucleotide
substitution (A to T) in the DNA of hemoglobin coding gene. The change in
a single nucleotide is transcribed as a codon for valine amino acid (GUG)
on the m-RNA instead of glutamic acid (GAG).
2. (d); Triplet code, almost universal, and non-overlapping all of them are
the characteristic features of genetic code.
3. (b); Stop codons are UAA, UAG, and UGA.
4. (c); Wobble means fluctuate or unsteady.
5. (a); It is only promoter which is located upstream of the bacterial start
site, while the RNA- coding sequence and terminator are located
downstream of the bacterial gene.
6. (b); 5S molecule is synthesized by RNA polymerase III.
7. (c); Sigma factor is involved in the initiation of transcription in
prokaryotes.
8. (d); The pre-m-RNA undergoes RNA processing; it has introns and exons
as well as poly (A) tail.
9. (c); Scanning model is related to initiation of transcription in
eukaryotes where ribosome and other factors scan for the start codon.
10. (c); In sickle cell anaemia, valine amino acid replaces glutamic acid at
the 6th position form N-terminus of the haemoglobin polypeptide chain.
III. Long answers:
1. The following are some characteristics of genetic code:
(i) The Genetic Code is a Triplet Codon: A codon consists of a group of
three nucleotides. And each codon codes for a specific amino acid in a
polypeptide chain with some exceptions.
(ii) The Genetic Code is Used without Comma: The three nucleotides in a
codon are read in a continuous fashion without any comma. Examples:
AUG, UAG, UGA and UAA.
(iii) The Genetic Code is Non-overlapping: The codons in the m-RNA
sequence are read successively without overlapping.
(iv) The Genetic Code is Almost Universal: For many long years, it was
thought that the genetic code is universal, which led us into believing
that all living organisms have the same genetic code. However, recent
studies have revealed that there are some organisms where there is
difference in genetic code. That is the reason why it is appropriate to use
the phrase “almost universal” rather than the word “universal.”
(v) The Genetic Code is “Degenerate”: A codon is thought to code for a
particular amino acid. That is one codon for one amino acid. But more
than one codon can code for a particular amino acid, with two exceptions
79
of AUG and UGG. This multiple coding by a single codon is called the
degeneracy or redundancy of the code. Example: UUU and UUC codons
code for the same specific phenylalanine amino acid. In the same way,
CAU and CAC codons code for the same specific histidine amino acid.
(vi) The Genetic Code has Start and Stop Codons: Out of 64 codons, only
61 codons are called sense codons. The other three codons are called
nonsense codons or stop codons or chain-terminating codons. These
three codons are UAG, UAA, and UGA; they do not specify any amino acid,
and there are no t-RNAs to carry the appropriate anticodons. The AUG
codon, which code for methionine, is most of the time the start codon or
initiation codon for protein synthesis in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
(viii) Wobble Hypothesis: Francis Crick has pointed out that the complete
set of 61 sense codons can be read by fewer number than 61 t-RNAs. The
simple reason being, the pairing properties in the bases in the anticodons
are wobble in nature. Here, the word “wobble” simply means “fluctuating”
or “unsteady.” For example: The two different leucine codons (CUC, CUU)
can be read by the same leucine t-RNA molecule, contrary to regular
base-pairing rules.
2. Transcription is the process of copying information from one strand of
DNA into a single-stranded RNA.
Transcription Unit in DNA
A transcription unit in DNA consists of three main regions in DNA.
(i) A promoter: A promoter is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of
a particular gene. There are two important sequences in the promoter
that specifies the initiation of transcription. They are:
(a) – 35 Region or –35 Box: It lies at –35 base pairs upstream of the +1
base pair where transcription starts. It has 5’-TTGACA-3’ consensus
sequence.
(b) – 10 Region or TATA Box: It lies at –10 base pairs upstream from the
+1 base pair where transcription starts. It has 5’-TATAAT-3’ consensus
sequence.
(ii) RNA Coding Sequence: It is a DNA sequence that is transcribed by
RNA polymerase into RNA transcript (m-RNA).
(iii) A terminator: It is a DNA sequence which specifies termination of
transcription.
80
RNA Polymerase
In bacteria, RNA polymerase is the only enzyme that is responsible for
catalysing the process of transcription. It is a DNA-dependent RNA
polymerase, as it uses a DNA template strand to synthesize a new RNA
chain. During transcription, it synthesizes RNA in 5’ to 3’ direction by
using 3’ to 5’ strand of DNA as a template strand. The opposite 5’ to 3’
strand of DNA is not used during transcription and it is called as
nontemplate strand.
RNA polymerase uses RNA precursors for synthesizing RNA chain. The
RNA precursors are ribonucleoside triphosphates ATP, GTP, CTP, and
UTP. They are collectively known as NTPs or Nucleoside triphosphate.
The synthesis of RNA chain follows complementary base pairing rule i.e.
A will pair with U; G will pair with C.
The Process of Transcription in Bacteria
The process of transcription is basically divided into three stages: (a)
Initiation (b) Elongation (c) Termination.
(a) Initiation: RNA polymerase accompanied by sigma (s) factor binds at
the promoter. Sigma factor ensures that RNA polymerase binds
accurately and stably on the promoter. Then RNA polymerase unwinds
DNA in the promoter region to form open promoter complex.
(b) Elongation: Once the initiation has commenced, RNA polymerase
starts elongating or adding NTPs one after the other using one of the
strands of DNA as a template strand. The non-template strand is not used
for elongation of RNA. Elongation of the new RNA takes place in 5’ to 3’
direction and follows complementary base pairing rule. For example: If
the DNA sequence in the DNA template is 3’-ATACTTGAACTAACTC-5’,
81
then the sequence of newly synthesized RNA will be 5’-
UAUGAACUUGAUUGAG-3’.
(c) Termination: Termination of transcription is signalled by terminator

sequence located downstream from the promoter. It can take place in
two ways:
(i) Rho (r) dependent terminators: In this type, rho protein binds at the
terminator sequence and RNA polymerase, and brings the termination of
transcription.
(ii) Rho (r) independent terminators: Rho independent terminators consist
of an inverted repeat sequence that is about 16 to 20 base pairs upstream
of the termination point. The inverted repeat sequence forms a hairpin
loop structure that causes transcription to terminate.
82
4. Translation is the production of protein molecules (polypeptides) by
cellular ribosomes with the help of information present on the m-RNA. The
m-RNA and protein molecules are like two languages written with
83
different types of letters. The language by which the information on m-
RNA is written has to be translated into the language of amino acids in
order to use it to direct the sequential assembly of amino acids into a
polypeptide chain. That is the reason why protein synthesis is
appropriately referred to as translation.
Charging of t-RNA
Prior to translation, each t-RNA molecule must be attached to the correct
amino acid. Therefore, the covalent linking of a specific amino acid to the
3’ end of the correct t-RNA by the enzyme aminoacyl-t-RNA synthetase is
called as charging of t-RNA. An enzyme aminoacyl-t-RNA synthetase
catalyzes the linking of amino acids to their corresponding t-RNAs via an
ester bond, accompanied by the hydrolysis of ATP to AMP and
pyrophosphate. This process is critical step in translation as it
determines the accuracy of translation.
Charging of t-RNA occurs in two steps:
1. ATP+ amino acid  aminoacyl-AMP + PPi
2. Aminoacyl-AMP + t-RNA  aminoacyl-t-RNA + AMP
The Process of Translation
The process of translation basically consists of three major stages: 1.
Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination.
1. Initiation: It is the stage where m-RNA is bound to the ribosome and
positioned itself for proper translation. It can be further subdivided into
three steps:
(a) Binding of initiation factors: The initiation factors along with GTP first
bind to 30S subunit.
(b) Binding of m-RNA and t-RNA: Now the m-RNA and the charged t-RNA
with the first amino acid bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit.
(c) Formation of 70s Subunit: The 30S ribosomal subunit now binds to a
free 50S ribosomal subunit forming the 70S initiation complex. During this
step, all the initiation factors are released.
2. Elongation: It is the stage where amino acids are sequentially joined
together to form a polypeptide chain via peptide bonds. The sequence of
polypeptide chain is formed in an order specified by the arrangement of
codons in m-RNA. Elongation can be subdivided into three steps:
(a) Binding of an aminoacyl-t-RNA: The binding of an aminoacyl-t- RNA to
70S ribosome brings a new amino acid into a position on the ribosome
that can be joined to the polypeptide chain. In bacteria, normally the first
incoming aminoacyle-t-RNA is N-formylmethionine (fMet).
84
(b) Peptide bond formation: The newly incoming amino acid is linked to
the
growing polypeptide chain by peptide bond formation.
(c) Translocation: It is a process in which the m-RNA is moved by a
distance of three nucleotides (codon) to bring the next codon on the
ribosome.
3. Termination: It is the process of ending translation. At this stage, the

newly formed polypeptide chain and the m-RNA are released from the
ribosome. Termination happens when the ribosome comes across one of
the stop codons (UAG, UAA, UGA) on the m-RNA. The stop codons are not
recognized by any t-RNA; rather, they are recognized by release factors
(RF). These release factors along with GTP bind on the stop codons and
initiate the termination process. RF1 recognizes UAA and UAG, while RF2
recognizes UAA and UGA.
5. Role of Transfer RNA
85
The primary role of transfer RNA (t-RNA) is to decode (translate, like an
interpreter) the codons on m-RNA and use the message in codons to
direct the process of synthesizing polypeptide chain. Thus, t-RNA acts as
an adaptor or intermediaries. Since interpretation of the language
between m-RNA and amino acids is involved, the process of protein
synthesis is called as translation.
During translation, t-RNA links to a specific amino acid at its 3’ end giving
rise to charged aa-t-RNA, while the opposite end (anti-codon region)
recognizes a particular codon in the m-RNA. Depending upon the
interaction between codons in m-RNA and specific charged aa-t-RNAs,
polypeptide chain (long amino acids) are synthesized during translation.
A diagram showing t-RNA molecule linking amino acid at its 3’ end and
codon on m-RNA at its anticodon site
Transfer RNA is composed of 73–93 nucleotides, 10 of which are modified
from the standard 4 nucleotides of RNA (A, G, C, and U). Because
complementary base pairing, the various t-RNAs become folded in a
similar way to form a structure that can be drawn in two dimensions as a
cloverleaf.
The Role of Messenger RNA
Thus, the primary role of messenger RNA is to carry the genetic
information copied from DNA in the form of a series of codons (three-base
code), each of which specifies a particular amino acid.
86
(A) A simplistic diagram representing transcription and translation. (B) A
diagram showing m-RNA carrying genetic information copied from DNA in
the form of codons. Examples: UUU, UCG codons are shown in the
diagram.
The series of codons in m-RNA code for specific amino acids. For
example, as shown in the diagram UUU codon will code for phenylanine
amino acid; similarly, UCG codon will code for serine amino acid. There
are basically 64 codons. Out of 64 codons, 61 codons are sense codons
which specify one of the 20 amino acids. On the other hand, the three
codons are nonsense codons or Stop Codons and, therefore, do not
specify any amino acid (For more details, refer to Genetic code topic).
The sense codon AUG, which specifies Methionine, is a Start Codon. The
three codons UAG, UGA and UAA are termination or stop codons.
Role of Ribosomes
Ribosomes are machines that carry our protein synthesis or translation.
The main role of ribosomes is to orient the m-RNA and amino acid
carrying t-RNAs in such a position that the genetic code can be read
accurately and catalyse peptide bond formation.
Ribosomes are particles made up of ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and proteins.
In prokaryotes, they are present in cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes they
occur both free in the cytosol and bound to membrane of the nuclear
envelope. Mitochondria and chloroplast also have their ribosomes.
Generally, ribosome is composed of two dissociable subunits called the
large and small subunits. In prokaryotes (bacteria), ribosome has a
sedimentation coefficient of 70S; it is made up by 30S small subunit and
50S large subunit. In eukaryotes, ribosome has a sedimentation
coefficient of 80S; it is made up of 40S small unit and 60S large unit.
87
There are four important sites in ribosome. These four sites are
particularly important during protein synthesis. These are:
(a) Messenger RNA-binding site: It is the site that binds m-RNA.
(b) A (aminoacyle) site: It is the site that binds each newly incoming t-
RNA with its attached amino acid.
(c) P (peptidyl) site: It is the site where the t-RNA carrying the growing
polypeptide chain resides.
(d) E (exit) site: It is the site from which t-RNAs leave the ribosome after
they have discharged their amino acids.
6. Sickle Cell Anaemia
In 1910, J. Herrick first described sickle-cell anaemia. He found out that
in conditions of low oxygen tension, the normal disc-shaped red blood
cells of people with sickle-cell anaemia get distorted into sickle-shaped
red blood cells. Sickle-cell anaemia is a genetic disease that affects
haemoglobin molecules. Haemoglobin is a protein found in red blood
cells, and is responsible for the transportation of oxygen through the
body. Haemoglobin, the molecule affected in sickle-cell anaemia, consists
of four polypeptide chains: Two a-globin polypeptides and two b-globin
polypeptides-each of which is associated with a heme group (a non-
protein chemical group involved in oxygen binding and added to each
polypeptide after the polypeptide is synthesized.
Cause
Homozygous bAbA people make normal Hb-A where the two normal a
chains are encoded by the wild-type a-globin gene, while the other two
normal b-chains are encoded by the normal b-globin bA allele. A single
mutation in the genes coding for the normal bAbA haemoglobin (HB-A)
results in the disease known as Sickle-Cell Anaemia.
88
A single nucleotide substitution in haemoglobin gene resulting into
replacement of glutamic acid by valine amino acid.
The mutation causing sickle cell anaemia is a single nucleotide
substitution (A to T) in the DNA of haemoglobin coding gene. The change
in a single nucleotide is transcribed as a codon for valine amino acid
(GUG) on the m-RNA instead of glutamic acid (GAG). Eventually, due to
change in the codon, valine amino acid is translated instead of glutamic
acid at the 6th position from N-terminus of the haemoglobin polypeptide
chain. This defect form of haemoglobin in persons with sickle cell
anaemia is referred to as HbS.
A diagram showing replacement of glutamine (Glu) by valine (Val) at 6th

position from N-terminus in the sickled haemoglobin polypeptide.
Glutamic acid (Glu) is a hydrophilic amino acid, water loving, with a
negative electric charge, while Valine (Val) is a hydrophobic amino acid,
water hating, with neutral electrical charge. The amino acid valine makes
the haemoglobin molecules stick together, forming long fibres which
convert the normal disc-shaped of red blood cells into sickle-shaped red
blood cells.
Symptoms
89
The sickled red blood cells are fragile and broken easily, resulting in the
anaemia. Normal red blood cells normally squeeze and pass through blood
capillaries smoothly.
Difference between normal and sickle red blood cells.

However, sickled cells are not flexible and therefore have the tendency to
get clogged in capillaries. As a result, blood circulation is impaired and
tissues become deprived of oxygen. Oxygen deprivation occurs at the
extremities, the heart, lungs, brain, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract,
muscles, and joints.
90
10. Ribosomes are machines that carry our protein synthesis or
translation. The main role of ribosomes is to orient the m-RNA and amino
acid carrying t-RNAs in such a position that the genetic code can be read
accurately and catalyse peptide bond formation.
Ribosomes are particles made up of ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) and proteins.
In prokaryotes, they are present in cytoplasm, while in eukaryotes they
occur both free in the cytosol and bound to membrane of the nuclear
envelope. Mitochondria and chloroplast also have ribosomes.
Generally, ribosome is composed of two dissociable subunits called the
large and small subunits. In prokaryotes (bacteria), ribosome has a
sedimentation coefficient of 70S; it is made up by 30S small subunit and
50S large subunit. In eukaryotes, ribosome has a sedimentation
coefficient of 80S; it is made up of 40S small unit and 60S large unit.
There are four important sites in ribosome. These four sites are
particularly important during protein synthesis. These are:
(a) Messenger RNA-binding site: It is the site that binds m-RNA.
(b) A (aminoacyle) site: It is the site that binds each newly incoming t-
RNA with its attached amino acid.
(c) P (peptidyl) site: It is the site where the t-RNA carrying the growing
polypeptide chain resides.
(d) E (exit) site: It is the site from which t-RNAs leave the ribosome after
they have discharged their amino acids.
11.
91
12. Mutations are change in genetic codons caused by changes in
nucleotide bases. Some mutations do not have much effect. However,
some mutations can have a huge effect on genetic code, which can
eventually affect the proteins they code for. The proteins produced in turn
can have a profound effect on cellular and organismal function.
Mutations occur in two ways:
A. A base-pair substitution: It is a change from one base pair to another
base pair in DNA.
B. Base-pair insertions or deletions: It is a change in which a base-pair is
either incorrectly inserted or deleted in a codon.
(a) A Base-Pair Substitution
Consider the following changes in the DNA from
5’-AAA-3’ 5’-GAA-3’
3’-TTT-5’ 3’-CTT-5’
This change in base pair brings changes in the m-RNA codon from one
purine to the other purine. In this case, the m-RNA codon is
changed from 5’-AAA-3’ (lysine) to 5’-GAA-3’ (glutamic acid).
This is misscuse mutation.
Now look at the changes in DNA from
5’-AAA-3’ 5’-TAA-3’
3’-TTT-5’ 3’-ATT-5’
This change in base-pair in DNA results in change in m-RNA codon from
5’-AAA-3’ (lysine) to 5’-UAA-3’, which is a stop codon. This is
a nonsense mutation. It causes premature termination of
polypeptide chain synthesis, thereby releasing shorter
polypeptide fragments than the normal length of polypeptide
fragments during translation. These shorter fragments are
often non-functional.
5’-AAA-3’ 5’–AAG-3’
3’-TTT-5’ 3’–TTC -5’
A silent mutation results from AT-to-GC transition mutation that changes
the codon from 5’- AAA-3’ to 5’-AAG-3’. Both of these codons 5’-AAA-3’ to
5’-AAG-3’ specify the same amino acid, lysine. It is worth mentioning that
silent mutation often occurs by changes at the third wobble position of a
codon. Refer wobble hypothesis in Genetic code.
(b) Base-Pair Insertions or Deletions
92
The conclusion from the above exercise is very obvious. Insertion or
deletion of one or two bases changes the reading frame from the point of
insertion or deletion. Insertion or deletion of three or its multiple bases
insert or delete one or multiple codon hence one or multiple amino acids
and reading frame remains unaltered from that point onwards, mutations
are referred to as frame-shift insertion or deletion mutations.
13. HIV causes AIDS by depleting CD4+ T cells. This weakens the immune
system and allows opportunistic infections. T cells are essential to the
immune response and without them, the body cannot fight infections or
kill cancerous cells. The mechanism of CD4+ T cell depletion differs in the
acute and chronic phases. During the acute phase, HIV-induced cell lysis
and killing of infected cells by cytotoxic T cells accounts for CD4 + T cell
depletion, although apoptosis may also be a factor. During the chronic
phase, the consequences of generalized immune activation coupled with
the gradual loss of the ability of the immune system to generate new T
cells appear to account for the slow decline in CD4+ T cell numbers.
Although the symptoms of immune deficiency characteristic of AIDS do
not appear for years after a person is infected, the bulk of CD4 + T cell loss
occurs during the first week of infection, especially in the intestinal
mucosa, which harbours the majority of the lymphocytes found in the
body. The reason for the preferential loss of mucosal CD4 + T cells is that
the majority of mucosal CD4+ T cells express the CCR5 protein which HIV
uses as a co-receptor to gain access to the cells, whereas only a small
fraction of CD4+ T cells in the bloodstream do so. A specific genetic
change that alters the CCR5 protein when present in both chromosomes
very effectively prevents HIV-1 infection.
HIV seeks out and destroys CCR5 expressing CD4+ T cells during acute
infection. A vigorous immune response eventually controls the infection
and initiates the clinically latent phase. CD4+ T cells in mucosal tissues
remain particularly affected. Continuous HIV replication causes a state of
generalized immune activation persisting throughout the chronic phase.
Immune activation, which is reflected by the increased activation state of
immune cells and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, results from the
activity of several HIV gene products and the immune response to
ongoing HIV replication. It is also linked to the breakdown of the immune
surveillance system of the gastrointestinal mucosal barrier caused by the
depletion of mucosal CD4+ T cells during the acute phase of disease.

1. The formation of peptide bond is catalysed by the enzyme ……………… .
2. Transfer of information from DNA to mRNA is called ……………… .
93
3. A polysome is a row of ……………… on an mRNA chain.
Answers . 1. Peptidyl transference, 2. Transcription, 3. Ribosomes
Questions Mark the statements True (T) and False (F):

1. RNA is the genetic material in some viruses.
2. Bacterial transformation and viral infection experiments have proved
that RNA is the genetic material.
3. The synthesis of RNA molecule from DNA template is called
translation.
4. Protein synthesis involves three steps: initiation, elongation and
termination of polypeptide chain.
5. Assembly of an amino acid chain according to the sequence of base
triplets in mRNA is called transcription.
Answers. 1. True, 2. False, 3. False, 4. True, 5. False
Unit 7: Autotrophic Nutrition

(i) Chloroplast is a double membrane organelle that contains a parallel membrane called ................. .
(ii) ................. is the yellow coloured pigment found in young and etiolated leaves.
(iii) Most of the photosynthesis takes place at ................. and ................. light.
(iv) PSII has absorption maxima at ................. .
SELF EVALUATION
(i) Photorespiration occurs in ........................, ..................... and ........................ .
(ii) C4 plants have special type of leaf anatomy called ........................ .
(iii) In C3 plants, initial acceptor of CO2 is ........................ .
(iv) Hatch and Slack pathway occurs in ........................ and ........................ of chloroplast.
ANSWERS TO STUDENT’S BOOK SELF-EVALUATION

Self-evaluation (Page 164 of Student's Book)
(i) thylakoid
94
(ii) xanthophyll
(iii) 430 nm, 680 nm
(iv) 680 nm
Self-evaluation (Page 170 of Student's Book)

(i) chloroplast, peroxisome, mitochondria
(ii) kranz anatomy
(iii) RuBP
(iv) Mesophyll cells, bundle sheath cells
QUESTIONS
1. Organisms that are heterotrophic can make their own food.
2. Photosynthesis has two stages—light reaction and dark reaction.
3. CAM cycle includes tripple carboxylation.
4. Environmental factors improve crop yield.
5. Pigment is a material that changes colour of reflected or transmitted light.
6. Within leaves, chloroplasts are responsible for respiration.
1. Green plants require which of the following for photosynthesis?
(a) Sunlight (b) CO2
(c) O2 (d) Water
2. C-4 cycle occurs in
(a) Wheat (b) Rice
(c) Sugar cane (d) All of the above
3. What is true about action spectrum?
(a) It can be carried out in isolated pigments
(b) It gives the function of pigments
(c) It is used to identify pigments
(d) It does not involve light
4. By looking at which internal structure, you can tell whether a plant is C-3 or C-4?
(a) Mesophyll cell (b) Bundle sheath cells
(c) Vascular bundles (d) Epidermal cells
5. How many ATP are required to produce 2 molecules of glucose?
(a) 12 (b) 24
(c) 18 (d) 36
6 Autotrophs are commonly called producers because they
(a) produce young plants
(b) produce CO2 from light energy
(c) produce sugars from chemical energy
95
(d) produce water from light energy
1. State and explain the types of autotrophic nutrition. Also explain the role
of light in autotrophic nutrition.
2. Analyse and appreciate the importance of photosynthesis as an energy transfer process.
3. State the role of chloroplast and structure of leaf in photosynthesis.
Giving illustrative diagrams, explain your answer.
4. State the pigments involved in light absorption. Throw light on absorption and action
spectra of chloroplast pigments.
5. Outline the three main stages of Calvin cycle. State the uses of Calvin cycle
intermediaries in plant cell.
6. Summarize the limiting factors affecting photosynthesis. Also state how this can
help yield crop production.
7. Compare anatomy of C4 and CAM plants.
8. Differentiate between C4, CAM and C3 plants during carbon dioxide fixation.
9. Investigate the effect of light intensity or light wavelength on the rate of photosynthesis.
10. Describe the relationship between the structure and function in the chloroplast,
using diagrams and electron micrographs.
11. Acknowledge the importance of autotrophic nutrition in sustaining the balance of life on Earth.
Also state the ways to keep the environment sustained. Predict various facts related to photosynthesis
that state the importance of nutrition for all living beings.
ANSWERS TO STUDENT'S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT

(Pages 178–179 of Student's Book)
I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or false (F):
1. False 2. True
3. False 4. True
5. True 6. False

1. (a), (b), (d)
2. (c); Sugarcane is the tropical plant
3. (b)
4. (b); Bundle sheath cells show different chloroplast in C-4 plants
5. (d); During assimilation six molecules of carbon dioxide, 18 ATP are
required and one molecule of glucose is produced
6. (c); they produce sugars from chemical energy which is used by other
organisms. They produce food for all organisms.
1. Types of Autotrophic Nutrition
96
Chemoautotrophic: An autotrophic nutrition where organisms get energy
from oxidation of chemicals, mainly inorganic substances like hydrogen
sulphide and ammonia.
2H2S + O2⟶ 2H2O + 2S
Photoautotrophic: An autotrophic nutrition where organisms get energy
from sunlight and convert it into usable form like sugars. Green plants
and some bacteria like, green sulphur bacteria can make their own food
from simple inorganic substances by a process called photosynthesis.
Role of Light
Light has two components: wave and particle. A wave is characterized by
a wavelength, denoted by a Greek letter lambda ( ·), which is the distance
between two successive wave crests, and the number of wave crests
that pass an observer in given time is called frequency ( ·). Light is also a
particle called photon. Sunlight is like rain of photons with different
frequencies. The energy content of light photon is not continuous, rather
delivered in discrete packets, the quanta.
When a light photon is absorbed, an electron is excited from pigment
molecule to a higher energy level (triplet state). It remains there for 10–9
s and then falls to ground state. Sometimes, it can emit the energy in the
form of light and heat as it reaches the ground state. This process is
called fluorescence. When electron remains at triplet state for more than
10–9 s and then comes back to ground state, the energy is lost in the form
of heat and light. This happens even after the source is put off. Such a
process is called phosphorescence.
2. Photosynthesis is a process by which plants and other organisms, such
as algae and bacteria synthesize their own food using the energy of light
for their growth and development. The food produced by plants is in the
form of carbohydrates. In preliminary studies, Julius von Sachs proposed
that glucose is the first product of photosynthesis. It is stored in
chloroplasts within plant cells. It provides energy in the form of food to
organisms that feed on plants. It has been rightly said “ALL FLESH IS
GRASS”, as all organisms (herbivores, carnivores and omnivores) are
directly or indirectly dependent on plants as source of energy. It is the
means by which solar energy is captured by plants for use by all
organisms. In 1782, Jean Senebier proved that green plants can produce
oxygen in presence of light and carbon dioxide. It is the single most
97
important biological process that can replenish oxygen which is required
for existence of all other organisms. Have you ever thought what will
happen if there is no photosynthesis ? This chapter focuses on the
photosynthetic machinery, the reactions in this physiochemical process
and the factors affecting photosynthesis.
3. Photosynthesis occurs not only in eukaryotic organisms such as green
plants but also in prokaryotic organisms like blue green algae and green
sulphur bacteria. In higher plants, photosynthesis occurs in green part of
the plant. Leaves are adapted to carry photosynthesis efficiently. Most
leaves are broad and flat to capture maximum light. Also, the bifacial
nature of leaf allows it to collect incident light on the upper surface and
diffuse light on lower surface. The photosynthetic tissue is located
between upper and lower epidermis. It consists of one to three layers of
compactly arranged, elongated and cylindrical palisade mesophyll cells,
and loosely arranged, irregular and isodiametric spongy mesophyll cells.
In monocotyledonous leaf there is no distinction of palisade and spongy
parenchyma. The mesophyll cells in leaves contain large number of
chloroplasts that transform light energy into ATP and NADPH which are
then used to convert CO2 into sugars.
(A) Structure of leaf showing photosynthetic cells; (B) EM of chloroplast

cells;
(C) Sectional view of chloroplast.
98
Chloroplast is the photosynthetic machinery. It is a double membrane
organelle that contains series of parallel membranes called thylakoids or
lamellae, suspended in fluid like matrix called stroma. The thylakoids are
flattened discs arranged in stacks called grana. In a typical chloroplast
as many as 40–60 grana may be present and each granum may contain 2–
100 thylakoids. The stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, soluble proteins
and enzymes, while pigments are confined to thylakoids. Thylakoids have
large surface for absorption of light and the space within them ‘lumen’
allows rapid accumulation of protons.
4. A pigment is a substance that absorbs light of different wavelengths.
Pigments are involved in absorption of light of certain wavelength. While
some wavelengths are absorbed, other are reflected or scattered, which
imparts them colour. The absorbed wavelength of light has the correct
energy to excite specific transitions of electrons in the pigments.
Photosynthesis depends on light absorption by pigments in leaves.
However, it can be carried out in isolated chloroplast but not in isolated
pigments. Chlorophyll a is the major pigment involved in trapping light
energy. It is the principal pigment involved in photosynthesis. It is of
universal occurrence. It is a large molecule composed of four pyrrole
rings with Mg at centre, and a long hydrocarbon phytol chain. It absorbs
maximum wavelengths of 430 nm and 660 nm. Chlorophyll b constitutes
one-fourth of the total chlorophyll content. It has a similar structure as
that of Chlorophyll a, except that the –CH3 group in chlorophyll a is
replaced by –CHO group in chlorophyll b. It absorbs maximum
wavelengths of 460 nm and 680 nm.
Carotenes are tetraterpenes or polyunsaturated hydrocarbons containing
40 carbon atoms and variable number of hydrogen atoms and no other
elements. -carotene is the common form found abundantly in orange,
yellow and green fruits and vegetables. Carotenes protect plant against
photo-oxidation. Xanthophylls are yellow coloured pigments. They are
structurally similar to carotenes, but contain oxygen atoms. These are
more common in young and etiolated leaves. Absorption and Action
Spectra A plot showing absorption of light of different wavelengths of a
pigment is called absorption spectrum.
99
Each pigment absorbs a specific wavelength. We can plot an absorption
spectrum showing the ability of pigments to absorb lights of different
wavelengths. From Figure A, it can be concluded that Chlorophyll a and b
show absorption peaks at blue and red light. On the other hand, action
spectrum is the plot of graph depicting the rate of a light sensitive
process at different wavelength of light. The action spectrum of
photosynthesis shows that most of the photosynthesis also takes place in
blue and red light. The absorption spectrum of a pigment when compared
with action spectrum of photosynthesis, gives the function of the
pigment. Therefore, it can be concluded that chlorophyll a is the chief
photosynthetic pigment. The other pigments like chlorophyll b, carotenes
and xanthophylls are called accessory pigments and form the antenna
complex.
They collect the light of different wavelength and transfer it to reaction
centre (basic model of energy transfer). This is called Light Harvesting
Complex. LHC is made up of hundreds of pigment molecules bound to
proteins.
5. Calvin Cycle
It is carbon assimilation process which utilizes assimilatory power
generated from light reaction to produce sugars. It occurs in stroma of
chloroplasts. Melvin Calvin got Nobel Prize for his outstanding work on
carbon assimilation. Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson and James Bassham
gave the Calvin cycle of dark reaction. They used autoradiography to
detect path of cycle, and chromatography to separate constituents. The
first product that showed radioactivity was a three carbon (3-C)
compound Phosphoglyceric acid (PGA) and hence the cycle is also called
C-3 cycle.
100
The process of carbon assimilation can be described under three stages:
carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.
Carboxylation: It is the process of fixation of carbon in stable organic
intermediate, phosphoglyceric acid. This reaction is catalyzed by called
RuBPcarboxylase-oxygenase (RUBISCO). Rubisco-bis-phospahte (RuBP) is
the initial acceptor or substrate for dark reaction.
Reduction or Glycolytic Reversal: It is the process involving reduction of

carbon. It is a multistep process that utilizes 12 ATP molecules and 12
NADPH for release of one molecule of glucose. The glucose can further be
converted into starch for storage or sucrose for transport.
101
During complete cycle, ATP, NADPH and CO 2 are used up. For one
molecule of glucose six molecules of carbon dioxide, 18 ATP and 12
NADPH are required. The dark reaction is therefore dependent on light for
the production of high amount of ATP and NADPH.
In Out
Six CO2 One

18 ATP glucose
12 18 ADP
NADPH 12 NADP
Another important requirement is high concentration of CO 2. The
efficiency of photosynthesis declines at low concentration of CO 2. This is
because the enzyme RUBISO has low affinity with carbon dioxide as
compared to oxygen. At low CO2 concentration RUBISCO catalyzes the
reaction between RuBP and oxygen. The oxygenation of RuBP in presence
of light and oxygen is called Photorespiration. It occurs in chloroplast,
peroxisome and mitochondria.
It is a wasteful process as during this process carbon dioxide is released
and efficiency of photosynthesis decreases.
6. The rate of photosynthesis can be influenced by many factors like
number, size, orientation and age of leaf, sunlight, temperature, carbon
dioxide and water. However, when several factors can affect a process,
102
the rate of reaction is governed by the factor which is limiting. This is
called Blackman’s (1905) law of limiting factor.
External Factors
CO2 concentration: Carbon dioxide is the inorganic substrate for
photosynthesis. Increase in concentration up to 0.05% in atmosphere can
cause an increase in CO2 fixation. Carbon dioxide is the major limiting
factor, especially in C-3 plants; C-4 plants are more productive even at
low concentration of CO2. Nevertheless, both C-3 and C-4 plants show
increase in rate of photosynthesis at high CO 2 concentration and high
light intensities. The fact that C-3 plants respond to higher CO 2
concentration by showing increased rates of photosynthesis leading to
higher productivity has been used for some green house crops such as
tomatoes and bell pepper. They are allowed to grow in carbon dioxide
enriched atmosphere as in glasshouses leading to higher yields.
Light: Light is an important factor to carry out photosynthesis. It is rarely
a limiting factor in nature as photosynthesis can occur even at low light
intensities. There is a direct relation between light and CO 2 fixation. With
increase in light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases. However,
at higher light intensities, rate does not increase linearly but light
saturation occurs. At very high light intensity, there is breakdown of
chlorophyll molecules called photo-oxidation and the rate of
photosynthesis decreases. The quality of light and time of exposure also
governs photosynthesis. Green plants show high rate of photosynthesis at
red and blue light.
Temperature: The dark reactions are dependent on temperature as they
are enzymatic. Rate of photosynthesis is best at optimum temperature.
Different plants have different temperature optima that also depend on
their habitats. Water: Only about 1% of water absorbed by plants is used
in photosynthesis. It is an important factor for various metabolic
processes in plant. Water may not have direct effect on photosynthesis
even though it is one of the reactants in light reaction. In water, stress
plants wilt and their stomata close. Thus, reducing availability of carbon
dioxide and decreasing the rate of photosynthesis. Water stress will also
alter the hydration of enzymatic proteins, affecting their activities.
Oxygen concentration: Atmospheric oxygen content affects
photosynthesis directly or indirectly. The decrease in the rate of
respiration at high oxygen concentration was first observed by O.
Warburg in 1920 in Chlorella. The phenomenon is called Warburg effect.
Chemical pollutants: Plant growth has been adversely affected by
accumulation of various undesirable chemicals. Heavy metals such as
lead, mercury, cadmium seem to be affecting photosynthesis through
103
stomata closure. Air pollutants like SO 2, NO2 and O3 are also known to
affect photosynthesis at higher concentrations.
Internal Factors
Adaptation of leaf: Leaves are arranged on plants to minimize
overlapping. The shape, size, age and orientation of leaf influences the
absorption of light and thus, affects photosynthesis. Most leaves are
broad for more absorption of light. The anatomy of leaf is also highly
specialized for absorption of light. The epidermis is transparent and also
acts as convex lens to focus and intensify the light reaching mesophyll
cells for maximum absorption. The palisade layer also helps in absorption
of more light. Presence of hairs, salt glands and epicuticular wax
increase the reflection of light and thereby reducing the absorption.
Absorption of carbon dioxide is also dependent on leaf surface area and
number of stomata. Spongy parenchyma has large intercellular space so
that carbon dioxide can easily diffuse. Opening and closing of stomata is
yet another factor that governs photosynthesis as the exchange of gases
is affected when stomata close. In some succulent plants such as
Bryophyllum, Kalanchoe, stomata open during night and close during day
to reduce the rate of transpiration. Such plants have special mechanism
for photosynthesis called Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), where
CO2 fixation takes place in different time (day and night) as per
availability of carbon dioxide and light.
104
105
9. Light: Light is an important factor to carry out photosynthesis. It is
rarely a limiting factor in nature as photosynthesis can occur even at low
light intensities. There is a direct relation between light and CO2 fixation.
With increase in light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
However, at higher light intensities, rate does not increase linearly but
light saturation occurs. At very high light intensity, there is breakdown of
chlorophyll molecules called photo-oxidation and the rate of
photosynthesis decreases. The quality of light and time of exposure also
governs photosynthesis. Green plants show high rate of photosynthesis at
red and blue light.
Aim: To study the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis.
Materials Required
Elodea plant, Sodium bicarbonate, water, glass jar or culture tube, glass
rod, dropper,
weighing balance, thread, light source metre scale.
Procedure
1. Take fresh, healthy twig of Elodea plant with one end intact.
2. Tie it gently to a glass rod and put it in tube or jar containing water.
3. Add 0.5 g sodium bicarbonate and keep it in under a light source at a
distance of 50 cm/low light condition.
4. Note the numbers of bubbles escaping from cut end per minute.
5. Place the apparatus at distance of 30cm from light source and count
the number of bubbles evolving per minute.
6. Similarly, place the apparatus at variable distances from light source
and count the number of bubbles evolving per minute.
Observation
Number of bubbles increases with increase in light intensity.
106
Explanation
Photosynthesis takes place in green plants in presence of carbon dioxide,
water and light. Light is an important factor for the process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place even at low light conditions
but the rate increases when the light intensity is increased. In the
present experiment, the rate of photosynthesis is determined in terms of
amount of oxygen produced.
Rate of photosynthesis = No. of bubbles per unit time
Therefore, as the distance of experimental set up is decreased with
respect to plant or in other words light intensity is increased, the number
of bubbles produced also increased. However, at extremely high light
intensity, the rate of photosynthesis may decrease because of photo-
oxidation of chlorophyll pigments.
10. Photosynthesis occurs not only in eukaryotic organisms such as green
plants but also in prokaryotic organisms like blue green algae and green
sulphur bacteria.
In higher plants, photosynthesis occur in green part of the plant (Figure
(i)). Leaves are adapted to carry photosynthesis efficiently. Most leaves
are broad and flat to capture maximum light. Also, the bifacial nature of
leaf allows it to collect incident light on the upper surface and diffuse
light on lower surface. The photosynthetic tissue is located between
upper and lower epidermis. It consists of one to three layers of compactly
arranged, elongated and cylindrical palisade mesophyll cells, and loosely
arranged, irregular and isodiametric spongy mesophyll cells. In
monocotyledonous leaf there is no distinction of palisade and spongy
parenchyma.
107
The mesophyll cells in leaves contain a large number of chloroplasts that
transform light energy into ATP and NADPH which are then used to
convert CO2 into sugars.
Chloroplast is the photosynthetic machinery. It is a double membrane
organelle that contains a series of parallel membranes called thylakoids
or lamellae, suspended in fluid like matrix called stroma. The thylakoids
are flattened discs arranged in stacks called grana. In a typical
chloroplast as many as 40-60 grana may be present and each granum may
contain 2-100 thylakoids. The stroma contains DNA, ribosomes, soluble
proteins and enzymes, while pigments are confined to thylakoids.
Thylakoids have large surface for absorption of light and the space within
them ‘lumen’ allows rapid accumulation of protons.
11. Autotrophic nutrition is very important. Autotrophic nutrition means
that simple inorganic substances are taken in and used to synthesise
organic molecules. Most producers use this nutritional method. By far, the
greatest energy supply to support food chains and webs is obtained from
photo-autotrophic nutrition.
As is clear, a food chain is an essential part of sustenance of life on earth
with one organism being eaten by another corelating to sustainability.
Food chain starts with producers and producers use autotrophic nutrition
to synthesise energy. Environment can be sustained if we:
108
1. Use energy saving products
One of the biggest impacts on our environment is energy consumption –
with workplaces consuming large amounts of resources to operate
buildings, including lighting, workstations, kitchen appliances and office
equipment. As an eco-conscious workplace standard, we encourage
employees to conserve computer energy by switching to sleep mode
when possible and shutting the device down at the end of each day.
2. Provide eco-conscious products
Across your workplace, there are many products that can be swapped for
eco-friendly, recyclable varieties. For instance, eco-conscious kitchen
essentials such as tea and coffee products, paper towels and cups can be
supplied as well as cleaning products and eco-stationery products.
3. Participate in recycling programmes
Most workplaces require printing service which is commonly produced by
printers with ink toner cartridges. By engaging in a recycling programme
such as Cart Collect, your business can sustain the environment by
having the cartridges recycled up to eight times. Once the cartridges are
no longer recyclable, Staples 100% recycle them into our award-winning
Sustainable Earth by Staples™ Calculator and Stapler products.
4. Use our own transportation
Encourage your employees to travel to and from work by foot or non-
motorised transportation such as a bicycle, rollerblades or scooter if they
live within a feasible distance from your workplace location. Not only is
this an eco-conscious Earth Day practice – it can also add to your
employee’s daily exercise.
5. Keep our workstation clean
In addition to maintaining cleanliness to avoid the spread of germs in the
workplace, it’s important to monitor workstation appliances for dust and
build-up that can occur in the filters which can result in running less
efficiently. As a sustainable best practice, we recommend employees
maintain a clean workstation and any other facilities that are utilised
throughout the workplace.
It is photosynthesis that produces the carbohydrates that you eat and
thus, provides the energy you need to live.
Another way to say this is that this carb-making process allows you to
obtain the energy from the sun for use as energy in your body.
When you eat a green salad, your body is able to metabolize the carbs by
breaking the bonds between the atoms that make up each carb molecule.
In this way, the stored energy is released for use by your cells. Without
the energy from the foods you eat, you would not be able to move,
breathe, or have a beating heart.
109
Whether you eat the green part of the plant, such as the stems and leaves
of celery or spinach, or the fruit or roots of tomato and carrot plants, you
are taking advantage of photosynthesis. It is a miraculous process that
we mostly take for granted as we enjoy all of the delicious and nutritious
foods it produces.
1. C-4 cycle includes .................. carboxylation.
2. ........... is the graph plot that shows the rate of physiological activity at
different wavelengths of light.
Answers. 1. dual, 2. Action swpectrum
Question in one word.

1. Wreath of bundle sheath cells around vascular bundles in leaves.
2. Complex of proteins sub-units and photosynthetic.
3. Decrease in the rate of photosynthesis beyond 680nm of light.
Answers. 1. Kranz anatomy, 2. Light harvesting complex, 3. Red drop
phenomenon
Unit 8: Transport System in

Plants
QUESTIONS
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Xylem tissue is composed of four types of cells:
...................., ...................., .................... and .................... .
(ii) Plants .................... water from soil and .................... it to aerial parts.
(iii) Two pathways regulating uptake of water from roots are ................. and .................. .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) The association of Mycorrhizal fungi is ……………….. .
(ii) ……………….. is the loss of water from plants.
(iii) ……………….. is used to study the rate of transpiration.
(iv) Xerophytes have ……………….. stomata.
(v) Xerophytes exhibit ……………….. metabolism.
110
3.SELF EVALUATION
(i) …………… is the process to show food flows from leaves to roots.
(ii) Phloem transports phloem sap from …………. to ………………… .
(iii) Phloem …………….. gives mechanical strength to cells.
(iv) Movement from sileve elements to recipient sink cells is called ……….
1.Self-evaluation (Page 188 of Student's Book)

(i) tracheids, vessels, parenchyma and fibres
(ii) absorb, transport
(iii) active and passive

(i) VAM (ii) Transpiration
(iii) Potometer (iv) sunken
(v) CAM

(i) Translocation (ii) leaves, other parts
(iii) fibres (iv) phloem unloading
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
I. Multiple Choice Questions
1. Much of the transpiration takes place through
(a) stomata (b) lenticels (c) cuticle (d) epidermis
2. The roots absorb water through
(a) epidermal hairs (b) root hairs (c) root xylem (d) root phloem
3. The ascent of sap in plants takes place due to
(a) root pressure (b) transpiration pull
(c) osmosis (d) both (a) and (b)
4. Stomata open and close due to
(a) presence of valves (b) hormonal control
(c) turgor pressure of guard cells (d) concentration gradient of the gases
5. The food is transported in the phloem in the form of
(a) glucose (b) sucrose (c) amino acids (d) fats
6. The movement of particles from the region of their higher concentration to the region
of their lower concentration is called
(a) osmosis (b) diffusion (c) active transport (d) ascent of sap
7. Plant transport system does not transport
111
(a) CO2 (b) organic salts (c) water (d) plant hormones
8. The strongest force to pull water up the xylem and into the leaf is
(a) capillary action (b) root pressure
(c) transpiration pull (d) active transport
9. The loss of water in the form of vapours by the leaves and stem of a plant is called
(a) translocation (b) osmosis
(c) active transport (d) transpiration
10. The transport of sugar from the leaf to the rest of the plant is called
(a) translocation (b) osmosis
(c) active transport (d) transpiration
II. Long Questions
1. Name the two transport tissues present in the plant.
2. What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion?
3. Explain why pure water has the maximum water potential.
4. Differentiate between the following:
(i) Diffusion and Osmosis
(ii) Active and Passive Transport
(iii) Osmosis and Diffusion
(iv) Transpiration and Evaporation
5. Discuss the factors responsible for ascent of xylem sap in plants.
6. How is turgor pressure created in the sieve elements?
7. What is the difference between apoplast and symplast?
8. Explain in detail the absorption of water through root hairs up to the xylem.
9. Discuss the structure of phloem and its components in plants.
10. Explain how food prepared in the leaves reaches the other parts of the plant.
11. Explain the hypothesis proposed by Munch regarding translocation of food in plants.
12. Appreciate the importance of transport systems in plants.
13. Draw and label, from prepared slides, the cells in roots, stems and leaves using transverse and
longitudinal sections.
14. There are million processes that account for life on Earth. All these processes play a major role in
balancing the climate of Earth. Investigate in the same regard the role of transport in plants in
regulating the environment of surroundings. Also necessitate the presence of plants or a wholesome
regulation of atmosphere.
15. Draw this picture in your exercise book. It shows various internal parts of a leaf. These are
marked us A, B, C, D, E and F. Identify and name these parts.
112
I. Multiple choice questions:
1. (a) Stomata: These are present on the epidermal layers having guard
shaped cells. Stomata open up during the day and during this time
maximum transpiration takes place.
2. (b) root hairs: Root hairs are epidermal extensions and these root hairs
enter inside the pore spaces and act as minute capillaries and water
enters through these inside the root cells.
3. (d) both a and b: Root pressure that is built up during the process of
uptake and transpiration pull both are responsible for water uptake. The
water is lost through stomata and thus, the guard cells pull up water from
the adjacent cells and thus, a continuous water column is created that
helps in the ascent of sap.
4. (c) turgor pressure of guard cells: Turgor pressure builds up in the
guard cells, pushes the anticlinal walls and helps in opening and closing
of stomata.
5. (a) glucose: It is the main product that is synthesized during
photosynthesis and is stored in the leaves. From here, the glucose is
translocated to other parts of the plant.
6. (b) Diffusion: It is the process that is involved in movement of particles
from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration.
7. (a) CO2: Carbon-dioxide is a gas that is diffused and exchanged by
stomata. Rest of the components are transported by phloem.
8. (c) Transpiration pull: It makes a continuous column from aerial parts
to the underground zone and creates a pull for uptake of water from roots
to other aerial parts of the plant.
9. (d) Transpiration: the process involved in loss of water vapour through
stomata
of all aerial parts.
10. (a) Translocation: Process involved in transport of food such as sugar
from the source to other parts of the plant.
II. Long answers:
1. Vascular system in flowering plants or angiosperms is highly evolved. It
is represented by complex tissue system having xylem and phloem
elements. There is a division of labour between the two tissue
complexes.
113
Xylem is involved in uptake of water and minerals. Phloem is involved in
uptake of food material. These complex tissues are composed of various
cell types that play very important role in the transport of water, mineral
elements and photosynthates.
2. Diffusion is controlled by various factors such as temperature, density
of diffusing substances and concentration gradient. Diffusion is directly
proportional to temperature. Temperature increases the average kinetic
energy of particles. Greater kinetic energy leads to increased velocities
and hence greater collision of particles resulting in increased rate of
diffusion. High density regions also have greater rates of diffusion than
low density regions. Increased number of particles per unit volume leads
to a greater chance of collisions and this leads to increased rate of
diffusion.
3. Water molecules possess kinetic energy. In liquid and gaseous form,
they are in random motion that is both rapid and constant. The greater
the concentration of water in a system, the greater is its kinetic energy or
water potential. Pure water has the highest concentration of water
molecules. Therefore, it has the highest water potential. When some
solute is dissolved into water, the water potential of pure water
decreases.
114
115
5. Transpirational pull is responsible for the ascent of water in the xylem.
This ascent of water is dependent on the following physical factors:
1. Cohesion — Mutual attraction between water molecules.
2. Surface tension — Responsible for the greater attraction between water
molecules in liquid phase than in gaseous phase.
3. Adhesion — Attraction of water molecules to polar surfaces
4. Capillarity—Ability of water to rise in thin tubes. These physical
properties give water high tensile strength, i.e., an ability to resist a
pulling force and high capillarity, i.e., the ability to rise in thin tubes. The
thin tubes of xylem work like capillary tubes.
6. The sugars are synthesized by the leaf cells. The high concentration of
sugar in the sieve tubes attracts water through osmosis, resulting in high
turgor pressure.
7.
Apoplast Symplast
It is the system of adjacent It is the system of
cell walls that is continuous interconnected protoplasts.
throughout the plant, except
at the casparian strips of the
endodermis in the roots.
Water moves through the Water travels through the
intercellular spaces and the cytoplasm of cells and
walls of cells. intercellular movement is
through plasmodesmata.
It is a faster process of water It is a slower process of water
movement and water moves movement.
through mass flow.
116
8. Water molecules move from the soil into living cells of the root, and
eventually into the transport cells of the xylem, known as tracheids and
vessels. These xylem cells are dead and hollow, allowing rapid water
transport. They also have hardened cell walls to help them resist the
tendency to collapse as water is sucked through them. Both tracheids
and vessels have pits on the sides of their walls, which include porous
areas for side-to-side transport. Unlike tracheids, a vessel is composed of
many cells stacked end-to-end, with perforations between cells, allowing
for more efficient transport.
The long-distance transport of the water molecule occurs first within the
xylem cells of the root, then the xylem of the stem and branch, and then
into the xylem of a leaf midrib and vein. Driven by transpiration, the water
molecule is pulled from the non-living tracheids and vessels of the xylem
in the living cells of the leaf mesophyll (middle layer) and to the surface of
mesophyll cell walls. The water molecule then evaporates into a leaf
inter-cellular air space and finally out of a stomatal pore and into the
atmosphere. Though photosynthetic action consumes some water, only a
small fraction of the water that travels through the plant is used directly
for the photo-synthetic reaction, which occurs in leaf mesophyll cells.
Instead, most water is lost by transpiration through the stomata. Thus, a
stress is created in adjacent cells that pull water from the nearest cells
and hence a pressure or tension is created that draws water from the
soil.
9. Phloem is a complex tissue composed of sieve tubes, companion cells,
phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma.
1. Sieve Tubes: A sieve tube is a series of cells joined end-to-end. The
cross walls between successive cells (sieve elements) become
perforated forming sieve plates. The cell walls are thin. Although the cell
contents are living, the nucleus disintegrates and disappears. The lumen
is filled with a slimy sap which is composed mainly of protein.
2. Companion Cells: Companion Cells are specialized parenchyma cells
which always appear with the sieve tube element. They are also
elongated, thin-walled and there is a distinct nucleus in the cytoplasm of
the companion cell. Companion cells are linked with the sieve tubes by
small canals filled with cytoplasm, which are smaller than pits.
3. Phloem Fibres: These cells are elongated tapering cells, found
particular in the stem. They have thickened walls.
4. Phloem Parenchyma: Phloem Parenchyma is living and has thin cell
walls. These cells form the packing tissue between all the other types of
cells.
117
10. Food is transported by a special mechanism called as pressure flow
hypothesis. Pressure flow hypothesis is the one which explain the
translocation of food molecules by phloem. The mechanism of
translocation involves certain steps. As sugar is synthesized in the leaves
by the process of photosynthesis, a high concentration of organic
substance inside the phloem cells of the leaf creates a diffusion gradient
by which more water is sucked into the cells. Sugar sources are the
organs of the plant which synthesize sugars. Sugar sinks are the ones
from where the sucrose is removed from the phloem. Hydrostatic
pressure increases in the phloem sieve tubes, pressure flow begins and
the sap moves through the phloem. Osmotic pressure at the sink is
reduced. Sucrose from the phloem sap is removed and given to the cells
which utilize it by converting it into energy or starch or cellulose.
11. According to the pressure flow hypothesis, food is prepared in the
plant leaves in the form of glucose. Before moving into the source cells
present in the phloem, the prepared food is converted into sucrose. Water
moves from the xylem vessels into the adjacent phloem, thereby
increasing the hydrostatic pressure in the phloem. Consequently, the
sucrose moves through the sieve cells of the phloem. The sucrose already
present in the sink region is converted into starch or cellulose, thereby
reducing the hydrostatic pressure in the sink cells.
Hence, the pressure difference created between the source and the sink
cells allows sugars to be translocated from the former to the latter. This
starch or cellulose is finally removed from the sink cells through active
transport.
12. Plants need some compounds like carbon dioxide through their
leaves. They absorb some other materials like compounds of nitrogen,
phosphorus, etc. from the soil to their roots.If the distance between the
roots and the leaves is very small, food and other materials can be
transported by diffusion. But the distances between different plant parts
are often quite large, as in tall trees.So, most plants need a proper
transport system to carry materials from one part to another. It also
provides mechanical support.
118
119
14. Forests are important carbon pools which continuously exchange CO 2
with the atmosphere, due to both natural processes and human action.
Understanding forests' participation in the greenhouse effect requires a
better understanding of the carbon cycle at the forest level.Organic
matter contains carbon susceptible to be oxidized and returned to the
atmosphere in the form of CO2. Carbon is found in several pools in the
forest:
the vegetation: living plant biomass consisting of wood and non-wood
materials. Although the exposed part of the plant is the most visible, the
below-ground biomass (the root system) must also be considered. The
amount of carbon in the biomass varies between 35 to 65 per cent of the
dry weight (50 per cent is often taken as a default value).
dead wood and litter: dead plant biomass, made up of plant debris. Litter
in particular is an important source of nutrients for plant growth.
soil organic matter, the humus. Humus originates from litter
decomposition. Organic soil carbon represents an extremely important
pool.
The carbon cycle (photosynthesis, plant respiration and the degradation

of organic matter) in a given forest is influenced by climatic conditions
and atmospheric concentrations of CO2. The distinction between natural
and human factors influencing plant growth is thus sometimes very
difficult to make.
120
The increase of CO2 in the atmosphere has a "fertilizing effect" on
photosynthesis and thus, plant growth. There are varying estimates of
this effect: + 33 per cent, + 25 per cent, and + 60 percent for trees, + 14%
for pastures and crops (IPCC, 2001). This explains present regional
tendencies of enhanced forest growth
and causes an increase in carbon absorption by plants. This also
influences the potential
size of the forests carbon pool.
In the context of global change, attention has been focused on the
increases in CO2 and temperature, as well as a reduction in the global
solar irradiance. In this chapter, we have explored how components of
global change such as CO 2, temperature and radiation will affect water
uptake by plants. Focus is on how aquaporins will respond to these
environmental factors in order to maintain water balance in plants
according to the water demand. Plant growth may be stimulated directly
by increasing CO2 concentration, through enhanced photosynthesis, or,
indirectly, through induced plant water consumption. However, the fine
regulation of aquaporins, also involved in CO 2 transport through
membranes are crucial in the control of H 2O and CO2 diffusion. Raised
temperatures may benefit some crops but disadvantage others through
increased evapotranspiration and thermal damage. However, in general,
plants can develop different adaptive mechanisms in order to avoid
water-deficit stress and excess transpiration modulating the hydraulic
conductance, which involve the expression and activity of aquaporins. In
the same way, the response of plants to the amount of perceived
radiation affects water balance.
15. A. Upper epidermis B. Palisade mesophyll
C. Spongy mesophyll D. Lower epidermis
E. Stoma F. Guard cells
Formative Assessment
Fill in the blancks
1. Several physical phenomena such as .........., ........, .........., ...........
and .......... facilitate uptake of water in plants.
2. What is ascent of sap?
Answers. 1. imbibition, diffusion, osmosis, turgor and water potential
2. Water enters the plants through active or passive absorption process.
The upward movement of water through stem is called ascent of sap.
Summative Assessment
Questions in one word.
1. Pressure flow hypothesis proposed by
121
2. Phloem transport is
Answers. 1. Munch, 2. Bidirectional
Unit 9: Gas Exchange in Animals

Questions
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Two gases involved in gas exchange are ..................... and ..................... .
(ii) The high efficiency of tedeost gills is due to ..................... .
(iii) ..................... fish have exposed gill slits.
(iv) Taenidia are thickening of larger trachea in ..................... .
(v) Active ventilation in insects in brought about by ..................... and ..................... .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Gas exchange occurring through skin is called .............. respiration.
(ii) Amphibians develop .............. to increase surface area for gaseous exchange.
(iii) Partitions of inner lungs in Amphibians are known as .............. .
3.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Tiny air containing sacs found in human gaseous exchange system are ................ .
(ii) ................ is a wide flexible tube in human gas exchange.
(iii) Respiratory mucosa in humans is made up of ................ and ................ .
(iv) Alveoli are lined up by ................ and ................ .
4.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Maximum volume of air that a person can expire after a maximal inspiration
is called ................ .
(ii) Diffusion of O2 from air to expillaries and CO2 in opposite direction is called ...............
(iii) During .................. volume of lungs increases in humans.
5.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................ is used to measure inspired and expired volumes of air.
(ii) Respiratory centre is cluster of neurons located bilaterally in ................ and ................ of brain
stem.
(iii) ................ in brain prolongs inhalation.
ANSWERS TO STUDENT'S BOOK SELF-EVALUATION

1.Self-evaluation (Page 214 of Student’s Book)
(i) Oxygen and carbon dioxide
(ii) Countercurrent mechanism
122
(iii) cartilaginous
(iv) insects
(v) rhythmic concentration, relaxation of body wall
(i) cutaneous
(ii) lungs
(iii) faveoli
(i) alveoli
(ii) tracheae
(iii) epithelium, supporting lamina propria
(iv) type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar cells
(i) vital capacity
(ii) breathing
(iii) inhalation

(i) Spirometer
(ii) medulla oblongata, pons
(iii) Apneustic area
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1. Insects have a specialised system of ‘tubes’ called the tracheal system for exchange of gases.
2. There is active ventilation in most treacheates (i.e., animals possessing trachea).
3. Fish gills consist of thousands of highly specialised gill lamellae enclosed in a gill cavity.
4. Amphibians use the moist skin, gills or the lungs for gas exchange.
5. Modern amphibians do not rely heavily on cutaneous respiration.
6. Most adult amphibians have lungs for breathing air.
7. Internal (tissue) respiration is the exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries
and tissue cells.
8. Alveoli are the structure for gas exchange in humans.
9. The apparatus for measuring inspired and expired volumes during breathing is a spirometer.
10. The sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
is called residual volume.
II. Long Questions
123
1. Describe the tracheal system of insects and relate to its function.
2. Describe the structure of the gills in relation to its function.
3. In your own words, explain the significance of counter current flow in bony fish.
4. Describe the mode of gaseous exchange in amphibians.
5. Describe the structure of the human gas exchange system.
6. Describe the distribution of tissues within the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli and relate
each tissue to its function.
7. Explain the mechanism of ventilation in humans.
8. Explain the process of gas exchange in alveoli with emphasis on diffusion.
9. Describe the role of the brain in controlling gas exchange in humans.
10. Define the following terms related to the lung capacities:
(i) Tidal volume (ii) Reserve volume
(iii) Vital capacity (iv) Residual volume
(v) Dead air space
11. Describe how a spirometer can be used to measure vital capacity, tidal volume, breathing rates,
and oxygen uptake.
12. Calculate vital capacity and alveolar ventilation from the data provided.
Tidal volume = 550 ml, Dead space = 185 ml, Respiratory rate = 17/min, inspiratory reserve volume
= 2500 ml, tidal volume = 550, and expiratory reserve volume = 1450.
13. What contribution does exchange of gases make on global warming? Discuss your answer with
relevant data. Also throw light on the dialect “Global warming: a myth or truth.”
ANSWERS TO STUDENT’S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT

I. Choose whether the following statements are True or False (F):
1. True; Insects have a specialised system of ‘tubes’ called the tracheal
system for exchange of gases.
2. False; Normally there is no active ventilation in most treacheates.
3. True; Gills are more developed in fishes. Fish gills consist of thousands
of highly specialised gill lamellae enclosed in a gill cavity.
4. True; Amphibians use the moist skin, gills or the lungs for gas
exchange.
5. False; Modern amphibians rely heavily on cutaneous respiration.
6. True; Most adult amphibians have lungs for breathing air.
7. True; Internal (tissue) respiration is the exchange of gases between
blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells. In this step, the blood loses
O2 and gains CO2.
8. True; Alveoli are the thin membrane respiratory sacs in lungs through
which exchange of gases takes place.
9. True;
124
10. False; The sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and
expiratory reserve volume is called as Vital capacity.
II. Long answers:
1. Insects have a specialised system of ‘tubes’ called the tracheal system
for exchange of gases. This system consists of a vast network of
cuticular (i.e., made of chitin, a long-chain polymer of an n-acetyl
glucosamine) tubes penetrating to almost each individual cells of the
body. This system serves two functions: it brings air into the body, and
also distributes it to the cells. This pattern of tracheal system is very
much similar to the system of blood vessels in higher animals.
Air enters the tracheal system of the animal through special openings
called spiracles. These are present mostly on the lateral side of the
animal. These are usually guarded by valves, operated by muscles and
sometimes provided with filters. Tracheal tubes are invaginations
(infoldings) of the body surface. Thus, their walls are similar in structure
and composition to the general body surface (integuments) of the
animals. Sometimes larger tracheas have thickenings called taenidia.
These are spiral cuticular layers which give strength and elasticity. The
tubes become progressively smaller and thinner to form tracheoles or air
capillaries. The smaller tubes may have incomplete taenidial support.
They have a diameter of less than 1 μm (1 μm = 1 × 10 –6 m). Tracheoles are

the most important physiological unit of this gas exchange system. It is
because they make numerous close contacts with the individual cells for
gas exchange to take place. They sink into cell’s plasma membrane
bringing oxygen very close to the mitochondria of the cells.
Mechanism of Ventilation in Insects
Normally there is no active ventilation in most treacheates (i.e., animals
possessing trachea). Many of the tracheates (like onychophora,
myriapoda, and insect larvae and pupae) depend on simple diffusion of
gases in the air tubes. But ventilation and control of direction and volume
of the air flowing through the system is present in adult insects. This is
because adult insects are larger and so have higher metabolic rate which
demands more oxygen. The spiracles and air sacs help the insect in
ventilation and creating unidirectional flow of air. In grasshopper,
thoraxic spiracles are used for inspiration while abdominal spiracles are
used for expiration. This creates a unidirectional flow of air. Air sacs
greatly increase the efficiency of ventilation. These are balloon-like
structures of the trachea with a variety of sizes and shapes. Active
ventilation is brought about by rhythmic contraction and relaxation of
body walls. This forces the air movement in and out of the tracheal
125
system. Dorso-ventral flattening of abdomen is observed in grasshopper
and beetles.
2. Gills are typical respiratory organs of aquatic animals, including fishes.
Gills range in shape and size. It may be finger like projections or simple
epithelial extensions. Gills are more developed in fishes. Fish gills consist
of thousands of highly specialised gill lamellae enclosed in a gill cavity.
The gill cavity is covered by an operculum and continuously ventilated by
flowing water. Respiration through gills is also known as branchial
respiration. All gill surfaces are provided with a dense network of thin
capillary vessels and supported by skeletal elements called the branchial
arches.
Types of Gills
Gills can be of two types:
External gills: These gills are exposed to the environment and not
enclosed within a pouch or cavity. They are found in the larvae of many
vertebrates, including lungfishes, actinopterygians, and amphibians.
Internal gills: Gills are covered and protected laterally by soft skin folds,
like the interbranchial septum in cartilaginous fishes, or by a firm
operculum in many bony fishes. They are found within pharyngeal gills
slits or pouches of most cartilaginous and bony fishes. In cartilaginous
fishes, the gills are found on the lateral side of the branchial arch. Gills
are usually five pairs in number. They are located in vertical,
anterioposteriorly compressed branchial chambers or gill pouches. Each
branchial pouch is separated from each other by a stout interbranchial
septum. This septum is made up of fibro-muscular tissue with blood
vessels.
A branchial pouch communicates to exterior with the help of narrow
external branchial aperture or gill slits. Each gill has a central partition
called the interbranchial septum. Within this septum, a stiff structure
called gill ray gives support to the gills. This septum is covered on each
face by primary lamellae or gill filaments. Gill filaments are series of
raised thin, highly vascular horizontal lamellar folds of the interbranchial
septum. The primary lamellae are again made up of standing rows of
secondary lamellae. Water flows across their sides to irrigate the gills.
126
When gill lamellae are present on both anterior and posterior sides of a
septum, it is called a holobranch or complete gill. However, when
lamellae is present on only one face, it is called a hemibranch. Facing
plates of lamellae on adjacent gills constitute a respiratory unit. A
branchial pouch therefore consists of posterior hemibranch of one gill and
anterior hemibranch of the succeeding gill. The pharyngeal structural
region in bony fishes is almost similar to that of cartilaginous fishes. The
gill/branchial chamber on each side is covered by a fold of integument
called the operculum (gill covering). It is supported by four opercular
bones. The operculum protects the branchial arches and its gill lamellae
and also helps in gill ventilation. There are five pairs of gill pouches and
four pairs of holobranchs or complete gills. In cross section, each gill is V-
shaped and composed of primary lamellae (gill filaments) that are
subdivided into secondary lamellae and supported on a branchial arch.
3. Significance of countercurrent mechanism in bony fishes
• A larger difference in PO2 (i.e., partial pressure of O2; the pressure of a
specific gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure) can be maintained
across the exchange surface. The larger the difference, the more the
exchange of gases; thus, allowing more transfer of gas.
• The system is so efficient that in some teleost 85% of oxygen may be
extracted from water passing over the gills using this system.
127
• This type of exchanger is also found in temperature control system of
cold arctic animals, in air bladders of fish and even in the kidneys of
vertebrates.
• A few fish have some warm tissues. For example, Tuna have warm
muscles, eyes, and brains. This is only possible because of a
countercurrent blood supply to selected tissues.
4. Amphibians use the moist skin, gills or the lungs for gas exchange
(Figure 9.8). Gas exchange occurring through the skin is known as
cutaneous respiration. In some larval Salamanders and adult, external
gills are also used for respiration. Modern amphibians rely heavily on
cutaneous respiration. Sometimes, they develop accessory skin
structures to increase the surface area available for gas exchange.
The amphibian skin is thin, moist, and rich supplied with capillaries
making it best suited for gas exchange by diffusion.
In aquatic amphibians, pharyngeal slits often persist with internal gills.
Feathery external gills are often present especially among larval
amphibians.
Most adult amphibians have lungs for breathing air. Normally, the
respiratory surface within the lungs on the anterior region is more
developed than the posterior along the inner walls. The inner surface of
lungs forms partitions and divide to increase the surface area for gas
exchange. Such a surface is called septal. The interconnecting septa
divide the internal wall into compartments called faveoli. This faveoli
open into the central chamber within each lung. Faveoli differ from the
alveoli of mammalian lungs. Alveoli are found at the end of a highly
branched tracheal system but faveoli are not. Faveoli are internal
subdivisions of the lung wall that open into a common central chamber.
Inspired air travels along the trachea into the central lumen of the lung
and from here diffuses into the surrounding faveoli. Capillaries located
within the thin septal walls of the faveoli take up oxygen and give up
carbon dioxide.
128
5. Air is inhaled through the nose into the pharynx (throat). Pharynx is a
common passage for both air and food. The pharynx branches into two
tubes, the oesophagus or food pipe and the larynx. The larynx is a part of
the airways and it houses the vocal cords. The nose, mouth, pharynx, and
larynx are also called the upper airways. The larynx opens into a long
tube, the trachea. The trachea then branches into two bronchi, the right
primary bronchus enters the right lung and the left primary bronchus
enters the left lung. The walls of the trachea and bronchi contain
cartilage, which supports them and gives them their characteristic
cylindrical shape. The right primary bronchus is more vertical, shorter,
and wider than the left. Within each lung, the bronchi branches
continuously into narrower, shorter, and more numerous tubes, more than
20 generations of branching.
129
The primary bronchi divide to form smaller bronchi which are known as
the secondary (lobar) bronchi, one for each lobe of the lung. The
secondary bronchi continue to branch, forming still smaller bronchi called
tertiary (segmental) bronchi. Tertiary bronchi divide to form smaller
bronchioles. Bronchioles are without cartilage. Alveoli (explained later)
first begin to appear in them attached to their walls. Alveoli normally form
grapelike clusters terminally. The airways are surrounded by smooth
muscle whose contraction or relaxation can alter the airway radius.
130
Bronchioles in turn branch repeatedly, and the smallest ones branch into
even smaller tubes called terminal bronchioles. This extensive branching
from the trachea resembles an inverted tree and is sometimes commonly
referred to as the bronchial tree.
The lung is a paired cone-shaped organ in the thoracic cavity. The lungs
extend from the diaphragm to just slightly superior to the clavicles
(collarbone). They are guarded by the ribs anteriorly and posteriorly. The
mid region of left lung also has concavity called the cardiac notch, in
which the heart lies. This makes the left lung about 10% smaller than the
right lung. Each lung is divided into several lobes; three lobes in right and
two in left lungs. Tiny air containing sacs called alveoli (singular,
alveolus) arranged like bunch of grapes at the end of each bronchioles
are the respiratory unit of the lungs.
Alveoli are approximately 300 million in number in an adult and are the
actual sites for gas exchange. Each lung is enclosed and protected by a
double-layered serous membrane called the pleural membrane. It consists
of two layers: the outer parietal pleura and the deeper visceral pleura.
The space between the two is called the pleural cavity and contains a
small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes. The
important function of this pleural fluid is to reduce the friction between
the membranes during breathing movement.
6. Functions of Tissues within the Gas Exchange System
The respiratory system consists of four main layers
(i) The respiratory mucosa (epithelium and supporting lamina propria)
(ii) Submuscosa
(iii) Cartilage and/or muscle layer
(iv) Adventitia
Trachea
The trachea is a wide flexible tube. The respiratory mucosa and
submucosa are adapted to warm and moisten the air, and to trap
particles in mucous. It consists of pseudostratifed columnar, ciliated
epithelium with mucous secreting goblet cells. It has twenty C-shaped
rings of hyaline tracheal cartilage which supports the trachea and keeps
it lumen open. The gaps between the rings of cartilage are filled by a
bundle of smooth muscle (trachealis muscle) and fibroelastic tissue. This
structures together gives flexibility for ventilation. Adventitia is the
outermost fibroelastic connective tissue layer. The respiratory mucosa is
made up of the epithelium and supporting lamina propria. The epithelium
is tall columnar pseudostratified with cilia and goblet cells. Lamina propia
lies underneath the epithelium. It contains elastin and has a supporting
131
role. Blood vessels warm the air. The sub-mucosa contains mixed sero-
mucous glands. The watery secretions from the serous glands humidify
the inspired air. The mucous, together with mucous from the goblet cells
traps particles from the air which are transported upwards towards the
pharynx by the cilia on the epithlium. This helps to keep the lungs free of
particles and bacteria. There are lots of seromucous glands in the
submucosa layer.
The epithelial surfaces of the airways upto the end of the respiratory
bronchioles have cilia that constantly beat toward the pharynx. They also
contain mucous secreting glands.
This mucous keeps the lungs clear of particulate matter and the many
bacteria that enter the body on dust particles. Macrophage present in the
airways and alveoli also protects against infection.
Bronchi
Bronchi have the same basic structure as trachea. A few differences are
respiratory epithelium are less tall than that of trachea and contains
fewer goblet cells. Lamina propia has more elastic tissue. Muscularis
mucosae begin to appear lamina propia and submucosa. There are fewer
submucosal glands and cartilage is in plates. There is less cartilage in
the tertiary bronchi, It does not completely encircle the lumen.
Bronchioles
The tertiary bronchii branch into bronchioles. They have a diameter of
1mm or less, and the wall structure changes. There is no cartilage and no
glands. The ring of smooth muscle is arranged in discrete bundles with a
variety of organisations. The epithelium is made up of ciliated columnar
cells in larger bronchioles, or non-ciliated in smaller bronchioles. There
are no goblet cells, but there are cells called Clara cells. These are
secretory cells and they secrete one of the components of surfactant.
Terminal Bronchioles
The final branches of the bronchioles are called terminal bronchioles.
These have a layer smooth muscle surrounding their lumens. Stimulation
of the vagus nerve (parasympathetic) causes the smooth muscle to
contract, and reduce the diameter of the terminal bronchioles. Small sacs
are found extending from the walls of the terminal bronchii called
respiratory bronchioles. These are lined by a ciliated cuboidal epithelium,
and some non-ciliated cells called clara cells. The respiratory bronchi
have a few single alveoli of their walls.
Alveoli
The alveoli are the sites of gas exchange with the blood. The wall of the
air-facing surface(s) are lined by type I alveolar cells which is a one cell
thick, continuous layer of flat epithelial cells. Type II alveolar cells are
132
thicker specialized cells producing a detergent-like substance called
surfactant and they are interspersed between type I cells. In some of the
alveolar walls, pores are present which permit the flow of air between
alveoli.
The alveolar walls contain capillaries and a very small interstitial space,
made of interstitial fluid and a loose meshwork of connective tissue.
However, the interstitial space is absent altogether at most places and
the basement membranes of the alveolar-surface epithelium and the
capillary-wall endothelium fuse. As a result, the blood within an alveolar-
wall capillary is separated from the air within the alveolus by an
extremely thin barrier around 0.2 μm. The branching of bronchioles and
the vast number of alveoli collectively increases the respiratory surface
area to as much as 80 square metres. The extensive surface area of
alveoli in contact with capillaries and the thin barrier results in the rapid
exchange of large quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide by diffusion.
7. Inspiration (inhalation or breathing in) is the movement of air from the
external environment through the airways into the alveoli during
breathing. Expiration (exhalation) is movement in the opposite direction.
An inspiration and an expiration constitute a respiratory cycle
Inhalation: Air will move into the lungs when air pressure inside the lungs is less
than that of outside (atmospheres). Expansion of the lungs increases the volume
and so the pressure inside the lungs decreases. Expansion of the lungs during
normal quiet inhalation is achieved by contraction of the diaphragm and external
intercostals which are the main muscles of inhalation (Figure 9.14). The
133
diaphragm is the dome-shaped skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the
thoracic cavity. Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to flatten, lowering its
dome. This increases the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity. Around 75% of
air enters the lungs by this action. Also, contraction of the external intercostals
elevates the ribs resulting in an increase in the volume of the chest cavity. About
25% of the air that enters the lungs during normal quiet breathing is due to this
action. As the volume of the lungs increases and the pressure inside the lungs
(alveolar or intra-pulmonic pressure) decreases and atmospheric air rushes into
the lungs.
Exhalation: On the other hand if the volume of the lungs decreases,
pressure inside the lungs increases. As a result, air rushes out of the
lungs resulting in exhalation or expiration. However, normal exhalation
during quiet breathing, unlike inhalation, is a passive process because no
muscular contractions are involved. Exhalation results from elastic recoil
of the chest wall and lungs. Elastic recoil is the natural tendency of the
chest wall and the lungs to spring back after they have been stretched.
The inspiratory muscles relax with the start of exhalation. Diaphragm
and external intercostal muscles also relax, resulting in decrease in
volume of the lungs, causing air to move out of the lungs. Interestingly,
exhalation becomes an active process (requiring energy supply) only
during the time of forced exhalation (for example during heavy
exercise etc). During these times, the muscles of exhalation are the
abdominals and internal intercostals muscles which contract to
increases pressure in the abdominal region and thorax.
8. Alveoli are the respiratory units of lungs. The alveolar and capillary
walls together form the respiratory membrane. The exchange of gases in
the alveoli and between the air spaces in the lungs and the blood takes
place by diffusion across this respiratory membrane. The pressure of a
specific gas (x) in a mixture is called its partial pressure (Px). The
difference in partial pressures determines the movement of O2 and CO2
between the atmosphere and lungs, between the lungs and blood, and
between the blood and body cells. Gas diffuses across a permeable
membrane from an area where its partial pressure is higher to the area
where its partial pressure is low and the rate of diffusion is directly
proportional to the difference in partial pressure.
134
External respiration or pulmonary gas exchange is the diffusion of O 2 from
air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood in pulmonary capillaries and the
diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction. In this process, blood picks up
O2 from alveolar air and unloads CO2 into alveolar air as it flows through
pulmonary capillaries. In a resting person, PO2 is 105 mmHg in the
alveolar air which is higher than that of blood in pulmonary capillaries,
where it is only 40 mmHg. This results in diffusion of O2 from alveolar air
into pulmonary capillaries. However, CO2 diffuses in the opposite direction
because the PCO2 of deoxygenated blood is 45 mmHg in a resting person,
and the PCO2 of alveolar air is 40 mmHg. Hence, carbon dioxide diffuses
from deoxygenated blood into the alveoli until the PCO2 of the blood
decreases to 40 mmHg.
As result of this diffusion, the capillary blood PO 2 rises while its PCO2 falls.
This process of diffusion continues as long as there is difference in partial
pressure of the two gases between the two sides. An equilibrium is
reached well before the end of the capillaries because blood flow in the
135
capillaries is slow and gas exchange is rapid. Oxygenated blood now
leaves the pulmonary capillaries to return to the heart from where it is
pumped into the systemic arteries. The exchange of O 2 and CO2 between
systemic capillaries and tissue cells is called internal respiration or
systemic gas exchange.
9. The respiratory centre is the cluster of neurons located bilaterally in
the medulla oblongata and pons of the brain stem. It can be divided into
three areas on the basis of their functions
1. The medullary rhythmicity area in the medulla oblongata:
• Controls the basic rhythm of respiration.
• There are inspiratory and expiratory areas.
• Nerve impulses generated in the inspiratory area establish the basic
rhythm of breathing during quiet breathing by causing contraction of
external intercostal muscle.
• The neurons of the expiratory area remain inactive during quiet
breathing. However, during forceful breathing nerve impulses from the
inspiratory area activate the expiratory area.
• Impulses from the expiratory area cause contraction of the internal
intercostal and abdominal muscles, which decreases the size of the
thoracic cavity and causes forceful exhalation.
2. The pneumotaxic area in the pons:
• Transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area.
• The major effect of these nerve impulses is to help turn off the
inspiratory area before the lungs become too full of air.
In other words, the impulses shorten the duration of inhalation. When
the pneumotaxic area is more active, breathing rate is more rapid.
3. The apneustic area in the lower pons:
• This area sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area that
activate it and prolong inhalation.
• The result is a long, deep inhalation.
• When the pneumotaxic area is active, it overrides signals from the
apneustic area.
10. (i) Tidal volume: It is the volume of air entering the lungs during a
single inspiration during normal quiet breathing. It is about 500 ml. It is
approximately equal to the volume leaving on the subsequent expiration.
(ii) Inspiratory reserve volume: The maximal amount of air that can be
increased above the resting tidal volume during deepest/forced
inspiration is termed the inspiratory reserve volume. It is about 3000 ml in
average adult males which is sixfold greater than resting tidal volume and
1900 ml in average adult females.
136
Expiratory reserve volume: The 500 ml of air inspired with each resting
breath adds to and mixes with the much larger volume of air already in
the lungs, and then 500 ml of the total is expired. However, through
maximal active contraction of the expiratory muscles i.e., forced
expiration, it is possible to expire much more of the air remaining after
the resting tidal volume has been expired; this additional expired volume
is termed the expiratory reserve volume (about 1500 ml).
(iii) Vital capacity: It is the maximal volume of air that a person can
expire after a maximal inspiration. It is a useful clinical measurement for
detecting various respiratory system related conditions. It is the sum of
inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume
(4800 ml in males and 3100 ml in females).
(iv) Residual volume: Even after a maximal active expiration,
approximately 1000 ml of air still remains in the lungs. This is because
the subatmospheric intrapleural pressure keeps the alveoli slightly
inflated, and some air also remains in the noncollapsible airways. This
volume, which cannot be measured by spirometry, is called the residual
volume and amounts to about 1200 ml in males and 1100 ml in females.
(v) Dead Space refers to the conducting airways which have a volume of
about 150 ml. Exchanges of gases with the blood does not occur in this
150 ml of the airways. It occurs only in the alveoli. Since these airways
do not permit gas exchange with the blood, the space within them is
termed
the anatomic dead space. Thus, the volume of fresh air entering the
alveoli during each inspiration equals the tidal volume minus the volume
of air in the anatomic dead space.
11. The spirometer is an apparatus for measuring inspired and expired
volumes during breathing and the respiratory rate. The record is called a
spirogram.
Use of Spirometer to Measure Ventilation Rate
The lung volumes and capacities can be measured by routine spirometry.
A typical spirometer is a tube like instrument with an open end called the
mouthpiece. The spirometer consists usually of a water-filled tank with a
bell shaped floating device. A tube connects the air space within the
spirometer with the airways of the person whose lung volumes is being
measured. A counterweight is placed on the bell. The position of the bell
indicates how much air is in the spirometer and is calibrated in volume
units. A person under the test blows air into it after deep breath. Usually,
the airway through nose is shut or blocked using a clip so that air can
only enter or leave through the mouth. Inhalation is recorded as an
upward deflection, and exhalation is recorded as a downward deflection.
137
The bell on the spirometer rises when the person blows into the device
(expiration), and falls during inspiration. If the spirometer is equipped
with a recording device (spirograph), it can also be used for graphic
measurement of the total ventilation per unit time. Based upon the
reading indicated corresponding to each breathing in or out, an expert
physician can diagnose the health of the person’s lungs and detect
disorder if any. Nowadays, the instrument is integrated with a computer
system to accurately monitor the readings and give instant results. Using
the spirometer to obtain readings.
(i) One learner holds the bottle to keep it from flipping over. Another
learner inhales normally and then exhales the air normally into the tubing
connected to the spirometer. Note: Do not blow out all the “extra” air in
your lungs.
(ii) Note the amount of air you exhaled, remembering that each line on the
bottle represents a half litre, starting from the top down.
(iii) Record this volume, it is your “tidal volume.” The tidal volume is the
amount of air that you normally breathe in and out.
(iv) Refill the bottle with water and reinsert the tubing. One learner holds
the bottle while another takes a few normal breaths initially. This is to
get a good reading in the next step. Then inhale as much air as you can
and exhale this air into the end of the tubing outside of the water.
(v) Again note the amount of air you exhaled by looking at the lines on the
soda bottle.
(vi) This volume is your “inspiratory reserve.” The inspiratory reserve is
the amount of air that your lungs can hold in.
(vii) Refill the bottle with water and reinsert the tubing. One student holds
the bottle while the other take a few normal breaths to get himself back
to a normal breath. Then exhale as much air as you can into the end of
the tubing outside of the water.
(viii) Note the amount of air you exhaled by looking at the lines on the
soda bottle.
(ix) This is your “expiratory reserve.” The expiratory reserve is the
amount of air that your lungs can blow out after a normal breath.
138
13. In order to carry on photosynthesis, green plants need a supply of
carbon dioxide and a means of disposing of oxygen. In order to carry on
cellular respiration, plant cells need oxygen and a means of disposing of
carbon dioxide (just as animal cells do). Unlike animals, plants have no
specialized organs for gas exchange. Each part of the plant takes care of
its own gas exchange needs. Although plants have an elaborate liquid
transport system, it does not participate in gas transport.
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the leaf (as well as the
loss of water vapour in transpiration) occurs through pores called
stomata.
Normally stomata open when the light strikes the leaf in the morning and
close during the night.Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which plays a
major role in global warming.
Our planet has become at risk over the past century because of escalated
use of fossil fuels and higher carbon dioxide levels than people have ever
seen. There is a scientific evidence that climate change is happening, yet
some people doubt that global warming even exists.
Some people believe that global warming is a myth, they don’t believe the
environment is in danger. Global warming is not just a theory, it is real,
and it is happening now. The temperature of the Earth is rising, the ozone
layer is decreasing, we are trapping increased heat in the atmosphere
and sooner or later a number of animal species will become extinct and
human health will be at risk. Across the globe there have been increases
in droughts, hurricanes, floods and unusual weather occurrences that
hurt crops, destroyed homes, and have taken lives. There are a group of
scientists that meet in London to discuss the Earth and what is in store
for the future of the planet. The Planet Under Pressure Conference (PUP)
has concluded that the Earth is coming to the point where a recovery
from global warming will not be possible. They believe that by 2100 the
temperature will rise by 6 degrees Celsius (42.8 degrees F) if gases
continue to rise without control. This would result in the loss of ice
sheets and rainforests. The tropical rainforests produce 40% of the
world’s oxygen. Losing the rainforests would take a major toll on
139
environment and human health. Another effect is the threat to coral reef
development. The Great Barrier Reef is home to over 350 species of coral,
1,800 species of fish, and also home to hundreds of sharks, sponges, and
even dolphins and whales. Some species would probably go extinct
because of the Earth changing and their habitat and source of food
disappearing.
Global warming would not only affect the animals on Earth but also the
humans. Greenland’s ice caps would also increase in the speed in which
they are melting, raising the sea level by 23 feet and swallowing some of
the land on the coasts of several continents. Grass has been seen
growing on Antarctica where the ice has melted away. The world will see
a dramatic change over the next 100 years unless we try to make
changes and do our part to conserve the planet.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ................. is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume.
2. ............ refers to the conducting airways which have a volume of about
150 ml.
Ans. 1. Total lung capacity, 2. Dead Space
Answer in one word.
1. Result in a long, deep inhalation, part of brain.
2. Neural activity is primarily controlled by neurons in the.
Ans. 1. apneustic area in the lower pons, 2. medulla oblongata.
Unit 10: Smoking and Related

Diseases
Questions
SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................... is a also called Silent killer.
(ii) ................... is the addictive drug found in cigarette.
(iii) Tar contains carcinogen ...........................
(iv) Radiation compounds present in tobacco smoke are ............................
(v) Carbon monoxide poisoning .................... percentage of CO in flood.
140
Self-evaluation (Page 243 of Student’s Book)
(i) Carbon monoxide
(ii) Nicotine
(iii) benzo (a) pyrene
(iv) carcinogenic
(v) increases
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

1. Smoke from cigarettes can make non-smokers sick.
2. Smoking can affect a person’s ability to smell and taste food.
3. Secondhand smoke kills about 3,000 non-smokers each year from lung disease.
4. It takes about ten seconds for nicotine absorbed into the bloodstream to reach the brain.
5. Smoking is a difficult habit to quit.
6. Nicotine, the chemical found in cigarettes, is an addictive drug.
7. A smoker is twice as likely to have a heart attack as a non-smoker is.
8. Cigarette brands that are heavily advertised on TV, in magazines, on billboards, and on T-shirts
are the brands more teens buy.
9. One out of every ten smokers will die of a smoking-related sickness.
10. More germs get into your lungs when you smoke.
1. Smoking causes
(a) Lung cancer (b) Heart disease
(c) Respiratory disease (d) All of above
2. Atherosclerosis is a condition where,
(a) Body needs more energy
(b) Lungs get filled with mucus
(c) Plaque clogs up the artery, disrupting the flow of blood around the body
(d) Brain becomes dead
3. Chronic Obstructive lung disease occurs due to
(a) Chronic bronchitis (b) Emphysema
(c) None of these (d) Both of these
4. COPD stands for
(a) Cuticular Obstetric Pelvic Disease
(b) Critical Obstructive Pituarity Disorder
(c) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(d) Chronic Obesity Personal Decision
5. Emphysema is caused due to
(a) Bursting of alveoli (b) A decrease in the surface area of gas exchange
(c) Both A and B (d) None of above
141
6. Gas exchanging system cannot be damaged by
(a) Carcinogens (b) CO
(c) Nicotine (d) Any of these
7. The blood is not oxygenated well enough due to
(a) Asthma (b) Emphysema
(c) Chronic Bronchitis (d) All of above
8. Common causes of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) does not include
(a) Smoke from the factory furnace (b) Vehicle pollution
(c) Industrial pollution (d) Water pollution
9. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) does not include
(a) Asthma (b) Chronic Bronchitis
(c) Emphysema (d) Retinoblastoma
10. The smoker’s cough is
(a) A sign of recovery
(b) An attempt to move the mucus up the airways
(c) An attempt to move the air down the airways
(d) A mixture of bacteria and BCs
III. Long Questions
1. What are the dangerous components of tobacco smoke?
2. In your words, describe the effects of tar and carcinogens in tobacco smoke on the gas exchange
system.
3. How can you control the use of tobacco in your society? Explain briefly.
4. Describe the signs and symptoms of lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases
(COPD).
5. Describe the effects of nicotine and carbon monoxide on the cardiovascular system.
6. Explain how tobacco smoking contributes to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.
7. Interpret data linking cigarette smoking to disease and early death.
8. Comment on smoking gender disparities prevalent in the community.
Also state the effect of smoking on a pregnant woman. How does it affect the infant?
9. Correlate smoking to behavioural economics and health behavioural changes.
Support your answer with examples.
10. Differentiate between:
(a) Emphysema and chronic bronchitis
(b) Atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease
142
11. Look at the pictures and answer the questions that follow:
(a) Which of these is healthier? (b) How is it different from the other one?
ANSWERS TO STUDENT'S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT (Pages 254–256 of

Student's Book)
1. True; it is equally harmful for non-smokers when they inhale smoke
indirectly.
2. True; Nicotine causes desensitization of brain that badly affects taste
and olfactory senses.
3. True; Because smoke contains numerous irritants that cause irritation
of eyes.
4. True; Nicotine gets absorbed in the blood very fast.
5. True; Because cigarette smoking contains a highly addictive chemical
nicotine. Addicted smokers need enough nicotine over a day to ‘feel
normal’ – to satisfy cravings or control their mood.
6. True; Nicotine is an extremely fast-acting drug. Addicted smokers need
enough nicotine over a day to ‘feel normal’ – to satisfy cravings or control
their mood.
7. True; Smoking damages blood vessels and make them thicken and
grow narrower which causes heart attack when a clot blocks the blood
flow.
8. True; Teens get easily attracted to the brands which are being
advertised and they want to try the popular brands.
9. False; the number of smokers who die of smoking-related diseases is
closer to three out of ten.
143
10. True; because the smoke paralyzes the cilia that line your breathing
system.
1. (d); Smoking is very harmful for health and affects every organ of the
body. It leads to heart, respiratory disease along with lung cancer.
2. (c); Atherosclerosis is a heart disease where, cholesterol accumulates
and stick around the wall of arteries. It interrupts the blood flow and
causes heart attack or stroke.
3. (d); Chronic obstructive lung disease i.e., COPD includes both
conditions Chronic bronchitis (It develops a chronic cough and sputum
production) as well as emphysema (impairing airflow out of your lungs).
Both conditions cause shortness of breath.
4. (c); Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease i.e., Chronic lung disease.
5. (c); Emphysema is a condition in which the air sacs (alveoli) at the end
of the smallest air passages (bronchioles) of the lungs are destroyed due
to smoking. It includes bursting of alveoli as well as impairing of air flow.
6. (a); Carcinogens are cancer causing agents.
7. (b); Because emphysema includes decrease in the surface area of gas
exchange in the alveoli.
8. (d); Water pollution does not cause lung diseases. COPD is mainly
caused by smoke, whether it is produced by cigarette or burning of the
fuel and wood.
9. (d); Retinoblastoma is cancer of eye which cannot be linked with lung
disease.
10. (b); Smoker’s cough is the attempt to clear out the sputum from the
airway passage.
1. The most damaging components of tobacco smoke are:
(i) Tar is the collective term describing toxins produced by smoking
cigarettes and the coating they place on the lungs. Tar is sticky and
brown, and stains teeth, fingernails and lung tissue. Tar contains the
carcinogen benzo(a) pyrene. When inhaled, these toxins form a
particulate matter that coats lungs much the same way that soot from log
fires coats chimneys. But unlike chimneys, which are made of stone or
brick, human lungs are made of thin, delicate tissue not intended for toxic
smoke intake.
(ii) Nicotine is the addictive drug in tobacco smoke that causes smokers
to continue to smoke and affects the brain activity. Addicted smokers
144
need enough nicotine over a day to ‘feel normal’—to satisfy cravings or
control their mood.
(a) Brain is made up of billions of nerve cells. They communicate by
releasing chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Each
neurotransmitter is like a key that fits into a special “lock,” called a
receptor, located on the surface of nerve cells. When a neurotransmitter
finds its receptor, it activates the receptor’s nerve cell.
(b) The nicotine molecule is shaped like a neurotransmitter called
acetylcholine. Acetylcholine and its receptors are involved in many
functions, including muscle movement, breathing, heart rate, learning,
and memory. They also cause the release of other neurotransmitters and
hormones that affect your mood, appetite, memory, and more. When
nicotine gets into the brain, it attaches to acetylcholine receptors and
mimics the actions of acetylcholine. Nicotine also activates areas of the
brain that are involved in producing the feelings of pleasure and reward.
Recently, scientists discovered that nicotine raises the levels of a
neurotransmitter called dopamine in the parts of the brain that produce
the feelings of pleasure and reward. Dopamine, which is sometimes
called the pleasure molecule, is the same neurotransmitter that is
involved in addictions to other drugs such as cocaine and heroin.
Researchers now believe that this change in dopamine may play a key
role in all addictions.
(iii) Carbon monoxide (CO): This odourless gas is fatal in large doses
because it takes the place of oxygen in the blood. It is also called ‘Silent
killer’. Each red blood cell contains a protein called haemoglobin that
transports oxygen molecules around the body. However, carbon monoxide
binds to haemoglobin better than oxygen. In response, the body makes
more red blood cells to carry the oxygen it needs, but it makes the blood
thicker. This means that when the body demands more oxygen during
exercise, less oxygen reaches the brain, heart, muscles and other organs.
2. The effects of tobacco smoke on the respiratory system include:
• Irritation of the trachea (windpipe) and larynx (voice box)
• Reduced lung function and breathlessness due to swelling and
narrowing of the lung airways and excess mucus in the lung passages
• Impairment of the lungs’ clearance system, leading to the build-up of
poisonous substances, which results in lung irritation and damage
• Increased risk of lung infection and symptoms such as coughing and
wheezing
• Permanent damage to the air sacs of the lungs
145
Smoking can cause lung disease by damaging your airways and the small
air sacs (alveoli) found in your lungs
• Lung diseases caused by smoking include COPD, which includes
emphysema and chronic bronchitis
• Cigarette smoking causes most cases of lung cancer
• In condition of asthma, tobacco smoke can trigger an attack or make an
attack worse
• Smokers are 12 to 13 times more likely to die from COPD than non-
smokers.
3. Smoking harms nearly every bodily organ and organ system in the body
and diminishes a person’s health and smokers are more likely than non-
smokers to develop heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer. ‘Smoke-free’
campaigns are run to encourage people to change their behaviour
The campaigns are aimed at:
• Making people aware of the health dangers of smoking
• Stopping young people from taking up smoking
• Encouraging smokers to try and quit, and to do so in the most effective
way
• Encouraging people to stop smoking in their homes and family cars—
emphasising how it affects children.
4. Lung cancer is strongly correlated with cigarette smoking, with about
90% of lung cancers arising as a result of tobacco use. The risk of lung
cancer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked over time.
The most common symptoms of lung cancer are:
• A cough that does not go away or gets worse
• Chest pain that is often worse with deep breathing, coughing, or
laughing
• Hoarseness
• Weight loss and loss of appetite
• Coughing up blood or rust-coloured sputum (spit or phlegm)
• Shortness of breath
• Feeling tired or weak
• Infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia that don’t go away or keep
coming back
• New onset of wheezing
If lung cancer spreads to distant organs, it may cause:
• Bone pain (like pain in the back or hips)
• Nervous system changes (such as headache, weakness or numbness of
an arm or leg, dizziness, balance problems, or seizures), from cancer
spread to the brain or spinal cord
146
• Yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), from cancer spread to the
liver
• Lumps near the surface of the body, due to cancer spreading to the skin
or to lymph nodes (collections of immune system cells), such as those in
the neck or above the collarbone Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed
airflow from the lungs. COPD is always caused by smoking. Over time,
breathing tobacco smoke irritates the airways and destroys the stretchy
fibres in the lungs. It usually takes many years for the lung damage to
start causing symptoms, so COPD is most common in people who are
older than 60. Other things that may put you at risk include breathing
chemical fumes, dust, or air pollution over a long period of time. Second
hand smoke also may damage the lungs..
The main symptoms are:
• A long-lasting (chronic) cough
• Breathing difficulty, especially during physical activities
• Cough
• Sputum production
• Wheezing
• Blueness of the lips or fingernail beds (cyanosis)
• Frequent respiratory infections
• Lack of energy.
As COPD gets worse, you may be short of breath even when you do simple
things like get dressed or fix a meal. It gets harder to eat or exercise, and
breathing takes much more energy. People often lose weight and get
weaker. People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart
disease, lung cancer and a variety of other conditions.
Emphysema and Chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions
that contribute to COPD. It causes airway obstruction in the lungs.
5. Both carbon monoxide and Nicotine along with other carcinogens
affect brain and heart. They too increase the risk of developing cardio
vascular diseases, which includes coronary heart disease and stroke.
• The carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen
in blood. This means the heart has to pump harder to supply the body with
the oxygen it needs.
• The nicotine in cigarettes stimulates the body to produce adrenaline,
which makes heartbeat faster and raises the blood pressure, making
heart work harder.
6. Athrosclerosis (Artherosclerosis) and Coronary Heart Disease (CHD):
Atherosclerosis (or arteriosclerotic vascular disease) is a condition where
147
the arteries become narrowed and hardened due to an excessive build up
of plaque around the artery wall. The disease disrupts the flow of blood
around the body, posing serious cardiovascular complications. The plaque
clogs up the artery, disrupting the flow of blood around the body. This
potentially causes blood clots that can result in life-threatening
conditions such as heart attack, stroke and other cardiovascular
diseases is the usual cause of heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral
vascular disease — what together are called “cardiovascular disease.”
Carbon monoxide exposure has been implicated in the process of
atherosderosis. Coronary Heart disease, where platelets: components in
the blood—stick together along with proteins to form clots which can
then get stuck in the plaque in the walls of arteries and cause heart
attacks. The most common symptoms of coronary artery disease are
angina (say “ANN-juh-nuh” or “ann- JY-nuh”) and shortness of breath when
exercising or doing other vigorous activity. Women are somewhat more
likely than men to have other symptoms like nausea and back or jaw pain.
7. Cigarette Smoking to Disease and Early Death Cigarette smoking began
en masse in the beginning of the twentieth century, and doctors started
noticing a huge increase in cases of lung cancer from 1930 onwards, and
by 1950s it was declared an epidemic. For comparison, in 1912 there
were 374 lung cancer cases, and now there are over 35,000 deaths a
year, an increase of nearly 100 times.
The correlation between lung cancer and cigarette smoking is plain in the
chart– it shows the 20 year ‘lag’ between the rise of cigarettes and the
rise of lung cancer. Epidemiological data links smoking and cancer, and
up to 50% of smokers may die of smoking-related diseases.
One third of cancer deaths are as a result of cigarette smoking, and a
quarter of smokers die of lung cancer. Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease is very rare in non-smokers, less than 10% of victims are non-
smokers, and less than 2% of people with emphysema are non-smokers.
One fifth of smokers suffer from emphysema, and as a result deaths from
pneumonia and influenza are twice as high amongst smokers.
148
8. “Smoking is injurious to health”. We have heard this after and still what
we correlate it is with whether a girl is smoking or a boy is consuming
cigarette.
The disparity of gender which governs the acceptance of smoking is way
too orthodox to compare to the effects of smoking.
Although smoking may seem to give pleasure, there are numerous
disadvantages that outweigh the positive effects.
The habit of smoking cigarettes, marijuana or cigars, is one which has
developed in many people. Perceptions about smoking are diverse; some
people say it helps them relax, while others insist that it keeps them
warm and keeps their weight in check.
There are different opinions about the effects of smoking.
Smoking puts a lot of strain on the heart; a smoker’s blood pressure and
heart rate are increased ultimately causing the heart to work a lot harder
than it should. Other negative effects include damage to the body’s
respiratory system, infertility, foul breath, stained teeth and fingers, dry
cough, black lips, and a chain of cancers some of which include lung and
throat and stomach cancer.
Marijuana also known as weed is perceived by its users to have no
negative side effects and to cure certain diseases. However, the findings
of one study prove that marijuana smokers are three times more likely to
develop cancer of the head or neck than non-smokers.
Tobacco use contributes to vast number diseases that can sometimes
lead to death. Many consider the positive effects of smoking to be
worthwhile. However, it is the negative effects, most of which are long-
149
term that are not immediately noticed and can end up eating away from
the inside out.
Most people know that smoking causes cancer, heart disease, and other
major health problems. Smoking during pregnancy causes additional
health problems, including premature birth (being born too early), certain
birth defects, and infant death.
• Smoking makes it harder for a woman to get pregnant.
• Women who smoke during pregnancy are more likely than other women
to have a miscarriage.
• Smoking can cause problems with the placenta—the source of the
baby's food and oxygen during pregnancy. For example, the placenta can
separate from the womb too early, causing bleeding, which is dangerous
to the mother and baby.
Smoking during pregnancy can cause a baby to be born too early or to
have low birth weight—making it more likely that the baby will be sick
and have to stay in the hospital longer. A few babies may even die.
• Smoking during and after pregnancy is a risk factor of Sudden Infant
Death Syndrome (SIDS). SIDS is an infant death for which a cause of the
death cannot be found.
• Babies born to women who smoke are more likely to have certain birth
defects, like a cleft lip or cleft palate.
9. Although approximately 70 per cent of smokers say they want to quit,
only about 3% annually are able to do so. Behavioural economics goes a
long way in explaining why: the costs of trying to quit are both large and
immediate, while the benefits seem too distant to be a good motivator.
But behavioural economics also suggests how to design incentive
programmes to help.
Behaviour plays an important role in people's health (for example,
smoking, poor diet, lack of exercise and sexual risk-taking can cause a
large number of diseases). In addition, the evidence shows that different
patterns of behaviour are deeply embedded in people's social and
material circumstances, and their cultural context.
Interventions to change behaviour have enormous potential to alter
current patterns of disease. A genetic predisposition to disease is
difficult to alter. Social circumstances can also be difficult to change, at
least in the short to medium term. By comparison, people's behaviour —
as individuals and collectively — may be easier to change. However,
many attempts to do this have been unsuccessful, or only partially
successful.
150
Social and economic conditions can prevent people from changing their
behaviour to improve their health, and can also reinforce behaviours that
damage it.
Health inequalities are the result of a set of complex interactions,
including:
• the long-term effects of a disadvantaged social position
• differences in access to information, services and resources
• differences in exposure to risk
• lack of control over one's own life circumstances
• a health system that may reinforce social and economic inequalities.
These factors all affect people's ability to withstand the stressors —
biological, social, psychological and economic — that can trigger ill
health. They also affect the capacity to change behaviour.
151
11. (a) A is healthier than B. (b) B is a tar coated
lung.
Fill in the blanks:
1. COPD: .................................. .
2. .......................... can cause unsightly yellow-brown stains on fingers and
teeth.
3. Depression of the CNS (central nervous system) is caused
by ...........................
Ans. 1. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 2. Tar, 3. nicotine
1. Distinguish and comment on emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
2. People with COPD are also likely to experience episodes.
Ans. 1. Emphysema is a condition in which the air sacs (alveoli) at the
end of the smallest air passages (bronchioles) of the lungs are destroyed
as a result of damaging exposure.
152
Chronic bronchitis is inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes,
which carry air to and from the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs.
2. Exacerbations
Unit 11: General Principles of

Homeostasis.
QUESTIONS 1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) The tolerable pH level in human body ranges from ................ to ...................... .
(ii) .................... provides necessary ingredients for survival.
(iii) Endocrine system consists of ..................... which secretes hormones.
(iv) ............................ is a response in which the system functions in a way to reverse
the direction of change.
(v) ......................... and ................... are mechanisms to maintain temperature of body.
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Micro organisms employ .................... to surpass hostile conditions for a long time.
(ii) .................... is a type of mammal having fins and streamlined body.
(iii) ................... and ..................... influences/tends to distrub homeostatic mechanisms.
(iv) RBCs, platelets and plasma cannot pass through ........................... .
(v) .................... fishes have an antifreeze protein in the blood to prevent formation of ice crystals.

(i) pH 7.0, pH 7.8 (ii) Homeostasis
(iii) glands (iv) Negative feedback
(v) Negative feedback, Positive feedback

(i) encystment (ii) Dolphin
(iii) Heredity, Lifestyle (iv) the walls of capillaries
(v) Arctic fish
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS I. Choose whether the given statements are True (T) or False (F)
153
1. A living body ensures stable internal conditions in order to survive, grow and develop.
2. The property of living beings to maintain a constant internal environment is termed
as ‘homeostasis’.
3. Blood pressure is the measure of the force of blood pushing against blood vessel walls.
4. The endocrine system controls the activities of body parts by reacting quickly to external
and internal stimuli.
5. Organisms living in various habitats need different adaptations in order
to maintain homeostasis.
6. Behavioural adaptations are related to the working of an organism’s metabolism.
7. The chemical messengers secreted from the endocrine system affect on specific target organs.
8. The thick fur layer on skin of polar bears protects them from sunlight.
9. Whales migrating to oceanic waters can maintain a constant body temperature.
10. Colonial animals, if being separated, can survive easily in their habitats.
11. Camel’s hump is an adaptation to store water in desert climate.
1. An example of positive feedback mechanism is:
(a) maintaining stable blood glucose levels
(b) the production of milk in a nursing mother
(c) maintaining a stable body temperature
(d) all of the above
2. Which hormone increases the glucose level in the blood?
(a) glucose (b) glucagon
(c) insulin (d) glycogen
3. Which is the proper sequence of events in maintaining homeostasis?
(a) Signal, Receptor, Stimulus, Response
(b) Stimulus, Response, Signal, Receptor
(c) Receptor, Stimulus, Signal, Response
(d) Stimulus, Receptor, Signal, Response
4. Which is an example of negative feedback?
(a) maintaining stable blood glucose levels
(b) the production of milk in a nursing mother
(c) contractions of the uterus during childbirth
(d) all of the above
5. The principal systems controlling and regulating body activities are:
(a) nervous and respiratory system (b) endocrine and digestive system
(c) nervous and endocrine system (d) respiratory and digestive system
6. Which of the following statements best describes homeostasis?
(a) keeping the body in a fixed and unaltered state
(b) dynamic equilibrium
(c) maintaining a relative constant internal environment
(d) altering the external environment to accommodate the body’s needs
7. Tissue fluid is different from blood in terms of:
(a) red blood cells (b) platelets
154
(c) plasma proteins (d) all of the above
8. The human body’s “thermostat” is found in:
(a) nervous system (b) integumentary system
(c) endocrine system (d) urinary system
9. Which statement is not correct about calcium homeostasis?
(a) parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium level
(b) calcitonin decreases calcium levels in blood
(c) both hormones (PTH and calcitonin) are secreted by same gland
(d) calcium regulation is an example of negative feedback mechanism
10. Which statement is correct about vasopressin?
(a) an increase in secretion of vasopressin decreases fluid volume in the body
(b) a decrease in secretion of vasopressin increases fluid volume in the body
(c) an increase in secretion of vasopressin increases fluid volume in the body
(d) none of the above
III. Long Questions
1. Giving suitable examples, in your own words, explain the significance of a constant
internal environment.
2. State the factors that must be kept constant in the internal environment of the body.
3. Discuss the role of the negative feedback mechanism.
4. Explain the feedback mechanism in relation to the endocrine and nervous system.
5. What are the main internal and external causes of change in the internal environment?
6. Describe the formation, composition and movement of tissue fluid in relation to blood
and lymphs.
7. Giving examples, relate organisms’ ways of life to their environmental conditions.
8. How do pollutants alter homeostasis of an organism? What role does homeostasis play in
environmental protection?
ANSWERS TO THE STUDENT'S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT

1. True; A living body ensures stable internal conditions in order to
survive, grow and develop. The homeostatic mechanisms are inevitable
for proper functioning of the body.
2. True; All living organisms have an ability to maintain stable internal
conditions. It requires continuous adjustments to the changes occurring
in both internal and external environment. This self regulating property of
living beings to maintain a constant internal environment is termed as
‘homeostasis’
155
3. True; Blood pressure is the measure of the force of blood pushing
against blood vessel walls. The heart pumps blood into the arteries (blood
vessels), which carry the blood throughout the body.
4. False; The nervous system controls the activities of body parts by
reacting quickly to external and internal stimuli. The endocrine system
regulates those activities slowly but its effects are long lasting.
5. True; Organisms living in various habitats need different adaptations in
order to maintain homeostasis. The animals adapt to such changes in
their environment which threatens their chances of survival.
6. False; Physiological adaptations are related to the working of an
organism’s metabolism. These adaptations enable the organism to
regulate their bodily functions, such as breathing and temperature, and
performly special functions like excreting chemicals as a defence
mechanism.
7. True; These chemical messengers are known as hormones which
regulate body activities.
8. False; The thick fur (and fat layer beneath) on the skin insulates the
body and prevents heat loss.
9. True; Whales are endothermic and can survive in different water
temperatures.
10. False; Colonial habit is an adaptation to obtain food and survive
predation.
11. False; Camel’s hump store fat which get metabolized during long
periods when camel do not eat.

1. (b); Production of milk (lactation) occurs in nursing mother by the
action of baby sucking. It stimulates hypothalamus which produce
oytocin (a hormone) and sends it to posterior pituitory gland. This
stimulates milk letdown. More the baby suckles, more the milk is
produced.
2. (b); Glucagon increases the level of blood glucose by converting stored
glycogen into glucose.
3. (d); Stimulus is received by receptor which transmit the signal to
control the centre which further signals to effectors for response.
4. (a); Blood glucose levels are maintained by insulin and glucagon which
functions in opposite. Insulin is released when glucose level are high
while in low blood glucose, glucagon is released.
5. (c); Nervous system controls body activities rapidly and endocrine
system regulates the activities slowly but long lasting.
156
6. (c); Homeostasis maintain constant internal conditions by keeping the
fluctuating factors within tolerable limits.
7. (d); Blood contains red blood cells, platelets and plasma proteins which
remain within the blood capillaries and only plasma gets exuded in the
tissue spaces.
8. (a); “Thermostat” or hypothalamus is a part of nervous system (brain)
which controls key homeostatic processes such as regulation of body
temperature.
9. (c); Parathyroid hormone is released from parathyroid glands while
Calcitonin is released from thyroid gland.
10. (c); An increase in vasopressin will increase the fluid volume by acting
on kidneys which helps in retention of water and reduction of urine
output.
III. Long answers:
1. All living organisms have an ability to maintain stable internal
conditions. It requires continuous adjustments to the changes
occuring in both internal and external environment. This self-
regulating property of living beings to maintain a constant internal
environment is termed as ‘homeostasis’ (‘homeo’, “similar,” and
‘stasis’, “stable”). Homeostasis is a key concept in the
understanding of biological mechanisms that play an important role
in survival of individual cells, to an entire body.
A living body ensures stable internal conditions in order to survive, grow

and develop. The homeostatic mechanisms are inevitable for proper
functioning of the body. Many systems of the body operate together to
maintain a steady state. The cells, tissues, and organs may perform very
different functions; however, all the cells in the body are similar in their
157
metabolic needs. Homeostasis continuously provides the necessary
ingredients of survival, for example, oxygen and nutrients to cells and
thus, to complete body. The metabolic activities and cellular processes
can continue even though the external environment fluctuates
substantially. Therefore, the regulation of an optimal internal environment
enables an organism to live in wider range of environmental conditions.
2. Homeostasis can be considered as dynamic equilibrium rather than a
constant, unchanging state. The body mechanisms maintain various
fluctuating physical and chemical variables within tolerable limits. These
important variables include temperature, glucose, pH, water, ions,
respiratory gases and osmotic pressure of body fluids among others.
Some principal homeostatic mechanisms in humans to the kept constant
are as follows:
The maintenance of a steady body temperature involves mechanisms
such as sweating or shivering. These mechanisms occur whenever the
internal body temperature becomes high or low.
The human body constantly works to maintain a normal glucose
level in blood. When glucose levels are high, a hormone called insulin is
released by beta cells of the pancreas. Insulin stimulates the conversion
of glucose as insoluble glycogen by the body cells. This lowers the
glucose concentration in the blood. A condition called as diabetes occurs
due to the deficiency of insulin in the body, due to which glucose level of
blood increases. When the blood glucose levels are low, another hormone
known as glucagon is released by the alpha cells of pancreas. Glucagon
breaks down stored glycogen in the form of glucose. The addition of
glucose in blood returns the body glucose levels to normal.
Whenever the water content of the blood and lymph fluid gets low, it is
restored initially by extracting water from the cells. Also, the throat and
mouth becomes dry. These symptoms of thirst motivate humans to drink
water.
When high amount of salt and ions are present in the body, the kidneys
produce concentrated urine. This process removes extra amount of salt
and ions while conserving water, and returns the body to normal
metabolic range. In contrast, when the salt and ions concentration is low
in the human body, kidneys produce dilute urine and conserve salt and
ions.
A change in breathing and heart rate occurs in humans due to various
activities like exercise. As a result, the amount of carbon dioxide
produced and oxygen demand in the body increases. The heart rate
increases so that the blood flows rapidly to the tissues to fulfill the
oxygen requirement and remove the carbon dioxide from the cells. Also,
158
the speed and depth of breathing increases. The body work to normalize
breathing and heart rate when activity stops.
The pH of the blood is regulated at 7.365 (a measure of alkalinity

and acidity). The tolerable lower and upper limit for a human body is
about pH 7.0 and pH 7.8, respectively. To prevent a change in the pH, all
body fluids, including cell cytoplasm are buffered (buffer is a chemical or
a combination of chemicals) absorbing either hydrogen ions (H+) or
hydroxide ions.
pressure to fall back to its normal range. The opposite would happen
when blood pressure decreases, leading to vasoconstriction (decrease in
diameter of blood vessel) .
Several factors/conditions interfere with the normal process of regulation
of blood pressure. Smoking, obesity, high salt concentration in diet,
alcohol consumption, stress, hormonal disorders affect the heart and
blood vessels. This leads to high blood pressure or hypertension which
cause the heart to work harder to pump blood in the body. This can
further damage the heart, blood vessels and other organs. Negative
159
feedback mechanisms are most common in living organisms, working in a
specific manner sequence.
4. In the human body, all the organs and organ systems are controlled by
nervous and endocrine systems. The nervous system controls the
activities of body parts by reacting quickly to external and internal
stimuli. The endocrine system regulates those activities slowly but its
effects are long lasting. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain (nervous
control center) located just above the brain stem and consists of a group
of neurons that forms the primary link between the nervous system and
the endocrine system. This small part of the brain is responsible for
regulating many key body processes, including internal body temperature,
hunger, thirst, blood pressure, and daily body rhythms.
160
Nervous system consists of receptive nerve cells which transmit the
signal to the brain which in turn command the effector nerve cells,
muscles and glands to respond. For instance, humans maintain a
constant body temperature, usually about 37.4°C. It increases during the
day by about 0.8°C and decrease slightly during sleeping. The core body
temperature is usually about 0.7–1.0°C higher than skin or axillary
temperature. A change in temperature is sensed by receptors found in the
skin, veins, abdominal organs and hypothalamus. The receptors in the
skin provide the sensation of cold and transmit this information to brain.
The brain process and commands for the vasoconstriction of blood
vessels in the skin and limb. This drops the surface temperature,
providing an insulating layer (fat cell) between the core temperature and
the external environment. The major adjustment in cold is shivering to
increase the metabolic heat production. On the contrary, if the body
temperature rises, blood flow to the skin increases, maximizing the
potential for heat loss by radiation and evaporation.
The endocrine system consists of glands which secrete hormones into
the bloodstream. Each hormone has an effect on one or more target
tissues. In this way, it regulates the metabolism and development of most
body cells and its systems through feedback mechanisms, mostly
negative. For example, when blood calcium becomes too low, calcium-
sensing receptors in the parathyroid gland become activated. This results
in the release of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH), which acts to increase
blood calcium by release from the bones. This hormone also causes
calcium to be re-absorbed from urine and the gastrointestinal tract.
Calcitonin, released from the thyroid gland function in reverse manner,
i.e., decreasing calcium levels in the blood by causing more calcium to be
fixed in bones. Both the nervous and endocrine system of the human body
coordinate to ensure a balance between fluid gained and fluid loss. The
ADH (Anti-diuretic Hormone) or vasopressin is the principal compound
that controls water balance by decreasing water output by the kidney.
Vasopressin is formed in the hypothalamus and get stored in the posterior
pituitary (a part of endocrine system). If the body becomes fluid-deficient,
osmoreceptors (monitor blood plasma osmolality) in the hypothalamus
signals for the release of vasopressin from posterior pituitary. An
increase in the secretion of vasopressin causes retention of fluid by the
kidneys and subsequent reduction in urine output. Conversely, if fluid
levels are excessive, release of vasopressin is suppressed resulting in
less retention of fluid and resulting increase in the volume of urine
produced.
5. Homeostasis is maintained through a series of control mechanisms.
When homeostatic process is interrupted, the body can correct or worsen
161
the problem, based on certain influences. There are internal and external
causes influencing the body’s ability to maintain homeostatic balance.
Internal Causes:
Heredity Genetic/Reproductive: A variety of diseases and disorders
occurs due to the change in the structure and function of genes. For
example, cancer can be genetically inherited or can be induced due to a
gene mutation from an external source such as UV radiation or harmful
drugs. Another disorder, Type 1 diabetes, occurs due to the lack or
inadequate production of insulin by the pancreas to respond to changes in
a person’s blood glucose level.
External Causes
Lifestyle Nutrition: A diet lacking specific vitamin or mineral leads to the
cellular malfunction. A menstruating woman with iron deficiency will
become anaemic. As iron is required for haemoglobin, an oxygen
transport protein present in red blood cells, the blood of an anaemic
woman will have reduced oxygen-carrying capacity.
Physical Activity: Physical activity is essential for proper functioning of
our cells and bodies. Adequate rest and exercise are examples of
activities that influence homeostasis. Lack of sleep causes ailments such
as irregular cardiac (heart) rhythms, fatigue, anxiety and headaches.
Overweight and obesity are related to poor nutrition and lack of physical
activity greatly affects many organ systems and their homeostatic
mechanisms. It increases a person’s risk of developing heart disease,
Type 2 diabetes, and certain forms of cancer.
Mental Health: Both the physical and mental health is inseparable.
Negative stress (also called distress) leads to thoughts and emotions
harmful for homeostatic mechanisms in the body.
6. The blood supplies nutrients and essential metabolites to the cells of a
tissue and collects back the waste products. This exchange of respective
constituents between the blood and tissue cells occurs through
interstitial fluid or tissue fluid formed by the blood. The fluid occupies the
spaces between the cells known as tissue spaces. It is the main
component of the extracellular fluid, which also includes plasma and
transcellular fluid. On an average, a person has about 10 litres of
interstitial fluid making 16% of the total body weight.
Formation
The formation of the tissue fluid is based on the difference in pressure of
flowing (Starling’s law) of blood through capillaries. A hydrostatic
pressure is produced at the arterial end of blood capillaries which is
generated by the heart. This results in expulsion of water and other
solutes (known as plasma) from capillaries except blood proteins (like
162
serum albumin). This retention of solutes in capillaries creates water
potential. The osmotic pressure (water moves from a region of high to low
concentration) tends to drives water back into the capillaries in an
attempt to reach equilibrium. At the arterial end, the hydrostatic pressure
is greater than the osmotic pressure, so the net movement favours water
along with solutes being passed into the tissue fluid. At the venous end,
the osmotic pressure is greater, so the net movement favours tissue fluid
being passed back into the capillary. The equilibrium is never attained
because of the difference in the direction of the flow of blood and the
solutes imbalance created by the net movement of water.
Composition
As the blood and the surrounding cells continually add and remove
substances from the interstitial fluid, its composition continually
changes. Water and solutes can pass between the interstitial fluid and
blood via diffusion across gaps in capillary walls called intercellular
clefts; thus, the blood and interstitial fluid are in dynamic equilibrium with
each other. Generally, tissue fluid consists of a water solvent containing
sugars, salts, fatty acids, amino acids, coenzymes, hormones,
neurotransmitters, as well as metabolic waste products from the cells.
Not all of the contents of the blood pass into the tissue, which means that
tissue fluid and blood are not the same. Red blood cells, platelets, and
plasma proteins cannot pass through the walls of the capillaries. The
resulting mixture that does pass through is, in essence, blood plasma
without the plasma proteins. Tissue fluid also contains some types of
white blood cells, which help to combat infection.
Movement
To prevent a buildup of tissue fluid surrounding the cells in the tissue, the
lymphatic system plays an important role in its transport. Tissue fluid can
pass into the surrounding lymph vessels where it is then considered as
lymph. The lymphatic system returns protein and excess interstitial fluid
to the blood circulation. Thus, it is transported through the lymph vessels
to lymph nodes and ultimately with blood in the venous system, and tends
to accumulate more cells (particularly, lymphocytes) and proteins.
7. Every organism has certain features or characteristics which enables it
to live successfully in its particular habitat. These features are called
adaptations, and the organism is said to be adapted to its habitat.
Organisms living in various habitats need different adaptations in order to
maintain homeostasis. The animals adapt to such changes in their
environment which threatens their chances of survival. The main threats
are temperature, lack of water and food. Besides the environmental
threats, many animals also need to be able to defend themselves from
163
predators and pathogens. Different organisms have adapted to the great
diversity of habitats and distinct conditions in the environment.
Although, the adaptations are many and varied, they can be categorized
into mainly three types: Structural, physiological and behavioural.
Structural Adaptations
Structural (or morphological) adaptations are the physical features of the
organism. It includes shapes or body covering as well as its internal
organisation. Microscopic organisms which include protozoans and
bacteria employ encystment (a state of suspended form, separated by the
outside world by a solid cell wall) to surpass hostile conditions for long
periods of time, even millions of years. Larger animals like polar bears are
well adapted for survival in the cold climate of Arctic region. They have a
white appearance to camouflage from prey on the snow and ice. Also,
polar bear have thick layers of fat and fur, for insulation against the cold
and a greasy coat which sheds water after swimming.
Dolphins are fish-like mammals have streamlined shape and fins instead
of legs. They also have blowholes on the tops of their heads for breathing,
rather than their mouth and nose. Desert animals like camels have many
adaptations that allow them to live successfully in hot and dry conditions.
They have long eyelashes and nostrils that can close and open to prevent
entry of sand. Thick eyebrows shield the eyes from the desert sun.
Camels store fat in the hump which can be metabolised for energy. A
camel can go a week or more without water, and they can last for several
months without food. Their huge feet help them to walk on sand without
sinking into it. Similarly, the long necks of giraffes allow them to feed
among treetops and spot predators. Also, they have tough and long
tongues (upto 18 inches) enabling to pull leaves from branches without
being hurt by the thorns. Spotted coat camouflages giraffes among the
trees. In tropical areas, natural radiators are an efficient way of lowering
the body’s temperature: for instance, the ears of the elephant and the
rabbit are full of blood vessels, helping the animal cool its body in the
heat. Rabbits living in Arctic areas have smaller ears.
Physiological Adaptations
Physiological adaptations are related to the working of an organism’s
metabolism. These adaptations enable the organism to regulate their
body functions, such as breathing and temperature, and performly special
functions like excreting chemicals as a defence mechanism (Sea stars).
Chameleon (a reptile) changes colour or body markings in order to blend
into its surroundings. Marine mammals such as whales are
endothermic/warm blooded (able to maintain a constant body
temperature). They cope with the temperature changes during migration
164
over large distances and can spend time in arctic, tropical and temperate
waters. In opposite, Arctic fish (cold-blooded animals) lives easily in
temperatures lower to sub-zero level. Such temperatures results in the
formation of ice crystals in the organism’s cells that may cause
irreversible damage and ultimately, death. However, arctic fishes living in
the same freezing waters survives due to an antifreeze protein in the
blood that prevents ice crystals formation in their cells and maintains
metabolic functions.
Behavioural Adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are learned that help organisms to survive. The
whales produce sounds that allow them to communicate, navigate and
hunt prey. Bears hibernate or ‘sleep’ through the coldest part of the year.
Bryozoans are water dwelling small individual animals found in colonies
in high numbers on the continental shelf in New Zealand. These animals
band together for collecting food and survive predation. Penguins are the
flightless birds found in the oceans around Antarctica. During extreme
winter, Emperor penguins show social behaviour by huddling together in
groups comprising several thousand penguins to stay warm.
8. Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains normal
conditions for things like temperature, heart rate and growth rate.
Environmental pollution can dramatically affect homeostasis because
chemical pollutants can behave like hormones, the molecules that organs
use to "talk" to each other. Homeostasis can be affected in many ways.
These include direct damage to the organs involved in maintaining
homeostasis, mimicry of hormones that control homeostasis, and
deficiencies in vitamins that are needed to maintain healthy organs.
Disruption of homeostasis by environmental pollution can result in
cancer, neurological diseases and breathing problems. Organisms need to
be able to maintain nearly constant internal environments in order to
survive, grow and function effectively. Homeostatic mechanisms resist
the changes to the organism's internal environment. These complex
mechanisms are specific to each individual factor, and act via one of two
distinct pathways: positive and negative feedback. In the yeast species,
Internal pH, water potential and temperature are among the many factors
whereby homeostatic maintenance is vital for normal cell function.
Cells depend on the body environment to live and function. Homeostasis
keeps the body environment under control and keeps the conditions right
for cells to
live and function. Without the right body conditions, certain processes
(e.g., osmosis) and proteins (e.g., enzymes) will not function properly.
165
Living cells depend on the movement of chemicals around the body.
Chemicals such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and dissolved food need to be
transported into and out of cells. This is done by the processes of
diffusion and osmosis, and these processes depend on the body’s water
and salt balance, which are maintained by homeostasis.
Cells depend on enzymes to speed up the many chemical reactions that
keep the cell alive and make it do its job. These enzymes work best at
particular temperatures, and so again homeostasis is vital to cells as it
maintains a constant body temperature.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ............ mechanisms are inevitable for proper functioning of the body.
2. The human body constantly works to maintain a normal ............ level in
blood.
3. In the human body, all the organs and organ systems are controlled
by ............ and ............ systems.
Ans. 1. homeostatic, 2. glucose, 3. nervous, endocrine
Answer in one word:
1. Responds to the command of the control centre by either opposing or
enhancing the change.
2. A feature or characteristic of an organism which helps in its survival in
a particular habitat.
3. A response system which amplifies the change in the variable.
Ans. 1. Effector, 2. Adaptation, 3. Positive feedback
166
Unit 12: Regulation of Glucose
QUESTION 1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................... is a homopolymer of glucose synthesized in liver cells.
(ii) Complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose yields ..................... molecules of ATP.
(iii) The liver consists of four distinct lobes ....................., ......................, .................,
and ...................... .
(iv) The endocrine pancreas consists of highly vascularized groups of cells called .......................... .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Insulin was first discovered in 1922 by ...................... .
(ii) Glucagen is secreted by ....................... cells of pancreatic islets.
(iii) Epinephrine commonly known as ....................... .
(iv) Hormone .................... enhances glycogenolysis and increases concentration of glucose in the
blood.
(v) ............................. catalyzes the formation of cycle AMP.
(vi) ............................ activates glucagon phosphorylase and initiates the glycogenolysis.
3.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Hyperglycaemia is the condition when the blood glucose level is below ....................... .
(ii) .................... is caused due to insufficient insulin production by beta cells.
(iii) A ........................... diet is important to regulate glucose level in body.
(iv) The test strip or dipstick contains the reagents ..................... and .......................... .
(v) The presence of glucose in urine is called ......................... .

(i) Glycogen
(ii) 38
(iii) left, right, caudate, guadrate
(iv) lstets of langerhans

(i) Banting and Best
(ii) alpha
(iii) adrenaline
(iv) Cortisol
167
(v) Adenylate cyclase
(vi) Glucagon

(i) ~70 mg/dL
(ii) Insuline dependent diabetes mellitus
(iii) controlled
(iv) glucose oxidase, hexokinase
(v) glycosuria
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
I. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. Excess glucose in the body is stored in the form of glycogen.
2. Trypsin is an enzyme used for carbohydrate digestion.
3. Bile salt is secreted by exocrine liver.
4. Glucagon is secreted by pancreas in response to high blood glucose concentration.
5. Insulin administration is recommended for person with type II diabetes mellitus.
6. Type I diabetes mellitus is cause due to insufficient secretion of insulin by beta cells.
7. Ketone bodies are formed when our body have excessive fat metabolism.
8. Hyperinsulinaemia is associated with type II diabetes mellitus.
9. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glucose to form pyruvate.
10. The binding of hormones to receptors activates cAMP.
1. Which of the following monosaccharides is not a product of carbohydrate metabolism
in our body?
(a) Glucose (b) Fructose
(c) Ribose (d) Galactose
2. One molecule of glucose yield …………………… molecules of ATP.
(a) 34 (b) 36
(c) 38 (d) 40
3. Which of the following is not a part of portal triad?
(a) Central vein (b) Hepatic artery
(c) Hepatic portal vein (d) Bile duct.
4. Somatostatin is secreted by
(a) Alpha cells (b) Beta cells
(c) Delta cells (d) F cells
5. The process of formation of glucose from non-carbohydrates source in the body is known as
(a) Glycogenesis (b) Gluconeogenesis
168
(c) Glycolysis (d) Glycogenolysis
6. Which of the following hormone is responsible for decreasing blood glucose level?
(a) Glucagon (b) Insulin

(c) Somatostastin (d) Adrenaline
7. Which of the following compound is not a ketone body?
(a) Acetoacetic acid (b) Hydroxybutyric acid
(c) Acetone (d) Citric acid
8. In the digestive tract, fructose is absorbed inside the epithelial cells of intestine through
(a) GLUT1 (b) GLUT3
(c) GLUT5 (d) SGLUT2
9. The enzyme used in the dipstick for testing concentration of glucose is
(a) Glucose oxidase (b) Glycogen phosphorylase
(c) Glucose phosphatase (d) Glucosidase
10. Hypoglycemia is the condition when the blood glucose level reach
(a) Above 140 mg/Dl (b) Below 140 mg/dL
(c) Above 70 mg/dL (d) Below 70 mg/dL
III. Long Questions
1. Glucose is the most important carbohydrate in our body. Justify the statement.
2. Describe the negative feedback mechanism with an example.
3. Describe the functions of liver and pancreas in regulating blood glucose level.
4. What are the causes of sugar imbalance in our body?
5. What is diabetes mellitus? Discuss its cause and effect.
6. Discuss in brief the importance of urine analysis in diagnosis diabetes mellitus.
7. How does glucose regulation effect aging? What possible effects can regulation
of glucose have on health of an organism?
8. In your own words, describe three main stages of cell signalling in control of blood glucose by
adrenalling.

1. True; Excess glucose in blood is converted into glycogen through
glycogenesis in liver.
2. False; Trypsin digests proteins not carbohydrates. Amylase is a
carbohydrate digesting enzyme.
3. True; Bile salt is secreted to bile duct which empties into intestine and
helps in digestion.
4. True; Glucagon activates glycogenesis in liver and muscle cells and
reduces the blood glucose level.
169
5. False; Type II diabetes is caused due to reduced sensitivity of insulin
and not due to insufficient insulin secretion.
6. True; Type I diabetes mellitus is caused due to insufficient insulin
production by the beta cells or absence of beta cells in the pancreatic
islet.
7. True; The excess Acetyl-CoA formed during lipid metabolism is
converted to ketone bodies.
8. True; Due to insulin resistance developed in receptor cells, beta cells
secrete large amount of insulin which leads to increase in concentration
of insulin in blood.
9. False; Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
10. True; cAMP is a second messenger compound present inside the cells
which is activated by the binding of hormones to its receptor.

1. (c); Ribose is formed glucose through Pentose Phosphate Pathway
(PPP).
2. (c); Overall, 38 molecules of ATP (2 from glycolysis, 2 from Kreb’s cycle
and 34 from oxidative phosphorylation) are produced during the
metabolism of a single molecule of glucose.
3. (a); Central vein lies in the centre of the liver lobule surrounded by six
portal triads.
4. (c); Delta cells secrete Somatostatin which regulates both alpha and
beta cells.
5. (b); Gluconeogenesis is the process of biosynthesis of glucose from
non-carbo-hydrates source like amino acids, pyruvate etc.
6. (b); Insulin increases the glucose uptake by body cells.
7. (d); The ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid (diacetic acid),
hydroxybutyric acid and acetone.
8. (c); GLUT1, GLUT3 and SGLUT2 are all glucose transporter proteins.
GLUT5 is responsible for fructose transportation.
9. (a); Glycogen phosphorylase is responsible for glycogenolysis,
Glucosidase is glycogen debranching enzyme while Glucose phosphatase
convert glucose-6- phosphate back to glucose. Glucose oxidase oxidise
glucose to form gluconic acid and H 2O2 which react with chromogen to
give colour to the test.
10. (d); Hypoglycemia is a condition of low blood sugar when the blood
sugar level falls below 70 mg/dL.
170
1. Glucose is one of the most important carbohydrates molecules in our
body. Body requires glucose to carry out some of its most important
functions. Glucose is synthesized in green plants, from carbon dioxide,
CO2 and water, H2O with the help of energy from sunlight. This process is
known as photosynthesis. The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction i.e.,
breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide
and water releasing the energy, is the main source of power for all the
living organisms. The excess glucose in plants is stored in the form of
starch which serves as foods for various animals.
Glucose as Energy Source
Almost 80 per cent of carbohydrates in our food are converted to glucose
during digestion in the alimentary canal. Fructose and galactose is the
other main product of carbohydrates digestion. After absorption from the
alimentary tract, fructose and galactose are converted into glucose in the
liver. And therefore, glucose constitutes more than 95 per cent of all the
carbohydrates circulating in the blood.
Body cells require glucose continuously for its various metabolic
activities. These cells directly absorb glucose from the blood. Once inside
the cells, glucose combines with a phosphate moiety to form Glucose-6-
phosphate with the help of enzyme glucokinase in liver and hexokinase in
most other cells. This phosphorylation reaction is irreversible and helps
to retain the glucose inside the cells. However, in liver cells, renal tubular
epithelial cells and intestinal epithelial cells, an enzyme glucose
phosphatase converts the glucose-6-phosphate back to glucose.
Complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose into carbon dioxide and

water inside the cells produce as many as 38 molecules of ATP (2 from
glycolysis, 2 from Kreb’s cycle and 34 from oxidative phosphorylation).
Glucose as Structural Component
As we discussed above, glucose is the main source of energy in all the
living cells. Besides being regarded as the universal fuel, glucose also
acts as the source of carbon for all the carbon containing compounds of
the body. For example, ribose, a pentose monosaccharides used in the
synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids is synthesized from glucose
through Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP). Other important compounds
include, glycoprotein, a protein with oligosaccharide chains (glycans)
covalently attached to their polypeptide side chain; proteoglycans, a
special class of glycoproteins which contain about 95% polysaccharide
171
(glycosaminoglycans) and 5% protein and various other polysaccharides
like cellulose, chitin, glycogen etc.
2. Negative feedback is an important regulatory mechanism for
physiological function in all living cells. It occurs when a reaction is
inhibited by increase concentration of the product. Regulation of
blood glucose level is an excellent example of homeostatic control
through negative feedback mechanism.
Negative feeback regulation of blood glucose level by insulin and

glucagon.
Response to an Increase in Blood Glucose

When there is increase in blood glucose level, the beta cells of the
pancreatic islets of lingerhans increase the release of insulin into the
blood. Insulin binds to receptors on the cell membrane and stimulates the
cell to increase the number of glucose transporters. As the number of
transporters increased, more glucose is transported into cells. This led to
decrease in blood glucose level. Besides, insulin also stimulates
glycogenesis and glycolysis while inhibiting glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis, lipolysis etc. which all contributes in reducing blood
glucose levels.
172
Response to a Decrease in Blood Glucose
As the blood glucose level drops, the alpha cells of pancreas islets
increase the secretion of glucagon. Glucagon activates enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase in the liver and muscle cells which start glycogenolysis. It
also promotes gluconeogenesis, lipid metabolism etc. The overall effect
of glucagon is increase in the concentration of blood glucose.
3. Pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ, located in the abdominal
region, behind the stomach and next to the duodenum - the first part of
the small intestine. The right side of the organ, called the head, is the
widest part of the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum. The
tapered left side which extends slightly upward is the body of the
pancreas. The tail of the pancreas ends near the spleen.
Structure and Function of Pancreas
Pancreas has two main functional components:
1. The Exocrine cells, the acini - cells that release digestive enzymes into
the gut via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes include trypsin and
chymotrypsin to digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of
carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats. The pancreatic duct joins
the common bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater in the duodenum. The
pancreatic juices and bile (from gall bladder) released into the duodenum
help the body to digest fats, carbohydrates as well as proteins.
2. The Endocrine pancreas – highly vascularized groups of cells known as
the Islets of Langerhans within the exocrine tissue constitute the
endocrine pancreas. The human pancreas has 1-2 millions islets of
Langerhans. It contains four different types of cells which are
distinguished from one another by their morphology and staining
characteristics;
• Alpha cells: Which secrete glucagon, constitute about 25 per cent of all
the cells of islet of langerhans.
• Beta cells: The most abundant of the islet cells constituting about 60%
of the cells. It releases insulin and amylin (a hormone with unknown
function, secreted in parallel to the insulin).
Delta cells: Constitute about 10 per cent of total cells and secrete
somatostatin which regulates both the alpha and beta cells.
• F cells or PP cells: It is present in small number and secretes a
polypeptide known as pancreatic polypeptide which inhibits the digestive
enzymes produced by the exocrine pancreas.
Insulin and glucagon are the major hormones responsible for the
regulation of blood glucose. Both insulin and glucagon are secreted by
the pancreas, and are referred to as pancreatic endocrine hormones.
Insulin
173
Insulin is released in response to increase in the concentration of blood
glucose. In the blood, it circulates entirely in an unbound form with
plasma half-life of about 6 minutes. Only a small portion of the insulin
binds with the receptors of the target cells while the rest is degraded by
the enzyme insulinase, mainly in liver and to a lesser extends in kidney
and muscles.
Function of Insulin
The level of glucose in the blood increases rapidly after meal with high
carbohydrates content which stimulate the pancreatic beta cells to
increase secretion of insulin. Insulin in turn increases the rate of glucose
uptake, storage and utilization by almost all tissues of the body mainly in
muscles, adipose tissue and liver. Other important function of insulin
includes,
(a) Insulin promotes glycogenesis by activating enzyme glycogen
synthase.
(b) Insulin inactivates liver phosphorylase, the key enzyme of
glycogenolysis.
(c) Insulin promotes lipid synthesis by increasing the conversion of
excess glucose into fatty acids in the liver. These fatty acids are
transported as triglycerides to the adipose tissue where it is deposited as
fat.
(d) Insulin inhibits the enzymes responsible for gluconeogenesis in liver.
(e) Insulin promotes protein synthesis by increasing the rate of
transcription and translation. It also stimulates transport of many amino
acids into the cells.
(f) Insulin inhibits breakdown of lipids and proteins.
Glucagon
Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in
response to low blood glucose levels and to events whereby the body
needs additional glucose, such as in response to vigorous exercise. The
effect of glucagon in regulating blood glucose level is exactly opposite of
insulin.
Functions of Glucagon
1. Glycogenolysis: The most important function of glucagon is activation
of glycogen phosphorylase enzyme responsible for degradation of
glycogen to glucose-6-phosphates. The glucose-6-phosphate is then
dephosphorylated to form glucose and finally released into the blood
stream. The activation of glucose phosphorylase enzymes by glucagon
involves the following steps;
174
(a) Glucagon activates the adenylyl cyclase in the hepatic cell membrane
to form cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
(b) The cAMP activates protein kinase regulator protein, which in turns
activates protein kinase.
(c) Protein kinase activates phosphorylase b kinase.
(d) Finally, the phosphorylase b kinase converts phosphorylase b into
phosphorylase a (glycogen phosphorylase) which starts glycogenolysis.
2. Gluconeogenesis: In the liver cells, glucagon increases the rate of
amino acid uptake and conversion into glucose.
3. Glucagon activates adipose cell lipase enzyme which stimulates lipids
metabolism.
4. Glucagon also inhibits the storage of triglycerides in the liver by
preventing the liver from removing fatty acids from the blood.
5. Glucagon also enhances the strength of the heart; increases blood flow
in some tissues, especially the kidneys; enhances bile secretion; and
inhibits gastric acid secretion.
4. Our body obtains glucose from various foods. It can also synthesis
glucose in the liver and muscles from other compounds like pyruvate,
lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The blood carries glucose
to all the cells in the body where it is metabolized to produce energy.
Blood sugar levels keep on fluctuating throughout the day increasing
after meals, stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine, or under stressful
experiences and decreasing in between meals, or as the effects of
stimulants wear off. When the blood glucose level rises beyond the
normal value, the condition is known as hyperglycemia. On the other
hand, hypoglycemia or low blood sugar is the condition in which the blood
glucose level is below normal (~70 mg/dL).
Hyperglycemia
High blood glucose level can be caused due to various reasons like,
1. Carbohydrates: Eating food containing too many carbohydrates. The
body of a person cannot process high levels of carbohydrates fast enough
to convert it into energy.
2. Insulin control: The pancreas of the individual unable to produce
enough insulin.
3. Stress: Stress stimulates the secretion of certain hormones like
cortisol and epinephrine etc. which increases the blood glucose level.
4. Low levels of exercise: Daily exercise is a critical contributor to
regulating blood sugar levels.
5. Infection, illness, or surgery: With illness, blood sugar levels tend to
rise quickly over several hours.
175
6. Other medications: Certain drugs, especially steroids, can affect blood
sugar levels.
A high blood sugar level can be a symptom of diabetes. If hyperglycemia
persists for several hours, it can lead to dehydration. Other symptoms of
hyperglycemia includes dry mouth, thirst, frequent urination, blurry vision,
dry, itchy skin, fatigue or drowsiness, weight loss, increased appetite,
difficulty breathing, dizziness upon standing, rapid weight loss, increased
drowsiness and confusion, unconsciousness or coma.
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia is generally defined as a serum glucose level below 70
mg/dL. Symptoms typically appear when the blood glucose levels reach
below 60 mg/dL and levels below 50 mg/dL can be fatal.
Common causes of low blood sugar include the following:
1. Overmedication with insulin or antidiabetic pills
2. Use of alcohol
3. Skipped meals
4. Severe infection
5. Adrenal insufficiency
6. Kidney failure
7. Liver failure etc.
Common symptoms of hypoglycemia include trembling, clammy skin,
palpitations (pounding or fast heart beats), anxiety, sweating, hunger, and
irritability. If the brain remains deprived of glucose for longer period, a
later set of symptoms can follow like difficulty in thinking, confusion,
headache, seizures, and coma. And ultimately, after significant coma or
loss of consciousness, death can occur.
5. Diabetes mellitus (commonly referred to as diabetes) is a chronic
condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar in the blood due
to impaired
carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. It can be due to absence or
insufficient production of insulin by the pancreas, or inability of the body
to properly use insulin. It is generally characterized by hyperglycemia,
glycosuria (glucose in urine), polyuria (large volume of urine), polydipsia
(excessive thirst) and polyphagia (excessive appetite). There are two
types of diabetes mellitus – Type I is caused by lack of insulin secretion
and Type II is caused by reduced sensitivity of target cells to insulin.
Type I Diabetes
It is known as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and caused due
to insufficient insulin production by the beta cells of pancreatic islet of
176
langerhans or due to absence of the beta cells itself. Since the pancreas
makes very little or no insulin at all, glucose cannot get into the body’s
cells and remain in the blood leading to hyperglycemia. The concentration
of blood glucose level can be as high as 300 – 1,200 mg/dL. The symptoms
of Type I diabetes includes
1. Loss of glucose in urine; due to increase blood glucose concentration
beyond 180 mg/dL,
2. Dehydration; due to osmotic loss of water from cells and inability to
reabsorb water in kidney),
3. Tissue injury; due to damages blood vessels in many tissues,
4. Metabolic acidosis; due to increased fat metabolism,
5. Depletion of body’s protein; due to increase protein metabolism.
Type II Diabetes
Also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), it is
caused due to the inability of cells to take up glucose from the blood. It
can be either due to defective insulin receptors over cell surfaces or
abnormality of blood plasma protein, amylin. It is associated with
increase concentration of insulin (hyperinsulinemia) in blood due to
increase secretion by the beta cells in as the insulin sensitivity of cells
decreases, a condition known as insulin resistance. Type II diabetes are
more common and account for almost 80–90 per cent of the total diabetes
mellitus cases.
The symptoms of type II diabetes include
1. Obesity, especially accumulation of abdominal fat;
2. Fasting hyperglycemia;
3. Lipid abnormalities such as increased blood triglycerides and
decreased blood high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; and
4. Hypertension.
Another form of diabetes is the diabetes insipidus which is caused due to
hyposecretion of ADH (antidiuretic hormone or vassopressin) by
hypothalamus. It is characterized by excretion of large quantity of dilute
urine (>5 litres per day). There is no increase in the blood glucose level.
6. Urine analysis can be used to test pH, protein, glucose, ketones, occult
blood, bilirubin, urobilinogen, nitrite, leukocyte esterase etc. in the urine
sample. It is one of the most important diagnostic procedures for various
body disorders. For example, a simple test for glucose in urine can be
used to diagnose diabetes mellitus. Generally, healthy persons do not
lose glucose in their urine whereas a person with diabetes mellitus loses
small to large quantities of glucose in their urine. Generally, a single test
177
doesn’t give a reliable result. Therefore, it becomes necessary to carry
out multiple urine analysis for different compounds like proteins and
ketones bodies to confirm a disorder.
The urine analysis can be simply carried out using a dipstick that is
specific for a particular test. A dipstick or the reagent strips is a narrow
strip of plastic with small pads attached to it. Each pad contains specific
reagents for a different reaction, thus allowing for the simultaneous
determination of several compounds. The colours generated on each
reagent pad vary according to the concentration of the analytes present.
The glomerular filtrate of a normal kidney contains little amount of low–
molecular weight protein. Most of these proteins get reabsorbed in the
tubules with less than 150 mg being excreted through urine per day.
Therefore, the abnormal increase in the amounts of protein in the urine,
Proteinurea, can be an important indicator of renal diseases. There are
certain physiologic conditions such as exercise and fever that can lead to
increased protein excretion in the urine in the absence of renal disease.
Proteinuria is a symptom of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which can be
due to diabetes, high blood pressure, and diseases that cause
inflammation in the kidneys. Therefore, urine analysis for protein is part
of a routine medical assessment for everyone. If CKD is not checked in
time, it can lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD), when the kidneys
completely stop functioning. A person with ESRD requires a kidney
transplant or regular blood-cleansing treatments called dialysis to further
sustain.
Ketones, or ketone bodies are formed during lipid metabolism. One of the
intermediate products of fatty acid breakdown is acetyl CoA. If the lipid
metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are in balanced, Acetyl-CoA
enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) where it reacts with
oxaloacetate to form citrate. When carbohydrate is not available in the
cells, all available oxaloacetate get converted to glucose and so none is
available for condensation with acetyl CoA. As such, Acetyl-CoA cannot
enter the Krebs cycle and is diverted to form ketone bodies.
The ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid (diacetic acid), hydroxybutyric
acid and acetone. Acetyl-CoA is first converted to acetoacetic acid which
later gets converted to other two ketones through the following reaction:
178
Hydroxybutyric acid is formed by reversible reduction, and acetone is
formed by a slow spontaneous decarboxylation. Acetoacetic acid and
hydroxybutyric acid are normal fuels of respiration and are important
sources of energy. In fact, the heart muscle and the renal cortex prefer to
use acetoacetate instead of glucose. The odour of acetone may be
detected in the breath of an individual who has a high level of ketones in
the blood because acetone is eliminated through lungs.
7. Glucose intolerance, reduced sleep efficiency, and disturbed circadian
rhythmicity occur in ageing. In normal young subjects, glucose regulation
is modulated by sleep and circadian rhythmicity. To examine age-related
alterations in the temporal pattern of glucose tolerance and insulin
secretion, eight modestly overweight healthy older men, eight weight-
matched young men, and six young lean men were studied during
constant glucose infusion for 53 h. Levels of glucose, insulin, C-peptide,
and growth hormone (GH) were measured every 20 min. Rates of insulin
and GH secretion were calculated by deconvolution. In older volunteers,
sleep was shallow and more fragmented than in young subjects but was
nevertheless associated with robust glucose elevations. However, post-
sleep increases of insulin secretion were markedly dampened. During
wakefulness, the normal morning-to-evening increase in glucose was
preserved in the elderly, but insulin secretion failed to increase
proportionately. Thus, decreased glucose tolerance in ageing is
associated with insulin resistance and also with a relative insensitivity of
the beta-cell to the modulation of glucose regulation by sleep and
circadian rhythmicity.
In a healthy person, blood glucose levels are restored to normal levels
primarily through the actions of two pancreatic hormones, namely insulin
and glucagon.
If blood glucose levels rise (for example, during the fed or absorptive
state, when a meal is digested and the nutrient molecules are being
absorbed and used), the beta cells of the pancreas respond by secreting
insulin. Insulin has several notable effects: (1) it stimulates most body
cells to increase their rate of glucose uptake (transport) from the blood;
(2) it increases the cellular rate of glucose utilization as an energy
source; (3) it accelerates the formation of glycogen from glucose in liver
and skeletal muscle cells; and (4) it stimulates fat synthesis (from
glucose) in liver cells and adipose (fat) tissue. These effects collectively
cause a decrease in blood glucose levels back to normal levels.
If blood glucose levels fall below normal levels (for instance, during the
post-absorptive or fasting state, when nutrients from a recently digested
meal are no longer circulating in the blood, or during starvation), insulin
179
secretion is inhibited and, at the same time, the alpha cells of the
pancreas respond by secreting glucagon, a hormone that has several
important effects: (1) it accelerates the breakdown of glycogen to
glucose in liver and skeletal muscle cells; (2) it increases the breakdown
of fats to fatty acids and glycerol in adipose tissue and, consequently, the
release of these substances into the blood (which cells can thus use for
energy); and (3) it stimulates liver cells to increase glucose synthesis
(from glycerol absorbed from the blood) and glucose release into the
blood. These effects collectively cause an increase in blood glucose
levels back to normal levels.
In addition to insulin and glucagon, there are several other hormones that
can influence blood glucose levels. The most important ones are
epinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone, all of which can increase
blood glucose levels.
Glucose levels above or below the normal range are indicative of the
presence of disease states. For example, elevated glucose levels are
present in diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, liver disease, and
hyperthyroidism, while decreased glucose levels are present in Addison's
disease, hyperinsulinism, and hypothyroidism.
The most prevalent of these diseases is diabetes mellitus. There are two
types of this disease: Type I (insulin-dependent or juvenile-onset)
diabetes mellitus, and Type II (noninsulin-dependent or maturity-onset)
diabetes mellitus. In Type I diabetes, pancreatic beta cells are destroyed
by an erroneous attack by the body's own immune system, and thus
insulin secretion is reduced to negligible levels. In Type II diabetes,
insulin secretion is not reduced; however, there is a reduced sensitivity of
target cells to insulin, a phenomenon known as insulin resistance.
8. Adrenaline, a natural stimulant created in the kidney’s adrenal gland,
travels through the bloodstream and controls the functions of the
autonomous nervous system, including the secretion of saliva and sweat,
heart rate and pupil dilation. The substance also plays a key role in the
human flight-or-flight response.
Glucagon andepinephrine are the most important hormones which trigger
the breakdown of glycogen. Epinephrine is released in response to
rigorous muscular activity from the adrenal medulla and stimulates the
breakdown of glycogen in muscle to a larger extent than in the liver. The
liver cells are more responsive towards glucagon. Both epinephrine and
glucagon can bind to common receptor and through a series of other
enzymes; activate the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase necessary to
initiate glycogenolysis.
180
The whole process of signal transduction epinephrine and glucagon can
be divided into three main steps
1. Hormone-receptor interaction at the cell surface: The hormone

epinephrine and glucagon act as a ligand and bind to specific receptors
known as 7TM, found in the plasma membranes of muscle and liver cells.
The binding activate the alpha-subunit of the Gs protein.
2. Formation of cyclic AMP that bind to kinase protein: The activated
alpha-subunits of Gs protein activate the adenylate cyclase, a
transmembrane protein. Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the formation cyclic
AMP (cAMP) which acts as the second messenger in the signal
transduction pathways.
3. Activation of an enzyme cascade by phosphorylation and amplification
of the signal: As level of cyclic AMP increase in the cytoplasm, it binds to
the regulatory subunits of protein kinase A and activates protein kinase
A. The activated protein kinase A phosphorylates and activates another
enzyme phosphorylase kinase which finally activates glycogen
phosphorylase and initiates the glycogenolysis.
Once activated, cyclic AMP cascade can highly amplify the effects of
hormones through the number of enzymes. Therefore, binding of a small
181
number of hormone to cell-surface receptors can lead to the release of a
very large number of sugar molecules.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Glucose + ATP gives ....................... .
2. The process of biosynthesis of glycogen from glucose with the help of
enzyme glycogen synthase is known ........................... .
Ans. 1. Glucose-6-phosphate + ADP, 2. glycogenesis.
1. A protein with oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to
their polypeptide side chain.
2. ....... cells contain various enzymes which help in the regulation of
blood glucose.
3. It can be an important indicator of renal diseases.
Ans. 1. glycoprotein, 2. Hepatocytes, 3. Proteinurea
Unit 13: Regulation of

Temperature
QUESTIONS 1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................... is a dormant state experienced by many insects during winters.
(ii) Gioger rule states that animals have ................... colouration in warm climate.
(iii) Individuals of some species living in colder climates tend to be larger than those
in warmer climates exhibiting ................... rule.
(iv) Polar bears and sea otters have ................... and ................... for insulation.
(v) Camels and gazelles save water by letting their body temperature .................. .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Piloerection helps in ........................ .
(ii) ........................ can regulate their body within a narrow range.
(iii) ........................ receptors detect pain due to extreme cold or heat.
182
(iv) ........................ is responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
(v) Plants in tropical forests have ........................, and ........................ .
(vi) Plants in cold regions shed their leaves to ........................ .

(i) Diapause
(ii) Darker
(iii) Bergmann’s rule
(iv) Fur coat and blubber
(v) Increase

(i) Insulation
(ii) Ectotherm
(iii) Noiceptors
(iv) Hypothalamus
(v) Large leaves, drip tips, waxy surface
(vi) save water loss
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS I. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. All the living organisms have a particular range of temperature within which they can best survive
and reproduce.
2. Nocturnality is the simplest form of behavioural adaptation characterized by activity during the
day and sleeping during the night.
3. Crepuscular animals take advantage of the slightly cooler mornings and evenings to escape the
daytime heat, and to evaporate less water.
4. Body temperature of Ectotherms rely on the external temperature.
5. Thermoregulation in endotherms depends on food and water availability.
6. Invertebrates, most of the thermo receptors are found in skins.
7. Changes in temperature conditions do not affect the normal adaptation behaviour of animals.
8. Hibernation is the state of dormancy during the cold conditions, i.e., winter.
9. Most of the heat in our body is generated through metabolic activity.
10. Larger animals can easily lose their body heat to their surrounding environment.
1. The physical movement of animals over a long distance from one area to another is known
as ........................... .
183
(a) Hibernation (b) Aestivation
(c) Migration (d) None of these
2. Large animals like lions prefer to hunt at night to ........................... .
(a) conserve water (b) avoid direct exposure to heat
(c) utilise less energy (d) All of these
3. With rise in the temperature, the plant’s rate of .......................... increases.
(a) respiration (b) photosynthesis
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
4. Temperature of .......................... depends on the temperature of external environments.
(a) Ectotherms (b) Endotherms
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
5. The state of reduced metabolic rate on a daily basis is an example of
(a) Hibernation (b) Aestivation
(c) Torpor (d) None of the above
6. Reptiles are
(a) Ectotherms (b) Endotherms
(c) Homeotherms (d) Heterotherms
7. Animals living in warmer climates have longer ears according to
(a) Bergmann’s Rule (b) Allen’s Rule
(c) Gloger’s rule (d) Jordon’s rule
8. The process of increasing body temperature in response to the environmental temperature is
known as
(a) Acclimatization (b) Adaptive thermogenesis
(c) Piloerection (d) Insulation
9. The waxy coating of leaves of aquatic plants helps to
(a) Conserve water (b) Increase transpiration rate
(c) Avoid growth of microbes (d) Float in water
10. The rate of transpiration of plants depends on environmental conditions such as
(a) Temperature (b) Level of atmospheric CO2
(c) Relative humidity (d) All the above
11. Increased thyroxin level in our blood increase the rate of
(a) Metabolism (b) Excretion
(c) Muscle contraction (d) Food assimilation
III. Long Questions
1. In your own words, explain the importance of temperature regulation.
2. Describe the morphological, physiological and behavioural adaptations to temperature changes in
the environment.
3. Giving suitable examples, describe the responses to cold and hot conditions by endothermic and
ectothermic animals.
4. Explain the role of the brain and thermo receptors in temperature regulation.
5. Describe the different processes in which plants minimise overheating.
6. In your own words, explain the importance of maintaining fairly constant temperatures for
efficient metabolism.
7. List few adaptive features shown by plants inhabiting extreme cold and hot environments.
184
8. Why is thermoregulation assessed with health and disorder? How is thermoregulation correlated to
environment? What changes can help organism’s survival?
ANSWERS TO STUDENT’S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT (Pages 331–333 of

Student's Book)
I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or False(F):
1. True 2. True
3. True 4. True
5. True 6. False
7. False 8. True
9. True 10. False

1. (c)
2. (a)
3. (c)
4. (a)
5. (c); Torpor is the reduced state of metabolism which lasts for a few
hours while prolonged state of torpor becomes aestivations.
6. (a); Reptiles depend on external temperature for their body heat
therefore, lizards are often seen basking in sun during winter.
7. (b); According to Allen’s rule, animals living in the colder climates have
more rounded and compact form which is achieved by reducing the size
of the body extremities i.e. ears, limbs, tails etc.
8. (c); Heat production by metabolic processes in response to
environmental temperature with the purpose of protecting the organism
from cold exposure and buffering body temperature from environmental
temperature fluctuations is known as adaptive thermogenesis.
9. (c); The waxy coating discourages the growth of bacteria and fungi on
the leaves.
10. (d); The opening of the stomata and hence the transpiration rate of
plants depends on environmental conditions such as light, temperature,
the level of atmospheric CO2 and relative humidity.
11. (a); The increased thyroxine level in the blood increases the rate of
cellular metabolism throughout the body and hence, increases heat
production.
185
1. Besides water, our body consists of many inorganic and organic
compounds, including proteins, lipids, carbohydrates etc. Among these,
proteins are the most important compounds and are regarded as
“workhorse” molecules of life, taking part in essentially every structure
and activity of life. Proteins make up about 75 per cent of the dry weight
of our bodies and serve four important functions;
(a) They are nutrient.
(b) They also form the structural components of our body, including skin,
hair etc. They are building materials for living cells, appearing in the
structures inside the cell and within the cell membrane.
(c) As haemoglobin, Hb they carry oxygen to all the body organs and
(d) They function as biological catalysts as enzymes facilitating and
controlling various chemical reactions of our body.
Protein molecules are often very large and are made up of hundreds to
thousands of amino acid units. They are of varying shapes and sizes. For
examples, keratins, a protein in hair and collagen in tendons and
ligaments linear chains of amino acids. Other proteins called globular
proteins, fold up into specific shapes and often more than one globular
unit are bound together. Enzymes are globular proteins. Despite being
large, enzymes typically have a small working region, known as active
site which acts as the binding site of ligands. The shape of globular
proteins is held together by many forces, including highly resistant strong
covalent bonds. However, there are also many weak forces, like hydrogen
bonds, which are susceptible to pH, osmolarity and temperature changes.
Since the function of enzymes is attributable to its shape, small changes
in the shape can greatly reduce its function. Every enzyme has an optimal
temperature at which it works best and this temperature is approximately
the normal body temperature of the body. Therefore, in order to ensure
the optimal function of the enzymes within, the core body temperature
needs to be maintained more or less constant. If the body temperature
falls below the normal value, the enzymes catalyzed reactions of the
animal will be slowed. Similarly, too much rise in body temperature might
result in enzyme denaturation and hence, reduce catalytic activities.
Rise in body temperature also reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of
haemoglobin. Increasing temperature weakens and denatures the bond
between oxygen and haemoglobin which in turn decreases the
concentration of the oxyhemoglobin. This can lead to hypoxia – a
condition in which tissues receive insufficient oxygen supply from the
blood.
186
2. Morphological Adaptations
(a) Body size and shape: Ectotherms or cold-blooded animals whose body
temperature depends on the temperature of external environments are
usually smaller in size compared to endotherms or warm blooded animals.
For instance, compare the size of elephant, blue whales and crocodiles or
snakes. Within the same species, the individuals living in the colder
climates tend to be larger than those living in warmer climates. This is
known as Bergmann’s rule. For example, whitetail deer in the southern
part of the United States have a smaller body size than those of the
northern states or the far northern states.
(b) Body Extremities: According to Allen’s rule, the animals living in the
colder climates have more rounded and compact form. This is achieved
by reducing the size of the body extremities i.e., ears, limbs, tails etc. On
the other hand, the animals living in the warmer climates have longer
body extremities. For instance, compare the size of the ear of Arctic fox
with that of the Desert fox. Longer body extremities increase the surface
to volume ratio of the desert fox which enable them to lose heat more
easily. Most cold-blooded organisms have either an elongated or a flat
body shape. For example, fishes, snakes, lizards, and worms have long
and slender body form which ensures rapid heat up and cool down
processes. Both Bergmann’s rule and Allen’s rule depend on simple
principle that “the ratio of surface area to volume of an object is inversely
proportional to the volume of the object”. In other words, the smaller an
animal, the higher the surface area-to-volume ratio. Higher surface area-
to-volume ratio ensures these animals to lose heat relatively quickly and
cool down faster, so they are more likely to be found in warmer climates.
Larger animals, on the other hand, have lower surface area-to-volume
ratios and lose heat more slowly, so they are more likely to be found in
colder climates.
(c) Insulation: All the marine mammals have a thick insulating layer of fat
known as Blubber, just beneath the skin. It covers the entire body of
animals such as seals, whales, and walruses (except for their fins,
flippers, and flukes) and serves to stores energy, insulates heat, and
increases buoyancy. Thickness of blubber can range from a couple of
inches in dolphins and smaller whales, to 4.3 inches in polar bears to
more than 12 inches in some bigger whales. To insulate the body, blood
vessels in blubber constrict in cold water. Constriction of the blood
vessels reduces the flow of blood to the skin and minimizes the heat loss.
In such animals, skin surface temperature is nearly identical to the
surrounding water, though at a depth of around 50 mm beneath the skin,
the temperature is the same as their core temperature. Some marine
mammals, such as polar bears and sea otters, have a thick fur coat, as
187
well as blubber, to insulate them. The blubber insulates in water while fur
insulates in the air or terrestrial environment. The feathers of the birds
also function in insulating the body from cold temperature.
Physiological Adaptations
(a) Evaporation: In a colder region, i.e., when the surrounding environment
of the animal is cooler than the body temperature, conduction and
radiation are the main ways an animal dissipates heat. However, in
warmer region, the air temperature is often higher than the animal’s body
temperatures, so the only physiological thermoregulatory mechanism
available is evaporation. Animals use three evaporative cooling
techniques that include sweating, panting, and saliva spreading.
(i) Sweating: It is the loss of water through sweat glands found in the skin
of mammals. The number of sweat glands can vary from none in whales,
few in dogs to numerous in humans. Most small mammals do not sweat
because they would lose too much body mass if they did. For example, in
a hot desert the amount of water a mouse would lose through sweating to
maintain a constant body temperature would be more than 20% of its
body weight per hour, which could be lethal for the animal. Therefore,
smaller mammals use other techniques to cool down their body. On the
other hand, sweating is an important thermoregulatory mechanism for
primates, including humans. An adult human can loss as much as 10–12
litres of water per day through sweating.
(ii) Panting: It is rapid, shallow respiration that cools an animal by
increased evaporation from the respiratory surfaces. It is a common
thermoregulatory technique used by small animals like dogs and rodents
to loss heat.
(iii) Saliva spreading: It is a means of thermoregulation used by
marsupials. Under extreme heat, saliva will drip from animal’s mouth and
is then wiped on its fore and hind legs. This technique induces the cooling
effect of evaporation by wetting the fur. However, since the animal
cannot spread saliva while moving, they need to adapt other evaporative
techniques during such situation.
(b) Counter current mechanism: As mentioned above, in addition to its
role in the transport of oxygen and food, circulatory system of our body is
responsible for distribution of heat throughout the body. This is true in
case of both endotherms and ectotherms. In endotherms, most of the
body heat is generated in brain, liver, heart and skeletal muscles. This
heat is transported to other part of the body through blood. On the other
hand, in ectotherms, the circulatory system help in transporting heat from
skin to other body parts. The countercurrent heat exchanger is generally
located in body extremities like limbs, neck, gills, which are directly in
188
contact to the external environment. In colder region, when the warm
blood flows through the arteries, the blood gives up some of its heat to
the colder blood returning from the extremities in the veins running
parallel to the arteries. Such veins are located in the deeper side of the
body and carry the warm blood to the heart and most of the body heat is
retained. Such mechanism can operate with remarkable efficiency. For
instance, a seagull can maintain a normal temperature in its torso while
standing with its unprotected feet in freezing water. When the external
temperature is higher than the body
temperature and heat loss is not a problem, most of the venous blood
from the extremities returns through veins located near the surface. If the
core body temperature becomes too high, the blood supply to the surface
and extremities of the body is increased enabling heat to be released to
the surroundings.
(c) Hyperthermia: Hyperthermia is a condition of having the body
temperature greatly above the normal. Although all the endotherms can
maintain a constant body temperature, some are able to raise their body
temperature as a way to decrease the amount of water and energy used
for thermoregulation. For example, camels and gazelles can increase
their body temperature by 5–7°C during the day when the animal is
dehydrated. Hyperthermia helps in saving water by letting their body
temperature increase instead of using evaporative cooling to keep it at a
constant temperature.
(d) Water retention: Human body obtains about 60 per cent of the water it
needs from ingested liquid, 30 per cent from ingested food, and 10 per
cent from metabolism, while rodent adapted to arid conditions obtains
approximately 90 per cent from metabolism and 10 per cent from
ingested food. The predaceous marsupial Mulgara can go its whole life
without ingesting water but by obtaining water from the food they eat and
from metabolism. The fawn hopping mouse eats seed, small insects, and
green leaves for moisture, and Kowaris eat insects and small mammals to
obtain water. These animals have specialized kidneys with extra
microscopic tubules to extract most of the water from their urine and
return it to the blood stream. And much of the moisture that would be
exhaled in breathing is recaptured in the nasal cavities by specialized
organs. Many desert dwelling insects tap plant fluids such as nectar or
sap from stems, while others extract water from the plant parts they eat,
such as leaves and fruit. The abundance of insects permits insectivorous
birds, bats and lizards to thrive in the desert. Elf owls survive on katydids
and scorpions. Pronghorns can survive on the water in cholla fruits. Kit
foxes can satisfy their water needs with the water in their diet of
189
kangaroo rats, mice, and rabbits, along with small amounts of vegetable
material.
(e) Excretion: As mentioned above, desert dwelling mammals and birds
have specialized kidneys with long loops of Henle compared to animals
that live in aquatic environments and less arid regions. A longer tubules
help in reabsorbing most of the water from their urine and return it to
blood stream. As a result, the urine becomes highly concentrated. In
these animals, most of the water in the faeces gets reabsorbed in the
alimentary canals and colon. Camels produce dryer faeces than other
ruminants. For example, sheep produce faeces with 45 per cent water
after 5 days of water deprivation, while camels produce faeces with 38
per cent water even after 10 days of water deprivation. The ability to
excrete concentrate urine and dry faeces is an important adaptation to
arid conditions. Desert rodents can have urine five times as concentrated
as that of humans.
Behavioural Adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are used to reduce the amount of heat gain or
loss by animals, and, thereby reducing the amount of energy and water to
maintain the body temperature. Ectoderms or cold blooded animals rely
on its behaviour to maintain a favourable body temperature.
Regulation of Temperature
(a) Nocturnality: It is the simplest form of behavioural adaptation
characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. As
such, nocturnal animals avoid direct exposure to heat of the day, thereby
preventing loss of water needed for evaporative cooling. The night
temperatures are generally 15–20°C colder than the daytime, so the
require much less energy and water to regulate their body temperature.
Most of the desert animals like quoll, bilby, and the spinifex hopping
mouse, are nocturnal. Other large animals like lions prefer to hunt at
night are to conserve water. Crepuscular animals are those animals that
are mainly active during twilight (i.e., the period before dawn and that
after dusk). Examples include hamsters, rabbits, jaguars, ocelots, red
pandas, bears, deer, moose, spotted hyenas etc. Many moths, beetles,
flies, and other insects are also crepuscular in habit. These crepuscular
animals take advantage of the slightly cooler mornings and evenings to
escape the daytime heat, and to evaporate less water.
(b) Microhabitat: Among the diurnal animals (animals which are mainly
active during the day and rest during night), the use of microhabitat like
burrows, shade is another type of behavioural adaptation to avoid the
daytime heat. Fossorial animals (digging animals), such as mulgaras,
spent much of their time below ground eating stored food. Lizards and
190
snakes seek a sunny spot in the morning to warm up their body
temperatures more quickly and remain in shade when the temperature
rises.
(c) Migration: It is the physical movement of animals over a long distance
from one area to another. It is found in all major animal groups, including
birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans.
Many factors like climate, food, the season of the year or mating could
lead to migration. It helps the animals in avoiding the extreme
environmental conditions by moving to more favourable places. For
example, many migratory birds like arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea)
migrate to north-south, with species feeding and breeding in high
northern latitudes in the summer, and moving some hundreds of miles
south during the winter to escape the extreme cold of north. Monarch
butterflies spend the summer in Canada and the Northern America and
migrate as far south as Mexico for the winter.
(d) Hibernation and Aestivation: Warm blooded animals which do not
migrate generally survive the extreme cold condition of winter by
sleeping. Hibernation is the state of dormancy during the cold conditions,
i.e. winter. During hibernation, body temperature drops, breathing and
heart rate slows, and most of the body’s metabolic functions are put on
hold in a state of quasi-suspended animation. This allows them to
conserve energy, and survive the winter with little or no food. Many
insects spend the winter in different stages of their lives in a dormant
state. Such phenomenon is known as diapause. During diapauses,
insect’s heartbeat, breathing and temperature drop. Some insects spend
the winter as worm-like larvae, while others spend as pupae. Some adult
insects die after laying their eggs in the fall and eggs hatch into new
insects in the spring when the food supply and temperature become
favourable. Aestivation or summer dormancy on the other hand, is a state
of animal dormancy, characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic
rate, in response to high temperatures and arid conditions. It allows an
animal to survive the scarcity of water or food as aestivating animal can
live longer off its energy reserves due to the lowered metabolism, and
reduced water loss though lowered breathing rates. Lung fishes, toad,
salamander, desert tortoise, swamp turtles are some of the other non-
mammalian animals which undergo aestivation.
(e) Social behaviour: Among all the adaptations, living together is one of
the most important adaptations of the animal kingdom. Animals can
derive a lot of benefit from spending time with other members of the
same species like finding food, defense against predators and care for
their young. For example, emperor penguins can survive the harsh
Antarctica winter huddling together in groups that may comprise several
191
thousand penguins. Huddling greatly reduces the surface area of the
group compared to individuals and a great deal of warmth and body fat is
conserved. Many social mammals, including many rodents, pigs and
primates survive extreme cold by huddling together in groups.
(f) Locomotion: Different types of locomotion require varying amount of
energy. Many mammals like kangaroo, hares hop, which is an energy
efficient type of locomotion. When animals go from walking to running,
there is an increasing energy cost; however, once kangaroos start
moving, there is no additional energy cost. This is because when a
kangaroo lands, energy is stored in the tendons of its hind legs which is
used to power the next hop.
3. Endotherms’ Response to Temperature Changes
Endothermic organism can maintain relatively high body temperatures
within a narrow range. Since most of the body heat is produced as a
result of various metabolic activities, thermoregulation in endotherms
depends on food and water availability. For example, bear undergoes
hibernation during the winter because there is no sufficient food during
the cold season. On the other hand, in arid environment like deserts,
many desert animals are nocturnal to avoid the extreme daytime heat to
avoid the loss of water through evaporation.
Response to Hot Temperature
When the body temperature increases in response to the external
temperature, the body’s temperature control system uses three important
mechanisms to reduce the body heat. These are:
(a) Vasodilation: The blood vessels in skin become intensely dilated due
to the inhibition of the sympathetic centres in the posterior hypothalamus
that cause vasoconstriction. Vasodilation increases the rate of blood flow
to the skin and as a result, the amount of heat transfer from the core of
the body increases tremendously.
(b) Sweating: As discussed in the previous section, sweating is an
important adaptation to loss of body heat through evaporative cooling. An
increase in 1°C in body temperature causes enough sweating to remove
ten times the basal rate of body heat production.
(c) Decrease in heat production: As mentioned above, metabolic activities
of the body are the main source of body heat. The mechanisms that cause
excess heat production, such as shivering and chemical thermogenesis,
are strongly inhibited when exposed to hot temperature.
Response to Cold Temperature
In response to cold temperature, the temperatures control system
performs exactly opposite mechanism to that performs in hot
temperature. These are:
192
(a) Vasoconstriction: The blood vessels in the skin constrict under the
influence of posterior hypothalamic sympathetic centres which reduce
the blood flow to the skin.
(b) Piloerection: Piloerection means hairs “standing on end”. Sympathetic
stimulation causes the arrector pili muscles attached to the hair follicles
to contract, which brings the hairs to an upright stance. The upright
projection of the hairs allows them to entrap a thick layer of air next to
the skin which acts as insulator, so that transfer of heat to the
surroundings is greatly depressed.
(c) Increase in heat production (thermogenesis): Endothermic metabolic
rates are several times higher than those of ectotherms. The metabolic
heat production of endotherms is regulated in response to fluctuations in
the environment temperature. This phenomenon is known as adaptive
thermogenesis or facultative thermogenesis. It can be defined as “ Heat
production by metabolic processes in response to environmental
temperature with the purpose of protecting the organism from cold
exposure and buffering body temperature from environmental
temperature fluctuations”. Under cold temperature stress, heat
production by the metabolic activities increased tremendously by
promoting shivering, sympathetic excitation of heat production, and
thyroxine secretion. These mechanisms will be discussed later. Extreme
shivering can increase the temperature four to five times the normal
production.
Ectotherms’ Response to Temperature Changes
Ectotherms cannot maintain stable body temperature and their body
temperature relies on the external temperature. They depend more on
energy assimilation rather than utilizing it for temperature regulation.
Therefore, ectotherms regulate their body temperature behaviourally and
by cardiovascular modulation of heating and cooling rates. At the same
time, metabolism and other essential rate functions are regulated so that
reaction rates remain relatively constant even when body temperatures
vary. This process is known as acclimatization or temperature
compensation. For example, many fish adjust metabolic capacities to
compensate for seasonal variation in water temperature with the result
that metabolic performance remains relatively stable throughout the year.
Reptiles often regulate their body temperature to different levels in
different seasons to minimize the behavioural cost of thermoregulation.
At the same time, tissue metabolic capacities are adjusted to counteract
thermodynamically-induced changes in rate functions.
Response to Hot Temperature
193
When the external temperature increases, ectotherms protect their
bodies from overheating using various mechanisms. These are:
(a) Use of microhabitat: Under extreme heat conditions, many ectotherms
like lizards and snakes prefer to stay in shade, either beneath the rocks,
crevices or underground burrows. Amphibians and fishes enter cold water
when their body temperature increases.
(b) Acclimatization: If a salamander living at 10°C is exposed to 20°C, its
metabolic rate increases rapidly. But if the exposure to the higher
temperature lasts for several days, the animal experiences a
compensating decrease in the metabolic rate. This decrease in the
metabolic rate is due to acclimatization. The higher metabolic rate is due
to the increase in the enzymes activity with temperature. However, with
prolonged exposure to the condition, the metabolic rates decrease to
prevent excessive energy loss. Ectotherms also exhibit acclimatization of
temperature tolerance range with animal acclimated to high temperature
are able to tolerate higher temperature than those exposed only to low
temperature. Similarly, cold acclimated animals have better tolerance to
low temperature than high temperature acclimated animals.
Response to Cold Temperature
Ectotherms response to cold temperature is exactly opposite to the
response shown when exposed to hot temperature. That is:
(a) Basking to sun: When the body temperature of the ectotherms
becomes colder than the normal, the animals either bask to sunlight to
warm up their body or move to a warmer place. Under extreme cold
conditions, all the metabolic activities may cease and the animals enter
the state of torpor (reduced metabolic activities).
(b) Cold acclimatization: Decrease in the temperature results in reduced
metabolic rate. Therefore, as a compensatory measures to meet the
required body metabolism, the cold acclimatization of ectotherms is
characterized by increase in concentration of various metabolic enzymes.
There is also significant increase in the mitochondria and capillaries
concentration in the skeletal muscle. This increases the ATP production
through aerobic respiration in these tissues. Therefore, in those animals
which have prolonged exposure to cold temperature, there may be
increase in the locomotion, though the basal rates of metabolism remain
below the warm acclimatized animals.
4. Thermoreceptors
A thermoreceptor is a sensory receptor which is basically the receptive
portion of a sensory neuron that converts the absolute and relative
changes in temperature, primarily within the innocuous range to nerves
194
impulses. Thermoreception is the sense by which an organism perceives
the temperature of the external and internal environment from the
information supply by thermoreceptors. In vertebrates, most of the
thermoreceptors are found in skins which are actually free nerve endings.
Deep body thermoreceptors are also found mainly in the spinal cord, in
the abdominal viscera, and in or around the great veins in the upper
abdomen and thorax region. Mammals have at least two types of
thermoreceptors – the warm receptors, those that detect heat or
temperatures above normal body temperature and cold receptors, those
that detect cold or temperatures below body temperature. The warm
receptors are generally unmyelinated nerves fibres, while cold receptors
have thinly myelinated axons and hence, faster conduction velocity.
Increasing body temperature results in an increase in the action potential
discharge rate of warm receptors while cooling results in decrease. On
the other hand, cold receptors’ firing rate increases during cooling and
decreases during warming. Another type of receptor called nociceptor,
detects pain due to extreme cold or heat which is beyond certain
threshold limits. A specialized form of thermoception known as distance
thermoreception is found in some snakes like pit viper and boa, use a
specialized type of thermoreceptor which can sense the infrared radiation
emitted by hot objects. The snake’s face has a pair of holes, or pits, lined
with temperature sensors. These sensors indirectly detect infrared
radiation by its heating effect on the skin inside the pit which helps them
to locate their warm blooded prey. The common vampire bat may also
have specialized infrared sensors on its nose.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a very small, but extremely important part of the
brain that acts as the link between the endocrine and nervous systems of
the body. The hypothalamus plays a significant role in the endocrine
system and is responsible for maintaining the body’s homeostasis by
stimulating or inhibiting many key processes, including heart rate and
blood pressure, body temperature, fluid and electrolyte balance, appetite
and body weight, glandular secretions of the stomach and intestines,
production of substances that influence the pituitary gland to release
hormones and sleep cycles.
Thermoregulation—Role of Hypothalamus
Thermoregulation is carried out almost entirely by nervous feedback
mechanisms, and almost all these operate through temperature-
regulating centres located in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
contains a large number of heat-sensitive as well as cold-sensitive
neurons which act as thermoreceptor, sensing the temperature of the
195
brain. The posterior hypothalamus region contains the thermoregulatory
centre which integrate the signals from all the thermoreceptors found in
skin, deep organs and skeletal muscles, as well as from the anterior
hypothalamus and control the heat-producing and heat-conserving
reactions of the body.
5. Like all the other living organisms, plants depend on enzymes
catalyzed chemical reactions for their growth and development. For
example, plants synthesize their own food from water and carbon dioxide
using sunlight through photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis
involves a series of complex enzyme system and other proteins.
Therefore, along with carbon dioxide, water, light, nutrients and humidity,
temperature is also one of the limiting factors for growth and
development of plants.
Unlike animals, plants remain fixed in a particular site and absorb heat
from the sunlight. The excess heat from the body is released to the
surrounding through radiation and evaporation. The process of
evaporation of water from the leaves and stem of plants to the
surrounding environment is known as transpiration. It occurs through
stomata, small opening located on the underside of the leaves. The
stomata are specialized cells in the leaves which can open or close,
limiting the amount of water vapour that can evaporate. Higher
temperature causes the opening of stomata whereas colder temperature
causes the opening to close. The opening of the stomata and hence the
transpiration rate of plants depend on environmental conditions such as
light, temperature, the level of atmospheric CO 2 and relative humidity.
Higher relative humidity leads to more opening, while higher CO 2 levels
lead to closing of stomata. Under high environmental temperature, the
plant body gets heat up. In order to cool down, the plant increases its
transpiration rate. The evaporative loss of water from the plant’s body
lowers the temperature.
Besides transpiration, many plants have different adaptations that help
them survive in extreme temperature conditions ranging from hot and arid
deserts to cold and snow covered mountains. These adaptations make it
difficult for the plant to survive in a different place other than the one
they are adapted to. This explains why certain plants are found in one
area, but not in another. For example, cactus plants, adapted to desert
conditions can’t survive in the Arctic.
Effect of Temperature Changes on Plants
The most obvious effect of temperature on plants is changes in the rate
of photosynthesis and respiration. Both process increases with rise in the
temperature upto a certain limit. However, increase in temperature
196
beyond the limits, the rate of respiration exceeds the rate of
photosynthesis and the plants productivity decreases.
Another important effect of temperature is during the process of
germination of seeds. Like most other processes it also depends on
various factors including air, water, light, and, of course, temperature. In
many plant species, germination is triggered by either a high or low
temperature period that destroys germination inhibitors. This allows the
plant to measure the end of winter season for spring germination or end
of summer for fall germination. For example, winter adapted plant seeds
remain dormant until they experience cooler temperature. Temperature of
4°C is cool enough to end dormancy for most cool dormant seeds, but
some groups, especially within the family Ranunculaceae and others,
need conditions cooler than –5°C. On the other hand, some plants like Fire
poppy seeds will only germinate after hot temperatures during a forest
fire which cracks their seed coats. The fire does not cause direct
germination, rather weakens the seed coat to allow hydration of the
embryo. Pollination is another phenological stage of plants sensitive to
temperature extremes across all species. Since pollination is carried out
by pollinators like honey bees, butterflies etc. any factor, including
temperature that affect these pollinator, will certainly affect the process.
6. Homeostasis is the process through which an organism maintains
certain internal conditions, such as a human body’s internal mechanisms
maintaining body temperature at a specific level to prevent over or under
heating; this process is important because it makes it possible for cells
and organs to function properly.For example, certain parts of the human
body cease to function if they become too hot or too cold; this is why it is
possible for people to freeze to death or die from overheating.
Temperature regulation is an important body function for warm-blooded
animals, because it allows them to live in any climate and to survive in
places where the climate fluctuates seasonally. Homeostasis is important
not only in regulating temperature but in performing tasks, such as
digestion and elimination of waste. When an animal’s kidneys filter its
liquid intake and triggers the elimination of waste in the form of urine,
that animal’s body is performing a natural, involuntary function that helps
regulate the amount of potentially toxic or otherwise harmful materials in
the body. Homeostasis is important all the way down to the cellular level;
without proper homeostasis, cells cannot perform essential tasks such as
osmosis, which is a process of water passing through a cell’s membrane.
7. Heat Adapted Plants
In extremely hot and dry desert region with annual rainfall averaging less
than 10 inches per year, and having a lot of direct sunlight shining on the
197
plants, the main strategy for the survival of the plants is to avoid
extensive water loss through transpiration. Therefore, in such region
many plants called succulents, like cactus can store water in their stems
or leaves. Some plants are leafless or have small seasonal leaves that
only grow after rains. These leafless plants conduct photosynthesis in
their green stems. Leaves are often modified into spines to discourage
animals from eating plants for water. Also, waxy coating on stems and
leaves help reduce the water loss. Other plants have very long root
systems that spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water.
On the other hand, in hot and humid tropical rainforest, the abundance of
water can cause problems such as promoting the growth of bacteria and
fungi which could be harmful to plants. Heavy rainfall also increases the
risk of flooding, soil erosion, and rapid leaching of nutrients from the soil.
Plants grow rapidly and quickly use up any organic material left from
decomposing plants and animals. The tropical rainforest is very thick, and
not much sunlight is able to penetrate to the forest floor. However, the
plants at the top of the rainforest in the canopy must be able to survive
the intense sunlight.
Therefore, the plants in the tropical rainforest usually have large leaves
with drip tips and waxy surfaces that allow water to run off easily. Some
plants grow on other plants to reach the sunlight. Similarly, in aquatic
plants adapted to live in water, the leaves are very large, fleshy and waxy
coated. Increased surface area makes plants to lose excess water while
the shiny wax coating discourages the growth of microbes. The roots and
stems are reduced immensely since water, nutrients, and dissolved gases
are absorbed from the water directly through the leaves.
Cold Adapted Plants
In extremely cold region like tundra which is characterized by a
permanently frozen sub-layer of soil called permafrost, the drainage is
poor and evaporation slow. With the region receiving very little
precipitation, about 4 to 10 inches per year usually in the form of snow or
ice, plant life is dominated by small, low growing mosses, grasses, and
sedges. Plants are darker in colour, some even red which helps them
absorb solar heat. Some plants are covered with hair which helps keep
them warm while others grow in clumps to protect one another from the
wind and cold. In a slightly warmer temperate forest, with temperature
varying from hot in the summer to below freezing point in the winter,
many trees are deciduous, that is they drop their leaves in the autumn to
avoid cold winter, and grow the new ones in spring. These trees have
thin, broad, light-weight leaves that can capture a lot of sunlight to make
a lot of food during the warm weather, and when the weather gets cooler,
the broad leaves cause too much water loss and can be weighed down by
198
too much snow, so the trees drop their leaves. They usually have thick
bark to protect against cold winters.
8. Thermoregulation is a process that allows your body to maintain its
core internal temperature. All thermoregulation mechanisms are designed
to return your body to homeostasis. This is a state of equilibrium.
A healthy internal body temperature falls within a narrow window. The
average person has a baseline temperature between 98°F (37°C) and
100°F (37.8°C).
Hyperthermia is elevated body temperature due to failed
thermoregulation that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat
than it dissipates. Extreme temperature elevation then becomes a
medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or
death.
Internal thermoregulation contributes to animal's ability to maintain
homeostasis within a certain range of temperatures. As internal body
temperature rises, physiological processes are affected, such as enzyme
activity. Although enzyme activity initially increases with temperature,
enzymes begin to denature and lose their function at higher temperatures
(around 40-50°C for mammals). As internal body temperature decreases
below normal levels, hypothermia occurs and other physiological process
are affected. There are various thermoregulation mechanisms that
animals use to regulate their internal body temperature.
Thermoregulation in organisms runs along a spectrum from endothermy
to ectothermy. Endotherms create most of their heat via metabolic
processes, and are colloquially referred to as "warm-blooded."
Ectotherms use external sources of temperature to regulate their body
temperatures. Ectotherms are colloquially referred to as "cold-blooded"
even though their body temperatures often stay within the same
temperature ranges as warm-blooded animals.
Ectothermic cooling
Vaporization: Evaporation of sweat and other body fluids.
Convection: Increasing blood flow to body surfaces to maximize the heat
loss.
Conduction: Losing heat by being in contact with a colder surface. For
instance:
(i) Lying on cool ground.
(ii) Staying wet in a river, lake or sea.
(iii) Covering in cool mud.
Radiation: releasing heat by radiating it away from the body.
Ectothermic heating (or minimizing heat loss)
199
Convection: Climbing to higher ground up trees, ridges, rocks.
Entering a warm water or air current.
Building an insulated nest or burrow.
Conduction: Lying on a hot surface.
Radiation: Lying in the sun (heating this way is affected by the body's
angle in relation to the sun).
Folding skin to reduce exposure.
Concealing wing surfaces.
Exposing wing surfaces.
Insulation: Changing shape to alter surface/volume ratio.
Inflating the body.
To cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to
remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing;
some use natural anti-freeze or anti-freeze proteins to resist ice crystal
formation in their tissues. Amphibians and reptiles cope with heat loss by
evaporative cooling and behavioural adaptations. An example of
behavioural adaptation is that of a lizard lying in the sun on a hot rock in
order to heat through conduction.
Endothermy - Evaporation of water, either across respiratory surfaces or
across the skin in those animals possessing sweat glands, helps in
cooling body temperature to within the organism's tolerance range.
Animals with a body covered by fur have limited ability to sweat, relying
heavily on panting to increase evaporation of water across the moist
surfaces of the lungs and the tongue and mouth. Mammals like cats, dogs
and pigs, rely on panting or other means for thermal regulation and have
sweat glands only in foot pads and snout. The sweat produced on pads of
paws and on palms and soles mostly serves to increase friction and
enhances grip. Birds also avoid overheating by gular fluttering, flapping
the wings near the gular (throat) skin, similar to panting in mammals,
since their thin skin has no sweat glands. Down feathers trap warm air
acting as excellent insulators just as hair in mammals acts as a good
insulator. Mammalian skin is much thicker than that of birds and often
has a continuous layer of insulating fat beneath the dermis. In marine
mammals, such as whales, or animals that live in very cold regions, such
as the polar bears, this is called blubber. Dense coats found in desert
endotherms also aid in preventing heat gain such as in the case of the
camels.
Fill in the blanks:
200
1. All marine animals have a thick layer of insulating fat known
as .................
2. ................ are those animals that are mainly active during twilight.
3. ................ is condition of low body temperature.
Ans. 1. Blubber, 2. Crepuscular animals, 3. Hypothermia
Answer in one word:
1. Heat production in response to environment temperature by metabolic
processes.
2. State of decreased physical activity in an animal.
3. Temperature compensation is also called.
Ans. 1. Adaptive thermogenesis, 2. Torpor, 3. Acclimatization
Unit 14: Behaviour and Responses in

Mammals
QUESTIONS
1. SELF EVALUATION
(i) .......... is a sequence of coordinated moments that are performed together as a unit.
(ii) Animal exhibiting a random walk is an example of animal showing ...............
or non-directed orientation.
(iii) Ducklings show ...................... behaviour.
(iv) .............. is a learning that a particular response in linked to a reward or punishment.
(v) ...................... learning involves previous experience to respond to a new situation.
(vi) Birds show ..................... behaviour while building nests with different materials until it is right.
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Animals living in groups face ................ risk of infection.
(ii) Courtship and mating in ferrets is ................, ................ and ................ .
(iii) Territorial marking is also known ................ .
(iv) Aggressive behaviour ................ other animals.
(v) ................ hierarchy involves one single individual dominance.
3.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Migration increases ....................... in gene pool.
(ii) ....................... are self-sustaining oscillators.
(iii) ......................., and ....................... are examples of biological rhythms.
201

(i) Fixed action pattern
(ii) Kinesis
(iii) Imprinting
(iv) Operant
(v) Insight learning
(vi) Operant conditioned

(i) Higher
(ii) Noisy, prolonged, ferrocious
(iii) Scent marking
(iv) Threatens
(v) Despotic

(i) diversity
(ii) Biological clocks
(iii) Hibernation, migration
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
I. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F)
1. Behaviour is precisely an external response directed internally.
2. Riding a bicycle is an innate behavioural activity.
3. In classical condition, animal learns to respond to the stimulus even in the absence
of a reward or punishment.
4. Innate behaviour is also known as inherited behaviour.
5. Kinesis is no change in the speed of movement in presence of a stimulus.
6. Animals hibernate for food and breeding.
7. Touching something hot and pulling your hand back is a learned behaviour.
8. To mark their territories, animals use pheromones.
9. Latent learning is a form of learning which is immediately expressed.
202
1. A trainer is teaching actions to dogs. It is
(a) learning (b) imprinting
(c) kinesis (d) courtship
2. What happens in situation of fear?
(a) heart rate decreases (b) blood pressure decreases
(c) secretion of non-adrenaline (d) heart rate increases
3. Which behaviour activity is done before mating?
(a) learning (b) habituation
(c) courtship (d) imprinting
4. Territorial behaviour of animal provides:
(a) shelter (b) food
(c) breeding (d) all of the above
5. Periodic movement of animals from one place to another is called
(a) migration (b) imprinting
(c) conditioning (d) taxis
6. Which is an example of imprinting behaviour?
(a) secretion of saliva (b) riding bicycle
(c) newborn baby and mother (d) sacrificing life for others
7. In which behaviour are scent markings and visual signalling observed?
(a) courtship (b) territorial
(c) migration (d) habituation
8. Which of the following belongs to altruism?
(a) Hamilton’s rule (b) Pavlov’s experiment
(c) reflex arc (d) biological clock
9. Habituation behaviour is
(a) period before mating
(b) periodic movement from one place to other
(c) structure in which a linear or nearly linear ranking exists
(d) organism decreases or ceases to respond to a stimulus after repeated presentations
III. Long Questions
1. Explain the different types of behaviour giving examples.
2. State the role of nervous system is coordinating behaviour.
3. Explain how the types of behaviour result from sequential responses.
4. Explain different reflex behaviours describing the components of a reflex arc.
5. Differentiate between simple reflex actions and a fixed action pattern.
6. Describe giving examples the forms of conditioning.
7. Explain the following stating their significance.
(a) imprinting
(b) conditioning
203
(c) habituation
(d) survival
(e) courtship
(f) behaviour
(g) migration
8. Analyse and appreciate the importance of animal welfare. Also state behaviour of animals
in society. Why do animals make territories?
9. Discuss the causes and effects of bird and other animal migration.
10. Differentiate the following:
(a) classical and operant conditioning
(b) migration and dispersion
11. Analyse the significance of latent learning. Relate learning and response to survival
in the environment.
12. Explain the role of behavioural rhythms.
13. We all behave differently on different issues prevailing. What responses can effect a mental state
of a diseased? Surround your answer with logistics from AIDS patients. Also, advise on what
treatment and behavioural response could generate pliable recovery for such patients.

I. Choose whether the following statements are True or False:
1. True; Behaviour is an externel response directed internally.
2. False; It is operant conditioning behaviour
3. True; It is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent
stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral
stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus
with the potent stimulus.
4. True; It is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent
stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral
stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus
with the potent stimulus.
5. False; It is a change in the speed of movement (orthokinesis) or a
change in the rate of turning (klinokinesis) which is directly proportional
to the intensity of a stimulus.
6. False; Animals migrate to other places with more suitable conditions of
temperature, food, more favourable living or breeding places and
hibernation.
204
7. False; When you touch a hot object, you quickly pull your hand away
using the withdrawal reflex action.
8. True; Animals use pheromones, visual and auditory signals.
9. False; It is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an
overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the
behaviour or associations that are learned.
1. (a); Learning is a form that is not immediately expressed.
2. (d); A fight or flight response mobilizes the body for greater activity like
it increases heart rate and blood pressure. Body is being prepared to fight
or run from danger.
3. (c); Courtship behaviour is the behaviour that males and females carry
out before mating.
4. (d); Territorial behaviour of animal provides shelter, food and breeding.
5. (a); Migration is periodic movement of animals from one place to
another.
6. (c); It is a form of learning in which an animal, at a specific critical time
of its life, forms a social attachment to another animal. It is shown by
newborn baby for mother.
7. (b); Animals marks their territory with the help of pheromones, visual
and auditory signals.
8. (a); Hamilton gave a rule for the altruistic behaviour where evolutionary
strategy which favours the reproductive success of an organism’s
relatives, even at a cost to the organism’s own survival and reproduction.
9. (a); Habituation is a simple form of learning in which an organism
decreases or ceases its response to a stimulus after repeated
presentations. It is progressive decrease of the amplitude or frequency of
a motor response to repeated sensory stimulation that is not caused by
sensory receptor adaptation or motor fatigue.
III. Long answers:

1. Behavioural activities are divided into two groups: Innate and Learned
Innate Behaviour (Simple Response)
Innate behaviour, also known as inherited behaviour, is genetically
programmed. Individuals inherit a suite of behaviours just as they inherit
physical traits such as body colour and wing venation. In general, innate
behaviours will always be:
(a) Heritable—encoded in DNA and passed from generation to generation
(b) Intrinsic—present in animals raised in isolation from others
(c) Stereotypic—performed in the same way each time by each individual
205
(d) Inflexible—not modified by development or experience
(e) Consummate—fully developed or expressed at first performance
Learned Behaviour
Learning, or learned behaviour, takes place when behaviour changes
through practice or experience. Learning allows an animal to adapt to
change, an ability that is important for animals with long life spans. In
general, learned behaviours will always be:
(a) Not heritable — acquired only through observation or experience
(b) Extrinsic — absent in animals raised in isolation from others
(c) Permutable — pattern or sequence may change over time
(d) Adaptable — capable of modification to suit changing conditions
(e) Progressive — subject to improvement or refinement through practice
2. Behaviour can be defined more precisely as an internally directed
system of adaptive activities that facilitate survival and reproduction. A
stimulus is an environmental change that directly influences the activity
of an organism. Behaviour is a result of sensory and motor integration in
an organism i.e., nervous system includes sensory cells detects changes
in environment. Nerve cells transmits and integrates information,
chemical messengers transmits information into body and muscle cells
translate information into action. Orientation behaviours are coordinated
movements (walking, flying, swimming, etc.) that occur in response to an
external stimulus. These behaviours have adaptive value for survival by
helping the organism to locate (or avoid) the source of a stimulus. The
simplest behaviours involve input from only a single sensory receptor
whereas more advanced behaviours require bilateral input from a pair of
receptors.
3. Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) is a sequence of coordinated movements
that are performed together as a “unit” without interruption. Each FAP is
triggered by a unique stimulus variously known as a sign stimulus, a key
stimulus, or a releaser. A praying mantis striking at prey is a typical
example. The releaser for this FAP is any movement by a small (prey-
sized) object within striking distance. Once initiated, the mantis cannot
change direction in mid-strike or abort the mission if the prey escapes.
Other common examples of FAPs include courtship displays, hunting or
food gathering, nest-building activities, and attack or escape movements.
Unlike simple reflexes, FAPs may involve a whole-body response and
often require a threshold level of internal readiness (drive).
4. Reflex arc: When you touch a hot object, you quickly pull your hand
away using the withdrawal reflex. Reflex action is different from fixed
action pattern. Firstly, reflex action is a simple motor action, stereotype
and repeatable but fixed action is complex motor act, involving a specific
206
temporal sequence of component acts. Secondly, reflex is elicited by a
sensory stimulus and the strength of the motor action being graded with
intensity of the stimulus while fixed action patterns are generated
internally or elicited by a sensory stimulus. This stimulus acts as a
trigger, causing release of coordinated motor act. Action may be graded
in intensity and it may be contingent on the type of sensory stimulus but
maintain its basic pattern. Most insects have simple “startle” reflexes
triggered by small disturbances as well as more comprehensive “escape”
reflexes triggered by larger disturbances.
5. Reflex action is different from fixed action pattern. Firstly, reflex action
is a simple motor action, stereotype and repeatable but fixed action is
complex motor act, involving a specific temporal sequence of component
acts. Secondly, reflex is elicited by a sensory stimulus and the strength of
the motor action being graded with intensity of the stimulus while fixed
action patterns are generated internally or elicited by a sensory stimulus.
This stimulus acts as a trigger, causing release of coordinated motor act.
Action may be graded in intensity and it may be contingent on the type of
sensory stimulus but maintain its basic pattern. Most insects have simple
“startle” reflexes triggered by small disturbances as well as more
comprehensive “escape” reflexes triggered by larger disturbances.
6. Learning that a particular stimulus or a particular response is linked to
a reward or punishment is called conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
It is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus
comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is
achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent
stimulus. Eventually, the animal learns to respond to the stimulus even in
the absence of a reward or punishment. The scientist Ivan Pavlov
207
conducted a famous experiment on classical conditioning in which he
trained a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell.
Operant Conditioning (Learning by Trial and Error)

An animal learns to associate one of its own behavioural acts with a
positive or negative effect. The animal tends to repeat the response if it
is rewarded, but avoids the response if it is harmed. For example,
predators quickly learn to associate certain kinds of prey with painful
experiences. A coyote may learn the hard way not to attack a porcupine
nose-first. Learning by trial and error often reinforces behaviours that are
important to survival. In this, an animal receives a reward for making a
particular response. Motivation is an internal need that causes an animal
to act, and is necessary for learning to take place. Example: Learning to
ride a bike or birds using different materials to build a nest until it is just
right
7. (a) Imprinting: It is a form of learning in which an animal, at a specific
critical time of its life, forms a social attachment to another animal.
During this brief interval, the animal acquires an indelible memory of
certain salient stimuli in its “home” environment (taste of the host plant,
smell of the nest site, etc.). This memory is retained throughout life and
recalled later when needed. Example: Relation between mother and
newborn. Behavioural imprinting acts as an instinct for survival in
newborns. The offspring must immediately recognize its parent, because
threatening events, such as the attack by a predator or by other adults
could occur just after hatching. Thus, imprinting is very reliable to induce
208
the formation of a strong social bond between offspring and parent, even
if it is the wrong one. Birds learn the characteristics of their siblings,
which later on will influence their mating preferences as adults.
(b) Learning that a particular stimulus or a particular response is linked to
a reward or punishment is called conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
It is a learning process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus
comes to be elicited in response to a previously neutral stimulus; this is
achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent
stimulus. Eventually, the animal learns to respond to the stimulus even in
the absence of a reward or punishment. The scientist Ivan Pavlov
conducted a famous experiment on classical conditioning in which he
trained a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell.

nose-first. Learning by trial and error often reinforces behaviours that are
important for survival. In this, an animal receives a reward for making a
particular response. Motivation is an internal need that causes an animal
to act, and is necessary for learning to take place. Example: Learning to
ride a bike or birds using different materials to build a nest until it is just
right.
209
(c) Habituation: A simple form of learning in which an organism decreases
or ceases its response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. It is
progressive decrease of the amplitude or frequency of a motor response
to repeated sensory stimulation that is not caused by sensory receptor
adaptation or motor fatigue. Habituation provides an important
mechanism for filtering sensory information, as it allows filtering out
irrelevant stimuli and thereby focusing on important stimuli, a
prerequisite for many cognitive tasks. Example: Horses or cows
disregarding noisy cars and scare crow habituation to crows.
(d) The natural world isn’t always as pleasant a place as you might see in
cartoons. It can be cutthroat, painful, and at times it is difficult for
animals to survive. Human activity has made all this the harder, as
territories and ecosystems of plants and animals get destroyed, and
natural patterns disrupted. For animals to live long enough to have young
and continue their species, they often need clever strategies. Those
strategies are called survival skills. Survival skills are the techniques
animals use to stay alive and safe. They include everything from
protecting territories, using camouflage, teamwork, sharing resources,
fleeing from danger, and methods of scaring and intimidating enemies.
In this lesson, we’re going to talk about a few of the most important
common survival skills We’ll talk about some of the basics that animals
need to survive: finding food, marking territories, defending resources,
and avoiding dangers.
(e) Courtship: It is the behaviour that males and females of a species
carry out before mating. It communicates to each of the potential mates
that the other is not a threat. It also reveals information to each animal
that the species, gender, and physical condition of the other are suitable
for mating. Courtship allows one or both sexes to select a mate from
several candidates.
(f) Behaviour can be defined more precisely as an internally directed
system of adaptive activities that facilitate survival and reproduction. A
stimulus is an environmental change that directly influences the activity
of an organism. Behaviour is a result of sensory and motor integration in
an organism i.e., nervous system includes sensory cells that detect the
changes in environment. Nerve cells transmit and integrate information;
chemical messengers transmit information into body and muscle cells
translate information into action.
(g) It is termed the periodic movements of animals away from and back to
their place of origin. It is done annually. Animals migrate to other places
with more suitable conditions of temperature, food, more favourable living
or breeding places and hibernation. Example: African antelopes migrate
210
seasonally to avoid drought. Fur seals and many whales make ocean
voyages of thousands of miles to their breeding grounds, the former
coming ashore on islands. Little brown bat live on trees in warm weather,
but in cold weather they migrate to caves for warmer conditions.
8. Territoriality refers to the exclusive use of fixed space, which entails
obtaining, defending, or advertising occupancy of the space. Animals
divide geographical area around them into four broad regions:
(a) Total range (entire area covered).
(b) Home range (large area for all activities – feeding, sex and roaming is
done).
(c) Territory (small area within home ranges, driving away intruders and
visited in days).
(d) Core area (within territory but much smaller).
Sizes of Territories
This varies from species to species depending on body size, group size,
and habitat and food requirement. Size of territory depends on size and
diet of the animals. Larger species have larger territories e.g., wildebeest,
zebras. Predators have larger territories than plant eaters. Territories are
smaller when food is found in abundance and distribution is not spread
far. Territorial animals patrol its outer limits.
Functions of Territoriality:
(a) Well shaped aggregation of local population.
(b) Well defined area for parental care.
(c) Limitation of breeding population and control beyond carrying
capacity.
(d) Adequate food.
(e) Reserve of unmated males and females for prompt replacement.
(f) Reduction in rate of contracting parasites or diseases.
(g) Helps intending against predator and share resources.
(h) Collectively defend nests and young from predators.
(i) Porters separate after breeding for short periods. Example: Wolves
maintain territories in which they hunt and live. These areas are
aggressively defended against other group members. The male cougar
has a large territory that may overlap with the territories of several
females but is defended against other males. Responding to scent marks,
the inhabitants of the overlapping ranges also avoid each other, except
for breeding.
9. Causes of Migration:
211
• External pressures like temperature, drought, food shortage. For
example, most of the mule deer of Yellow stone Park, migrate between
summer and winter pastures, but those living near hot springs, where
grazing is available all year, do not.
• Physiological and environmental changes. Example: Birds migrate due
to cycle of enlargement of the reproductive organs in spring and their
reduction in fall. Variation in day length is the chief external stimulus for
this cycle: light received by the eye affects production of a hormone by
the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates growth of the reproductive
organs.
Effects of Migration
• Migration increases diversity in the gene pool of the population.
• Migration increases competition for resources, habitat and breeding
places.
• Migratory animals acting as vectors for disease, nutrients and energy,
and other materials such as seeds across habitat or ecosystem
boundaries.
10. (a) Classical Conditioning: It is a learning process in which an innate
response to a potent stimulus comes to be elicited in response to a
previously neutral stimulus; this is achieved by repeated pairings of the
neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. Eventually, the animal learns to
respond to the stimulus even in the absence of a reward or punishment.
The scientist Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous experiment on classical
conditioning in which he trained a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell.
212
nose-first. Learning by trial
and error often reinforces behaviours that are important for survival. In
this, an animal receives a reward for making a particular response.
Motivation is an internal need that causes an animal to act, and is
necessary for learning to take place. Examples: Learning to ride a bike, or
birds using different materials to build a nest until it is just right.
(b) Migration and Dispersal are different from each other. Migration is the
movement of large number of species from one place to another like bird
migration. While dispersal is the spreading of individuals away from
others, often parents or siblings, which are left behind in original areas,
for example: mammals move away from their social groups.
11. It is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt
response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behaviour or
associations that are learned. Latent learning implies that learning can
take place without any behavioural changes being immediately present.
This means that learning can be completely cognitive and not instilled
through behavioural modification alone. This cognitive emphasis on
learning was important in development of cognitive psychology. Latent
learning can be a form of observational learning (i.e., learning through
observing the behaviour of others), though it can also occur
independently of any observation.
Example: A rat completes a maze several times, without an incentive. The
rat learns the maze very slowly (Figure 14.9). When food is placed at the
end of the maze, the rat completes the maze very quickly, demonstrating
that latent learning had occurred and a cognitive map of the maze was
informed.
12. Behavioural Rhythms: They are periodic biological fluctuations in an
organism that corresponds to, and is in response to, periodic
environmental change. These rhythms are the repeating patterns of
biochemical, physiological, and behavioural processes. They are found in
most living things, including plants, animals and many microorganisms.
These rhythms allow the animals of different species to share the same
food sources without direct competition because some animals are active
only during hours of darkness (i.e., they are nocturnal) while others are
active only during the day (diurnal). The advantage of having a built-in
method of responding to light and darkness, rather than relying on actual
213
changes in light as a cue, is that, in effect, the organism is prevented
from “sleeping late” and missing the optimal time of day for foraging.
Most common biological rhythm is the circadian rhythm (circa- about plus
dian-day). The circadian rhythm is a rest-activity cycle that is centered on
light, meaning when a preset amount of light occurs, an animal will be
active, and at another time the animal will rest. Humans are active when
there is a lot of light, which is usually during the day and rest when there
is less light, usually at night. These circadian rhythms control the core
human body temperature, sleep wake cycle and secretion of hormones.
Hibernation and migration are the examples of biological rhythms.
Examples: Ground squirrels gather rations and pack on fat reserves in the
fall in preparation for cold winters spent underground.
Moose reproductive cycles match the birth of fawns in the spring to the
rich emergence of forage at that time.
Human core body temperature cycles with a low during the middle of
their sleep cycle and highs around lunch time and early evening.
13. There are many things one can do to help a friend or the beloved one
who has been diagnosed with HIV:
• Talk: Be available to have an open, honest conversation on HIV. Follow
the lead of the persons who are diagnosed with HIV. They may not always
want to talk about it, or may not be ready. They may want to connect with
you in the same ways they did before being diagnosed. Do things you did
together before their diagnosis; talk about the things you talked before
their diagnosis. Show them that you see them as the same person and
that they are more than their diagnosis.
• Listen: Being diagnosed HIV is life-changing news. Listen to your
beloved ones and offer your support. Reassure them that HIV is a
manageable health condition. There are medicines that can treat HIV and
help them stay healthy.
• Learn: Educate yourself about HIV: what it is, how it is transmitted, how
it is treated, and how people can stay healthy while living with HIV.
Having a solid understanding of HIV is a big step forward in supporting
your beloved ones. This website is a good place to begin to familiarize
yourself with HIV. Have these resources available for your newly
diagnosed friends if they want them. Knowledge is empowerment, but
keep in mind that your friend may not want the information right away.
• Encourage treatment: Some people who are recently diagnosed may find
it hard to take that first step to HIV treatment. Your support and
assistance may be helpful. By getting linked to HIV medical care early,
starting treatment with HIV medication (called antiretroviral therapy or
214
ART), adhering to medication, and staying in care, people with HIV can
keep the virus under control, and prevent their HIV infection from
progressing to AIDS. Encourage your friends or beloved ones to get into
treatment as soon as possible and help them find an HIV care provider.
Use the HIV Testing and Care Services Locator to find a provider.
• Support medication adherence: It is important for people living with HIV
to take their HIV medication every day, exactly as prescribed. Ask your
beloved ones what you can do to support them in establishing a
medication routine and sticking to it. Also, ask what other necessities
they might have and how you can help them stay healthy. Learn more
about treatment adherence.
• Get support: Take care of yourself and get support if you need it. Turn to
others for any questions, concerns, or anxieties you may have so that the
persons who are diagnosed can focus on taking care of their own health
Fill in the blanks:
1. Innate behaviours are ............. adaptations that have an .............
history.
2. Rat completing maze is example of ............. .
Ans. 1. Phylogenetic, evolutionary, 2. Latent learning
Answer in one word:
1. Classical condition is shown by
2. Movement directly toward (positive) or away from (negative) a
stimulus.
Ans. 1. Pavlov’s experiment, 2. Taxis.
Unit 15: Immune

System,Vaccination and
Antibiotics
QUESTIONS
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ............... is the type of antibody produced by primary immune response.
(ii) Cell mediated immunity is achieved by ......................
215
(iii) Antibody .................... is highly mobile and capable of reaching skin to neutralize bacteria.
(iv) ................ immunity leads to auto-immune disease.
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ................. leads to production of long lived memory cells.
(ii) Cholera is a ................. mediated disease.
(iii) .................... decreases blood pressure and contraction of muscles of bronchiols.
(iv) ............... occurs upon inhaling certain allergens in the air leading to sneezing
and coughing.
(v) Penicillin is produced by ....................................

(i) IgM (ii) T lymphocyte
(iii) IgG (iv) Adaptive

(i) Vaccination (ii) Toxin
(iii) Generalized allergic reaction (iv) Hay fever
(v) Penicillium notatum
END UNIT ASSESSMENT

1. Innate immunity is present at birth.
2. Breast milk confers protection to newborn by providing IgE type of antibodies.
3. Antibodies can work by promoting phagocytosis of microbial agents.
4. Antibiotics help a patient in mounting an effective immune response.
5. Treating tuberculosis is becoming difficult because Mycobacterium tuberculosis has become
resistant to a number of antibiotics.
6. Hay fever is a generalized allergic reaction caused by release of active mediators from mast cells.
7. Secondary immune response appears much faster because of the presence of memory cells
persisting from previous infection.
8. Vaccination against snakebite is an example of passive immunization.
9. Allergies are of two types—innate and adaptive.
10. Beta-lactam antibiotics kill bacteria by blocking synthesis of their cell walls.
1. Humoral immunity is carried out by the
(a) B lymphocytes (b) T lymphocytes
(c) Phagocytes (d) T lymphocytes, phagocytes and NK cells
2. Antibodies transferred across placenta to the developing embryo are
(a) IgM (b) IgG
216
(c) IgA (d) IgE
3. Plasma cells represent
(a) B lymphocytes which are actively secreting antibodies.
(b) T lymphocytes which are actively secreting cytokines
(c) Monocytes which have entered tissues
(d) CTL which are secreting perforins.
4. Mast cell degranulation leads to the release of
(a) IgE, which causes vasodilatation and bronchoconstriction
(b) IgE, which causes vasoconstriction and bronchodilation.
(c) Histamine, which causes vasodilation and bronchoconstriction
(d) Histamine, which causes vasoconstriction and bronchodilation
5. Tetracycline helps in treating respiratory tract infections by
(a) preventing protein synthesis in influenza viruses
(b) preventing protein synthesis in bacteria
(c) preventing DNA repair in viruses
(d) preventing cell wall synthesis in bacteria
6. Children born with Di George syndrome lack mature
(a) B lymphocytes (b) T lymphocytes
(c) Macrophages (d) NK cells
7. Faulty recognition of self-tissues as non-self leads to the development of
(a) AIDS (b) Rheumatoid arthritis
(c) Hay fever (d) Polio
8. Live attenuated vaccine types have the disadvantage over the inactivated vaccine types as
(a) They require booster shots
(b) They do not confer life-long immunity
(c) They may mutate to virulent form
(d) They do not stimulate the immune system strongly.
9. Immune response is
(a) the defence mechanism of our body.
(b) reaction of the cells and fluids of the body.
(c) a substance that destroys or inhibits the growth of other microorganisms
(d) None of the above
10. Nowadays, many antibiotics don’t seem to work because
(a) body starts degrading the antibiotics very rapidly
(b) of increased levels of pollution
(c) bacteria are rapidly evolving resistance to antibiotics already in use
(d) pharmaceutical companies are not making good medicines now.
III. Long Questions
1. With an illustrative diagram, state the origin and describe the mode of action of phagocytes.
2. Analyse and relate the molecular structure of antibodies to their functions. Also, state the role of
antibodies in allergies.
3. Explain the following:
217
(a) Phagocytes
(b) Lymphocytes
(c) Immune response
4. Compare giving diagrams the modes of action of B-lymphocyte and T-lymphocyte.
5. With examples, explain the role of memory cells in long-term immunity.
6. Differentiate between the following:
(a) Active and passive immunity
(b) Generalised and localised allergic reactions
7. Discuss causes, symptoms and treatment of asthma and hey fever. Also suggest the ways to
encourage such patients.
8. State why vaccination programmes are able to eradicate smallpox but not measles,
TB, malaria or cholera.
9. Define antibiotic. State how it works. Also, explain the reasons for antibiotic resistance.
10. Interpret the differences between cellular responses and humoral responses.
11. Carry out research and be able to present findings on the reasons for antibiotic resistance
in the treatment of infections.
12. There is a lot of research for curing diseases around the globe. Discuss the plausible research
going on for HIV AIDS. Also state the bodies immune response condition while tackling HIV.

1. True; innate immunity is present at birth.
2. False; as breast milk contains IgA type of antibodies.
3. True; as antibodies can tag the microbial agents and bind to
phagocytes.
4. False; as antibiotics cure the disease by either killing or slowing the
growth of bacteria.
5. True; as initially this disease was curable, but gradually the bacterium
acquired resistance to a number of antibiotics.
6. False; as hay fever is a localized allergic reaction involving upper
respiratory tract.
7. True; as memory cells are already primed and upon second exposure to
the same antigen grow bigger in size and start secreting antibody.
8. True; as preformed antibodies are administered to neutralize the toxin
with no stimulation of immune system.
9. False; Immune system has two main parts, innate and adaptive.
10. True; as intact cell wall is important for survival of bacteria.
218
1. (d); recognition of antigen by receptors on B-lymphocytes.
2. (b); as IgG type of antibodies can cross placenta
3. (a); as B-lymphocytes grow in size, acquire Golgi apparatus and
transform into actively secreting plasma cells.
4. (c); as histamine causes decrease in blood pressure and respiratory
problem due to constriction of bronchioles
5. (b); as tetracycline binds to 30S ribosomal sub-unit preventing bacterial
protein synthesis
6. (b); is correct as in the absence of thymus, mature T cells don’t form
7. (b); as Rheumatoid arthritis is an auto-immune disease
8. (c); as live attenuated pathogens by changing to virulent form can
actually cause disease.
9. (b); it is the reaction of the cells and fluids of the body to the presence
of a substance.
10. (c); as by employing various strategies bacteria have evolved
resistance to a number of antibiotics leaving many diseases untreatable.

1. When a blood smear is prepared, two types of cells can be identified:
small, very numerous, without nucleus called red blood cells (RBC)
because they contain red pigment, haemoglobin for oxygen transport and
large, less numerous, with darkly staining nucleus called white blood
cells (WBC), because they do not contain red pigment. Among the WBCs,
different cell types can be distinguished: (i) Phagocytes, which include
neutrophils (having single, multi-lobed, nucleus) and monocytes (having
kidney-shaped nucleus) with a moderate amount of cytoplasm, and (ii)
Lymphocytes, with a very large, darkly staining nucleus occupying the
entire volume of the cell, with very little cytoplasm.
Phagocytes, which include both neutrophils and macrophages, play an
important role in innate immunity. They can identify foreign invading
pathogens, discriminate them from cells of the body, and internalize them
by throwing pseudopodia around them. Once within the phagocytes,
pathogens are digested by a number of hydrolytic enzymes, thus freeing
the body of disease-causing germs. Phagocytes also help in removing old,
dead cells as well as cancerous cells.
219
2.Antibodies are immunoglobulins, designated as Ig. Different types of
antibodies, secreted by B-lymphocytes are written as IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE
and IgD. These antibodies are capable of recognising over a million
different antigens and confer protection in a number of ways. Functions
performed by antibodies are: (i) Antibodies bind to toxins produced by
bacteria that cause infection like diphtheria or tetanus, effectively
nullifying them. (ii) By attaching to microbial pathogens, antibodies
promote their clearance by phagocytes manifold. (iii) Antibodies form a
covering on bacteria and viruses, not allowing them to gain entry into
tissues. Bacteria and viruses, thus having being coated, are eliminated by
beating of cilia present on the epithelial cells in the respiratory tract or by
peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract. (iv) Antibody, esp. of the IgG type,
is highly mobile, capable of leaving circulation and reaching skin where it
can neutralize surface bacteria. This antibody can also pass through the
placenta reaching the developing foetus, providing it some protection
against infections. (v) Antibody, esp. of the IgA type, is found in large
amounts in mother’s milk, and helps protect the newborn against
infections during the first months of life when infant’s immune system is
not fully functional. (vi) Antibody of the IgE type, plays an important role
against parasitic infections, though it is also responsible for the allergic
reactions to various allergens in the environment and will be described
later in detail.
220
Types of Hypersensitive responses
3. (a) Phagocytes, which include both neutrophils and macrophages, play
an important role in innate immunity. They can identify foreign invading
pathogens, discriminate them from cells of the body, and internalize them
by throwing pseudopodia around them. Once within the phagocytes,
pathogens are digested by a number of hydrolytic enzymes, thus freeing
the body of disease-causing germs. Phagocytes also help in removing old,
dead cells as well as cancerous cells.
(b) Lymphocytes, with a very large, darkly staining nucleus occupying the
entire volume of the cell, with very little cytoplasm. Generation of
memory cells upon first exposure to infectious agent is seen in primary
response. Primary response leads to the generation of activated
lymphocytes of the B- or T- type as well as memory cells. This response is
not only weak in intensity but also takes a long time to initiate
(c) Response produced by the body upon invasion of a foreign substance,
especially infectious microbes and toxins produced by them and is
protective in nature.
4. Humoral Immunity: B lymphocytes
221
Humoral immunity was discovered by Emil Behring and Shibasaburo
Kitasato in 1890. This proved to be a landmark experiment and it earned
von Behring Nobel Prize in Medicine. This experiment showed two
important things: one, that following infection or immunization,
substances appeared in serum that have the capacity to protect against
the infective agent; this laid the foundation of humoral branch of
immunity; second, that immunity could be transferred from immunized to
non-immunized organism; this laid the foundation of strategy of passive
immunization. Generation of humoral response involves:
(a) Activation of B-lymphocytes
(b) Conversion of B-lymphocytes into plasma cells
(c) Secretion of antibodies
(d) Functions performed by antibodies
B-lymphocytes, 6 micrometre in size, having a darkly staining, large
nucleus, and very little cytoplasm, bear receptors on their surface which
recognize and bind antigens on microbial organisms. Binding of receptors
leads to activation of B-lymphocytes, which undergo a number of mitotic
divisions producing two kinds of cells, effecter cells called plasma cells
and memory cells.
Effecter cells or plasma cells, about 15 micrometre in size, with a large

amount of cytoplasm having Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum,
represent the end stage B-lymphocytes, which do not further divide but
actively secrete antibody. molecules at a high rate. Antibodies are,
proteins, called immunoglobulins, designated as Ig.
Different types of antibodies, secreted by B-lymphocytes are written as
IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE and IgD. These antibodies are capable of recognising
222
over a million different antigens and confer protection in a number of
ways. Functions performed by antibodies are:
(i) Antibodies bind to toxins produced by bacteria that cause infection
like diphtheria or tetanus, effectively nullifying them.
(ii) By attaching to microbial pathogens, antibodies promote their
clearance by phagocytes manifold.
(iii) Antibodies form a covering on bacteria and viruses, not allowing them
to gain entry into tissues. Bacteria and viruses, thus having being coated,
are eliminated by beating of cilia present on the epithelial cells in the
respiratory tract or by peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract.
(iv) Antibody, esp. of the IgG type, is highly mobile, capable of leaving
circulation and reaching skin where it can neutralize surface bacteria.
This antibody can also pass through the placenta reaching the developing
foetus, providing it some protection against infections.
(v) Antibody, esp. of the IgA type, is found in large amounts in mother’s
milk, and helps protect the newborn against infections during the first
months of life when infant’s immune system is not fully functional.
(vi) Antibody of the IgE type, plays an important role against parasitic
infections, though it is also responsible for the allergic reactions to
various allergens in the environment and will be described later in detail.
Cell-Mediated Immune Response: T Lymphocyte
Though antibody molecules are highly specific and confer high degree of
protection to the body against toxins and microbes present in blood and
extra-cellular fluids, they are not able to neutralise those pathogens
which live within the cells e.g. viruses, malarial parasite, some bacteria
such as Salmonella, Mycobaterium etc., Therefore, in order to protect the
body from intra-cellular infectious organisms as well as to eliminate
cancerous cells, body mounts cell-mediated immune response.
Generation of cell-mediated immune response:
1. Recognition and binding of antigens by T-lymphocytes, macrophages,
neutrophils, and natural killer cells (NK). These cells differ in the way
they bind antigens. T-lymphocytes recognize and bind antigens only in
association with another set of proteins called major histocompatibility
complex (MHC). Macrophages, neutrophils and NK cells can bind to
antibody-tagged cells.
2. T lymphocytes are of two types, helper T lymphocytes and Tc cells.
Helper T lymphocytes play an important role in both humoral and cell-
mediated immunity by secreting important cytokines.
223
3. Activation of the above mentioned cells (appearance of granules in T-
lymphocytes and macrophages which are normally agranulocytes). T-
lymphocytes get transformed into cytotoxic T lymphocytes, or CTL.
4. Secretion of cytotoxic chemicals/cytokines, perforins, granzymes,
interferon gamma and tumour necrosis factor in the vicinity of cells
carrying intracellular pathogens.
5. Cytotoxic chemicals/cytokines cause target cell destruction.
5. Memory cells are long lived, retain the same receptors as the original
B-lymphocyte and can get activated upon second exposure to the same
infectious agent to give rise to a heightened response.
Generation of memory cells upon first exposure to infectious agent is

seen in primary response. Primary response leads to the generation of
activated lymphocytes of the B- or T- type as well as memory cells. This
response is not only weak in intensity but also takes a long time to
initiate.
However, upon second exposure to the same infectious agent, the
immune response generated is faster and greater in intensity due to the
already existing memory cells, and is called secondary response. It is the
genesis of heightened immune response upon second exposure that laid
the foundation of all active vaccination programmes.
6. (a) Active Immunity
(i) It Is produced due to contact with pathogen or its antigen.
(ii) Immunity is not immediate. A time lapse occurs for its development.
(iii) It lasts for sufficiently long period, may be lifelong.
224
(iv) Antibodies are produced by the body in response to pathogen or
antigen.
(v) Side effects are very few.
Passive Immunity
(i) It Is produced due to antibodies obtained from outside
(ii) Immunity develops immediately
(iii) It lasts for a few days
(iv) Antibodies are obtained from outside
(v) At times the body reacts to the introduction of antisera. It is called
serum sickness.
http://www.majordifferences.com/2014/04/difference-between-active-and-
passive.html#.WMON4NR97Wc
7. First exposure to allergen leads to the formation of IgE type of

antibodies which bind to mast cells present in large numbers throughout
the body. Second exposure to the same allergen causes cross-linking of
225
IgE molecules on the already sensitized mast cells, leading to their
degranulation and release of substances stored in their granules such as
histamine, heparin, proteases, etc. Principal effects seen are vasodilation
and smooth muscle contraction (Figure 15.6). Vasodilation decreases
blood pressure and contraction of smooth muscles of bronchioles affects
respiration. Hay fever occurs upon inhaling certain allergens in the air
leading to watery eyes, running nose, sneezing and coughing, involving
mainly upper respiratory tract.
Asthma involves lower respiratory tract when histamine released from
mast cells causes contraction of bronchioles. Mucus accumulates in the
air sacs, causing respiratory problems and the characteristic wheezing
sound. It can prove fatal if left untreated for too long. Allergens generally
responsible for this reaction are pollens, dust, fumes, insect products, or
viral antigens.
Epinephrine helps in generalized reaction by relaxing the smooth muscles
for respiration to restore and reducing vascular permeability so that blood
pressure can normalize improving cardiac output. Antihistamines are
used to relieve the symptoms of asthma and hay fever. 8. Though
smallpox has been successfully eradicated, eradication of other diseases
such as measles, tuberculosis, cholera and malaria has not been so
successful. Success of smallpox vaccine was due mainly to the fact that
pox virus did not mutate and the same vaccine could be used everywhere
and the vaccine was highly effective. On the other hand, though measles
vaccination has decreased death rates drastically, its total eradication
has not been achieved so far due to several reasons. The disease is
highly infectious, and spreads very fast. As long as it is present in one
area, unvaccinated children in any country are at risk. For measles,
boosters are required, difficult to achieve in poor countries, parents’
decision not to vaccinate their children due to fear or other misconceived
notions has also made the vaccination programme less effective.
Effective vaccine against cholera has not been available for two major
reasons: (a) Immunity conferred by the vaccine is not long lasting; (b)
Cholera is a toxin-mediated disease while protective immune mechanism
is antibacterial rather than antitoxic. Oral cholera vaccines have become
available recently.
Tuberculosis is a major killer, causing 2 to 3 million deaths annually.
According to WHO reports, nearly one-third of the world’s population is
currently infected with TB. Today, the only approved tuberculosis vaccine
is bacilli Calmette- Guerin (BCG) which was started in 1921. Though it is
quite effective in infants and young children, in adults, its efficacy is
variable. Many boosters are also being developed, MVA85A, being the
226
most advanced boost available. BCG vaccine has not been modified since
1921 and that may also be one reason why it is not so effective. That
bacteria may have changed through evolution is suggested by their
evolution of resistance to a number of known antibiotics. A lot of effort is
being devoted, but proving difficult as the bacterium lives within the cells
and lack of suitable animal model for developing and testing human
tuberculosis vaccine is posing a big challenge. In Africa, coinfections of
human immunodeficiency virus and TB have led to increases in the
incidence rate of TB.
9. The word ‘antibiotics’ is derived from the Greek word “anti” meaning
against and “bios” life. Antibiotics are a class of chemicals produced by
bacteria or fungi in order to inhibit the growth of other organisms in their
vicinity so that competition for limited resources can be minimized. The
first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928.
Since then antibiotics have found great use in medicine. Though they are
not effective against viruses, they are used to treat a number of bacterial
infections.
A large number of antibiotics have been discovered from a variety of
organisms, broadly belonging to two categories: bactericidal, which kill
the bacteria and bacteriostatic, which slow down their growth and
reproduction. Bactericidal antibiotics prevent the formation of cell wall
while bacteriostatic antibiotics interfere with some aspect of bacterial
metabolism, affecting either protein or RNA synthesis or DNA replication.
They must work together with the immune system to remove
microorganisms from the body. High concentrations may also be
bactericidal. As the use of antibiotics has increased, it has also led to the
evolution of resistance in a number of microbial pathogens with the result
that earlier antibiotics are no longer effective in treating a disease.
Resistance may have developed by a number of mechanisms e.g.,
(a) Production of enzyme beta lactamase that breaks down beta-lactam
ring of antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporin.
(b) Mutation in a gene leading to the formation of an altered protein which
does not bind penicillin.
(c) Altered cell wall permeability confers resistance to tetracyclines,
quinolones, penicillin.
(d) Creating a barrier of biofilm, where bacteria are not attacked by the
host’s immune system as seen in Salmonella.
(e) A gene can produce a product that can pump out the antibiotic as in
Staphylococcus against erythromycin.
(f) Some bacteria show alteration in ribosome structure so that protein
synthesis is not affected.
227
11. As the use of antibiotics has increased, it has also led to the evolution
of resistance in a number of microbial pathogens with the result that
earlier antibiotics are no longer effective in treating a disease.
Resistance may have developed by a number of mechanisms for example.
(i) Production of enzyme beta lactamase that breaks down beta-lactam
ring of antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporin.
(ii) Mutation in a gene leading to the formation of an altered protein which
does not bind penicillin.
(iii) Altered cell wall permeability confers resistance to tetracyclines,
quinolones, penicillin.
(iv) Creating a barrier of biofilm, where bacteria are not attacked by the
host’s immune system as seen in Salmonella.
(v) A gene can produce a product that can pump out the antibiotic as in
Staphylococcus against erythromycin.
(vi) Some bacteria show alteration in ribosome structure so that protein
synthesis is not affected.
12. When an HIV infection occurs, measurable HIV antibodies are
produced in response to antigens within a week or two of exposure.
The antibodies are generated in response to different viral antigens: the
p24 antigen, which is generally the first to appear; and the gp120 and
gp41 antigens, which are both found on the surface of the virus.
228
Once infected, the antibodies persist for life and provide the traditional
target for HIV antibody tests (including commercially available in-home
tests).
Fourth-generation combination tests are now capable of detecting both
HIV antibodies and p24 antigen, providing speedier, more accurate
confirmation of a person's HIV status.
Antibodies have the potential to block HIV-1 replication through multiple
pathways, and they exert immune pressure on the virus that leads to
escape. Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) bind cell-free virus and prevent
the virion from infecting the host target cells, thereby disrupting
subsequent rounds of replication. HIV-1 specific antibodies can also
complex with the Fcg receptor to counter HIV-1 through effector cell
mechanisms—a process that has the potential to contain cell–cell HIV-1
spread. It is not possible to predict which of these antibody mechanisms
will be most effective in containing HIV-1 because the relative
contribution of cell-free versus cell–cell spread in HIV-1 transmission and
pathogenesis are not well defined. Thus, the ability of antibodies to block
HIV-1 infection by each of these pathways is the topic of intense study.
Fill in the blanks:
1. .................... is chosen in cases of emergency or immunodeficiency.
2. class 1 allergy is mediated by ................... .
Ans. 1. Passive immunization, 2. IgE
Answer in one word:
1. Full form of IgG
2. Five types of antibodies
Ans. 1. Immunoglobins, 2. IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE and IgD
Unit 16: Human Reproductive

System and Gametogenesis
QUESTIONS
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Male sex organs include ...................... and ...................... .
229
(ii) The seminiferous tubules contain specialized cells, the spermatogenic and supporting cells
called ...................... .
(iii) ...................... joins epididymis from head region and ...................... leaves the epididymis from
tail region.
(iv) ............... provide alkaline environment that protects the passing spermatids.
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) ...................... stimulates the release of milk.
(ii) Ovary is held in place by three ligaments called .............., .............., and ................. .
(iii) Follicular cells produce ...................... , ...................... and ...................... .
(iv) ...................... acts for reservs for milk during lactation.
3.SELF EVALUATION
(i) The three basic steps of gametogenesis includes ..............., ............... and ............... .
(ii) One spermatogonium produces ............... and one oogonium produces ............... .
(iii) ............... cells provide nutrition in spermatogenesis.
(iv) The tertiary follicle matures into ............... .

(i) scrotum, testes
(ii) sertoli cells
(iii) Vasa efferentia, vasa deferens
(iv) Seminal vesicles

(i) oxytocin
(ii) mesovarium, suspensory ligament, uteroovarian ligament
(iii) estrogen, progestrone and relaxin
(iv) Mammary ampula

(i) proliferation, growth and differentiaton, and maturation
(ii) sperm, ovum
(iii) Sertoli
(iv) Graafian follicle
230
END UNIT ASSESSMENT
1. Germinal vesicle is the mitochondria of the ovum.
2. Urethral gland in human males is also called gland of Littre.
3. The proliferative phase involves two meiotic divisions of the oocyte.
4. Clitoris is considered homologous to penis of males.
5. Testosterone is synthesized in sertoli cells.
II. Fill in the blanks
1. Cowper’s gland in human male is also called ............................. .
2. Testes are present in the sac called ..............................
3. ....................... hormone helps in the relaxation of pelvic ligaments during childbirth.
4. The site of fertilization in human female is ............................. .
5. Corpus luteum secretes large amounts of hormone ............................... .
6. The onset of menstrual cycle at puberty is termed ............................... .
7. The caudaepididymis is attached to scrotal sacs by a connective tissue called ............................. .
8. The hormone responsible for most of the secondary sex characters in human male
is ............................. .
III. Long Questions
1. Give an account of various processes involved in oogenesis in human females.
2. Draw a well labelled diagram of human spermatozoan.
3. Give a detailed account of male reproductive accessory glands and discuss their role in male
reproductive system.
4. Describe the histological structure of human testis.
5. With the help of suitable diagrams, explain the structure of human female reproductive system in
detail.
6. Describe the internal anatomy of a typical human ovary.
7. Explain the steps leading to the formation of corpus luteus? What is its significance?
8. State where male and female gametes are produced.
9. Explain the significance of gametogenesis.
(ii) Name the parts marked 1–8 in the figure.
(iii) Write the functions of the parts marked 7 and 8.
(iv) Name the chemical substance present in the part marked 2.
(v) What is the importance of the chemical substance present in the part marked 2?
231
11. Genetic disparity has since ages disturbed the masses on Earth. Reproduction is a natural process
but still the work for male and females is defined in the society. Assess your understanding to
support gender equality. Also, list the names of organizations supporting the cause in Rwanda.

1. False; Germinal vesicle is the nucleus of the ovum.
2. True; Urethral gland is also called as glands of Littre on the name of
Alexis Littre.
3. False; Proliferation phase involves only mitotic divisions of germ cells/
oogonia.
4. True.
5. False; Testosterone is synthesized from Leydig or interstitial cells.
II. Fill in the blanks:
1. Bulbo-urethral gland
2. Scrotum or Scrotal sac
3. Relaxin
4. fallopian tube/ oviduct
5. progesterone
6. menarche
7. gubernaculum
8. testosterone
1. The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovaries. The three phases of
proliferation, growth and maturation occur in discontinuous steps.
232
(a) Proliferative or Multiplication phase: During early foetal development,
certain cells within the germinal epithelium of the ovary become
enlarged. These cells proliferate by mitosis, producing undifferentiated
germ cells called eggmothercells or oogonia (2n). The oogonia divide
mitotically to produce groups of oogonia, termed follicles. About two
million oogonia are formed within each foetal ovary; no more oogonia are
added after birth.
(b) Growth and differentiation phase: During this long phase, which may
last upto years, one cell in a follicle prepares for the formation of ovum. It
starts meiotic division but gets arrested at prophase-I stage and is called
primary oocyte. The remaining cells of the follicle lose the potential to
become primary oocyte and are known as the follicular cells or
granulosacells. These follicular cells serve to protect and nourish the
primary oocyte. The complete follicle with a primary oocyte surrounded
by a layer of follicular cells is called the primary or the ovarian follicle
Schematic representation of oogenesis

(c) Maturation phase: At puberty, only one of the primary oocytes resumes
division per menstrual cycle, alternately in each ovary. The tertiary
follicle matures into a Graafianfollicle, within which the primary oocyte
divides to form two very unequal cells – a large secondary oocyte (n) and
a very small 1st polar body or polocyte (n). The 1st polar body may further
be divided into two polar bodies. However, the secondary oocyte again
gets arrested at metaphase stage of meiosis-II and is released from the
ovary during ovulation. It waits in the oviduct for the sperm to arrive. If
fertilization occurs, sperm entry into the secondary oocyte marks the
resumption of meiosis. The 2nd maturation division (meiosis-II) again
233
divides the secondary oocyte into two unequal daughter cells – a large
ootid and a very small 2nd polar body. The ootid undergoes maturation
into a functional haploid ovum. A thin vitelline membrane develops
outside the plasma membrane of the ovum that protects and nourishes
the latter.
Thus, from one oogonium (egg mother cell), one ovum and three polar
bodies are formed. The ovum is the functional female gamete while the
polar bodies take no part in reproduction and soon degenerate. The
formation of polar bodies only helps the egg to get rid of one set of
chromosomes and still enables the ovum to retain most of the cytoplasm
and food for the future embryo. In case fertilization does not occur, the
secondary oocyte undergoes degeneration and is driven out of the body.
3. The male reproductive accessory glands in human are:

(i) Seminal Vesicles: The secretion of the seminal vesicle contains
fructose and prostaglandins. Fructose provides energy to the sperm and
prostaglandins aids to the movement of sperm toward the egg by
stimulatating muscular contractions within the female reproductive
organs. The other constituents of seminal vesicles’ secretion include
potassium, bicarbonate, acid-soluble phosphate and proteins.
(ii) Prostate Gland: Prostatic secretion is composed of citric acid and acid
phosphatase mainly. Citric acid is used for production of ATP through
Kreb’s cycle. Besides these two components, several proteolytic
enzymes, fibrinolysin, hyaluronidase, prostate-specific antigen
pepsinogen, lysozyme are also present in prostate secretion.
(iii) Urethral or Littre’s glands: Their secretion is clear, watery, and rich in
mucoproteins. It constitutes primarily the pre-sperm fraction which is
emitted prior to the spermatozoa at the time of ejaculation.
(iv) Bulbo-urethral or Cowper’s gland: The secretion provides mucous and
viscous fluid that helps in lubrication of penis and lining of urethra. It
provides alkaline environment that protects the passing spermatozoa by
neutralizing acids from urine in the urethra. It also contains sialic acid,
galactose, galactosamine, galacturonic acid and a methyl pentose.
234
4. The testes are surrounded by serous sheath called as tunica vaginalis,
anteriorly and laterally. Behind tunica vaginalis is present a thick, white,
fibrous capsule called as tunica albugenia. Interior to it lies the tunica
vasculosa, which is rich in vascular supply. Posteriorly, the tunica
albuginea thickens greatly and is projected into the interior of the testis
as the Corpus Highmori or mediastinum testis. The testes are held in
position by mesenteries called as mesorchium.
The ducts, blood & lymphatic vessels and nerves enter or leave the testis
through the mediastinum. The connective tissue septa, called as septula
testis (singular-septum of testis) radiate from mediastinum into the testis.
These septulae subdivide the interior of the testis into a number of
pyramidal lobules called as the testicular lobules. Each testicular lobule
further contains several sperm producing convoluted tubules known as
the seminiferous tubules (semin = seed; fer = to carry). The seminiferous
tubules contain specialized epithelial cells, the spermatogenic cells and
the supporting cells, also known as the sertoli cells. Sertoli cells provide
support and nourishment, help in cell to cell communication, secrete
inhibin and androgen binding protein etc. These are surrounded and
supported by intertubular connective tissue which is rich in blood vessels
and groups of epithelial cells, known as the Leydig cells (also called as
the interstitial cells or interstitial endocrinocytes). The leydig cells
produce androgen and the male sex hormone, testosterone.
235
5. The human female reproductive system consists of the primary sex
organs or the gonads (ovaries), the genital ducts (oviducts or the
uterine/fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina) and the external
genitalia, along with a pair of mammary glands.
Ovaries (singular: Ovary, Latin: Ovarium, literally meaning ‘egg’ or ‘nut’)—
the primary sex organs in females are egg-shaped, paired structures,
located in the upper pelvic cavity, one on either side of the uterus in front
of the ureter, embedded in the connective tissue matrix called ovarian
fossa. A single ovary is about 2 to 4 cm long, 2 cm wide and 1.5 cm thick
and weighs about 15 grams.
Female Reproductive Ducts
Oviducts/uterine ducts/fallopian ducts: function to transfer the ovum from
the ovary to the uterus and serve as the site of fertilization of the male
236
and female gametes. Each oviduct, 10 – 12 cm long, can be divided into
four continuous regions as
• Infundibulum: Closest to the ovary, opens into the peritoneal cavity,

serve to receive the ovum released by the ovary during ovulation.
• Ampulla: The widest and major part of the tube, the site of fertlization
• Isthmus: The narrower part, that links to the uterine wall
• Interstitial or the intramural or the uterine part – that lies within the
uterine wall
Uterus: Also known as hystera or metra or womb is an ‘inverted pear’-
shaped, muscular, hollow (uterine cavity lies within), hormone-responsive
organ that serves to house, nourish and protect the growing foetus till
birth. Anatomically, the uterus consists of three parts:
• Fundus: The dome shaped part above the openings of the uterine parts
of the fallopian tubes
• Corpus uteri or the ‘body’: The main centrally expanded portion cervix–
the inferior narrow portion that opens into the vagina
Cervix: It is the narrow cartilaginous terminal part of the uterus that joins
the anterior wall of vagina. A narrow, constricted region, about 1 cm long
called isthmus joins the uterus with the cervix. The cervical canal or the
cavity of the cervix communicates with the uterus internally by an
aperture called internal osand with the vagina by external os. Cervix and
vagina together from the birth canal; during childbirth, it dilates widely to
allow the baby to pass through.
Vagina: It is a distensible, muscular tube, about 10 cm long, which
extends from vulva (external genitalia) to the uterus. The vaginal opening
on the vulva is termed the vaginalorifice. The orifice is partially covered
by a membrane called hymen that ruptures during the first act of
intercourse. However, it may get ripped off during some strenuous
activities like sports, disease, injury, sudden fall or jolt, insertion of
237
vaginal tampon, masturbation or a medical examination.Vagina serves as
a receptacle for the male copulatory organ during sexual intercourse,
provides a passageway for the menstrual flow and forms part of the birth
canal during childbirth.
ExternalGenitalia
Clitoris is considered homologous to penis of males, though it is much

reduced in size and has no passage inside. It is hooded by another fold of
skin called the prepuce of clitoris homologous to glans penis. The clitoris
is richly innervated with sensory nerve endings, and is sensitive to touch
contributing to a female’s sexual arousal.
6. A typical human ovary is composed of connective tissue called stroma,
wrapped by a layer of cuboidal cells called germinal epithelium. Germinal
epithelium is further covered by a layer of flattened cells called tunica
albuginea. The stroma is divided into two zones: an outer dense cortex
and a less dense inner medulla. The medulla consists of loose connective
tissue, blood vessels, lymphatics, smooth muscle fibres and nerves. The
cortex consists of rounded structures called ovarian or the Graafian
follicles, at various stages of development. Each follicle consists of a
large ovum surrounded by several layers of follicular or granulosa cells.A
fully grown ovarian or the Graafian follicle typically consists of:
• An oocyte (15-30 μm wide) with a nucleus called the germinal vesicle,
bounded by vitelline membrane which is further surrounded by zona
pellucida.
• Surrounding the zona pellucida is present membrane granulosa,
consisting of granulosacells or the follicular cells. The granulosa cells
lying in close vicinity of the oocyte may become elongated to form the
corona radiata.
Membrana granulosa is further covered on the outside by theca interna
and theca externa.
• A cavity called follicular antrum/cavity filled with a fluid, the liquor
folliculi.
238
• The oocyte anchors to the wall of the follicle by a thin layer of follicle
cells called cumulusoophorus, which nourishes the oocyte.
7. Corpus luteum (Latin means “yellow body”; plural: corpora lutea) is a

temporary endocrine structure that develops from degenerating cells of
the ovarian follicle after the release of ovum, under the influence of LH. It
produces large amounts of progesterone.
The Luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary
stimulates the development of corpus luteum from degenerating cells of
the ovarian follicle after ovulation. Corpus luteum secretes large amounts
of progesterone and some estrogen.
If the oocyte is fertilized, the corpus luteum continues to proliferate and
increases hormone production. By the end of the third month of
pregnancy, luteal cells occupy a large part of the ovary and keep
releasing progesterone. However, by the end of the fourth month, they
regress slowly.
239
If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates in 10–12
days after ovulation. It is visible only in the form of a white scar, the
corpus albicans, on the outside of the ovary.
8. Gametes are the reproductive cells used during sexual reproduction to
produce a new organism called a zygote. The gametes in males and
females are different. The male gamete is called sperm. The female
gamete is called an egg or ova. The eggs or ova are produced in the
ovaries. The sperms are produced in the testes.
9. Significance of gametogenesis Spermatogenesis and oogenesis are
both forms of gametogenesis, in which a diploid gamete cell produces
haploid sperm and egg cells, respectively.
The process of formation of sperms is called spermatogenesis. It occurs
in the semi-niferous tubules of the testes.
The process of formation of a mature female gamete (ovum) is called
oogenesis. It occurs in the ovaries (female gonads).
Significance of Spermatogenesis:
• During spermatogenesis, one spermatogonium produces four sperms.
• Sperms have half the number of chromosomes. After fertilization, the
diploid chromosome number is restored in the zygote. It maintains the
chromosome number of the species.
• During meiosis I crossing over takes place which brings about variation.
• Spermatogenesis occurs in various organisms. Thus, it supports the
evidence of the basic relationship of the organisms.
Significance of Oogenesis:
• One oogonium produces one ovum and three polar bodies.
• Polar bodies have small amount of cytoplasm. It helps to retain
sufficient amount of cytoplasm in the ovum which is essential for the
development of early embryo. Formation of polar bodies maintains half
number of chromosomes in the ovum.
• During meiosis first crossing over takes place which brings about
variation.
• Oogenesis occurs in various organisms. Therefore, it supports the
evidence of basic relationship of the organisms.
10. (i) Human spermatozoa
(ii) (1) Plasma membrane (2) Acrosome (3) Nucleus (4) Head (5) Neck (6)
Middle piece (7) Mitochondria (8) Tail.
(iii) (7) Provide energy for swimming (8) Help in swimming
(iv) Sperm lysins
(v) Helps in the penetration of sperm into the ovum.
240
11. Reproduction is a natural process. Still, people take reckless
measures to ensure it’s a son! To begin with, they use unsafe methods of
abortion to get around the anti-abortion laws of Pakistan, after the figure
out it’s a girl in the womb. If a mother’s child comes in danger with it, so
be it! A girl should not be allowed in this world.
Technically speaking, it takes an X and Y (XY) to make the revered sex-
male. And while the X factor, women (XX) have only X chromosomes to
contribute in any case, it’s the man (XY) whose contribution or non-
contribution of Y chromosome that can end up to make a baby girl or a
baby boy. Which chromosome combines with which one, it’s God’s work,
who’s planned for all lives to come in this world, if we really are
desperate to play the blame game here and express our anger on
someone, then it has got to be the man.
The repercussions of the genocide moved civil society organizations
(CSOs) and NGOs to emerge which aimed at helping to address social
needs.
Save the Children
Save the Children has been in Rwanda for many years and is most known
for helping to trace parents or relatives of children who had been
separated from their families during the genocide. Save the Children is
mainly working in Burera, Gicumbi, Ruhango and Rubavu.
World Concern International
World Concern is dedicated to tackling poverty and suffering in the
world’s poorest countries. Here in Rwanda, it works in the following
sectors: health, HIV and AIDS, livelihoods, and primary education which
are implemented in Gakenke, Huye, Nyaruguru and Gisagara.
10,000 women programme
10,000 Women is a five-year initiative that provides business and
management education to underserved female entrepreneurs in
developing and emerging markets. This programme is designed to drive
greater shared economic growth which will eventually lead to stronger
healthcare, education as well as greater prosperity in the communities
where it operates. Rwanda is one country that is benefiting from this
programme.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Surgical removal of testis is called ............... .
2. ............... is the bilateral ligation of vas deferens as a contraceptive.
241
Ans. 1. Castration, 2. Vasectomy
Answer in one word:
1. Presence of more than the normal number of breasts.
2. Failure to achieve and/ or maintain the erection for coitus.
Ans. 1. Hypermastia, 2. Impotence
Unit 17: Genetics

QUESTIONS
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) A cross of F1 with the recessive parent is ............................. .
(ii) ............................. is the father of genetics.
(iii) Mendel selected ............................. varieties of garden pea.
(iv) F2 generation shows 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio in ............................. .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) .............. is the phenomenon in which genes for different traits do not show independent
assortment.
(ii) Complete the table. Identify a, b and c.
(iii) A plant with genotype AABbcC is selfed F2 phenotypic ratio would be .............
(iv) How many types of gametes are found in F1 progeny of cross AABBCC and aabbcc.
3.SELF EVALUATION
242
(ii) ........... disease affects muscle coordination. It is a neurogenetic digenerative disease.
(iii) In turner’s syndrome ............... .
(iv) ..................... is the failure of homologous chromosomes to seggregate at anaphase.

(i) Test cross (ii) GJ Mendel
(iii) 17 (iv) Phenotype

(i) Linkege
(ii) Incomplete dominance
(a) is both as expressed
(b) is dominant/recessive
(c) is progeny in between the two
(iii) 3:1
(iv) 8

(i) (c), Inheritance of a condition like phenylketonuria and autosomal
recessive trait.
(ii) Huntington’s
(iii) there are 45 chromosomes
(iv) Chromosome non-disjunction
243
END UNIT
ASSESSMENT
1. Heredity is the transfer of traits from one parent to offsprings.
2. In the monohybrid cross between tall and dwarf plants, second generation plants were all tall.
3. In codominance, both the alleles of gene are equally expressed.
4. The genes located on same chromosomes are always linked and never assort independently.
5. In humans, XXY individual will be male.
6. In recessive genetic diseases, affected person can have one affected and another unaffected
homozygous parent.
7. The frequency of crossing over increases as distance between the linked genes decreases.
8. The sex linkage phenomenon was first observed in Drosophila.
9. In pedigree analysis, the dominant traits are observed every generation.
10. Non-disjunction of chromosomes can happen at meiosis and mitosis.
1. Which of the following reasons are true for Mendel’s success?
(a) He studied many traits at one time
(b) He worked with pure lines
(c) His model organisms were Homo sapiens
(d) He was a chemist
2. Offsprings produced during first progeny are also known as:
(a) F1 generation (b) F2 generation
(c) F3 generation (d) P generation
3. Mendel was successful in his experiments because garden pea:
(a) Produces large number of offsprings
(b) Has long reproduction cycle
(c) Does not show self-pollination
(d) Has difficulty to grow
4. A gamete has ........ number of alleles for a particular gene:
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
5. The Phenotypic Mendelian monohybrid ratio can be described as:
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1 : 2 : 1
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 2 : 2
6. What is Semi-dominance
244
(a) When both the traits are expressed
(b) When both traits are partially expressed
(c) When both traits are not expressed
(d) When only one trait is expressed
7. A cross between two plants with two pair of contrasting traits is commonly known as:
(a) Monohybrid cross (b) Dihybrid cross
(c) Trihybrid cross (d) Tetra-hybrid cross
8. Test cross is a cross between
(a) F1 hybrid with any of the parent
(b) F1 hybrid with recessive parent
(c) F1 hybrid with other individual similar to parent
(d) None of the above
9. Genetic makeup of Klinefelter syndrome is
(a) 44 autosomes + XXY (b) 44 autosomes + XXX
(c) 44 autosomes + XXXX (d) 44 autosomes + XY
10. Huntington’s disease in humans is the example of:
(a) Autosomal dominant genetic disease
(b) Autosomal recessive genetic disease
(c) X-linked dominant genetic disease
(d) X-linked recessive genetic disease
III. Long Answers Type Questions
1. Explain the terms gene, locus, allele, dominant, recessive, co-dominant, linkage,
test cross, F1 and F2, phenotype, genotype, homozygous and heterozygous.
2. Explain how to conduct a test cross.
3. Explain why monohybrid ratios of 1:2:1 occur.
4. Describe an example of inheritance involving multiple alleles.
5. Explain the effect of lethal genes on phenotype ratios.
6. Give a genetic explanation of Mendelian dihybrid inheritance.
7. Explain the use of test crosses to determine unknown genotypes in studies of
dihybrid inheritance.
8. Explain the significance of recombination.
9. Explain how the sex is determined in humans and the role of sex related Y
genes in determining sex.
10. Describe how the non-disjunction can affect the distribution of sex chromosomes
in gametes and offspring.
11. Explain why the linked genes do not show independent assortment.
12. Explain how crossover values can be used to make a chromosome map.
13. How can genetic studies by supportive for environment protection? State the role of different
genetic aspects to list and cure diseases since ages. What relevance can be cited to support genetics
as an important branch of biology?
245
1. False; as traits are passed on from both the parents to offsprings. The
progeny gets one chromosome from father and one from the mother.
2. False; in the monohybrid cross between tall and dwarf plants, second
generation (F2) plants include both tall and dwarf plants in the ratio of 3
(tall): 1 (dwarf).
3. True; in co-dominance, both the alleles of gene are equally expressed.
For example, MN individual expresses both M as well as N alleles, thus
have both M and N glycoprotein on their RBC plasma membrane.
4. False; not always as cross-over event can separate genes located on
the same chromosome. The frequency of cross-over event increases as
distance between the genes increases.
5. True; Y chromosomes determines the maleness in humans so XXY
individual will be male although he suffers from Klinefelter syndrome. XO
is female but she suffers from Turner syndrome. It indicates that for the
normal functioning of male and female reproductive system, normal
complement of chromosomes XY and XX is required respectively.
6. False; as recessive individual will have genotype “aa” for the particular
disease so genotype “aa” can never come from one affected (“aa”)
genotype and unaffected homozygous parents (“AA”).
7. False; the frequency of crossing over decreases when the genes are
closely apart.
8. True; white-male eyes drosophila were observed by T. H. Morgan. Later
he indicated that white-eyes colour trait is sex-linked.
9. True; In pedigree analysis, the dominant traits are observed every
generation as dominant trait is expressed in heterozygous individual as
well.
10. True; Non-disjunction of chromosomes where chromosomes fail to
move during anaphase stage can happen at meiosis or mitosis.

1. (b); working with pure lines which were true for particular trait helped
him to concentrate on that trait. It was one of the reasons for his
success.
2. (a); F1 generation which means filial comes from latin word progeny
and one indicates first.
246
3. (a); Garden pea generates large number of progeny which enable
Mendel to makes quantitative records of the offspring obtained from
breeding experiments.
4. (b); the factors or alleles of gene for particular trait segregate at the
time of fertilization so a gamete has one number of alleles for a particular
gene.
5. (a); The Phenotypic Mendelian monohybrid ratio is 3:1 while genotypic
ratio is 1:2:1.
6. (b); when dominant allele is not completely dominant and recessive
allele is not completely recessive. The trait is partially expressed.
7. (b); Dihybrid cross is the cross between two plants with two pair of
contrasting traits.
8. (b); Test cross is cross between F1 hybrid with recessive parent.
9. (a); Genetic makeup of Klinefelter syndrome is 44 autosomes and XXY.
10. (a); Huntington’s disease in humans is the example of autosomal
dominant genetic disease.
III. Long answers:

1. Gene: Gene is the entity/unit which has the information for particular
trait. For example: in garden pea, gene for stem height has information for
height whether it would be long or small.
Locus: The position of gene on chromosome constitutes its loci/locus.
Allele: The alternate forms of genes are known as Alleles. A pair of alleles
for each trait is present in the zygote of an organism. For example: in
garden pea, true breeding tall parent plants have two similar alleles (TT).
Dominant Allele: In individual, out of two alleles for the particular trait,
only one allele is expressed. The expressed allele is known as dominant.
For example, allele (T) for tallness is expressed in F1 individuals (Tt),
dominant allele. Dominant allele is generally referred by capital alphabet.
Recessive Allele: In individual, out of two alleles for the particular trait
one allele is under-expressed. The under-expressed allele is known as
recessive. For example, allele (t) for shortness is not expressed in F1
individuals (Tt), recessive allele. Recessive allele is generally referred by
small alphabet.
Co-dominant: It’s a phenomenon when both alleles present in an
individual, are equally expressed. For example, in humans, blood cells
express both the alleles M and N (alternate form of gene encoding Red
blood cell membrane protein) when present together.
Linkage: The genes are said to be linked when present on the same
chromosome and inherited together as unit.
247
Test Cross: It is cross between hybrid forms (dominant phenotype) with
other parent with recessive form of particular trait (homozygous
recessive). It is generally used to identify the genotype of hybrid form.
F1: F symbolized filial, which means “progeny” in latin. F1 is the filial
generation first, produced by cross between parent individuals.
F2: F2 is the filial generation second, produced by cross between F1
individuals
Phenotype: The morphological appearance for particular trait constitutes
its phenotype. For example: In the cross between tall and dwarf parent
plants, F1 plants are tall. Tallness is their phenotype. In F2 plants, tall
and dwarf plants are obtained in ration of 3 : 1, it is phenotypic ratio.
Genotype: The combination of allele for particular trait in an individual
constitutes its genotype. For example: In the cross between tall and
dwarf parent plants, F1 plants are Tt. “Tt” constitute their genotype for
the trait stem height. Similarly, F2 plants are tall and dwarf. But genotype
of all tall F2 plants is not same, one third are pure (TT) while two third are
hybrid (Tt). So genotypically F2 ratio is 1 : 2 : 1.
Homozygous: When in an individual, two alleles for a particular trait are
alike, then the individual is considered homozygous for the particular
trait. For example, parent plants Tall and Dwarf plants are homozygous
for stem height.
Heterozygous: When in an individual, two alleles for a particular trait are
different, then the individual is considered heterozygous for the particular
trait. For example, F1 plants are genotypically “Tt”. They are
heterozygous for stem height.
2. Test Cross: It is cross between hybrid forms (dominant phenotype) with
other parent with recessive form of particular trait (homozygous
recessive). It is generally used to identify the genotype of hybrid form.
The progenies are observed. If all progeny demonstrates only dominant
form of trait, thereby indicating that unknown genotype must be
homozygous for the particular trait. Or If F1 progeny shows both dominant
and recessive form of trait in the ratio of 1 : 1 indicating that unknown
genotype must be heterozygous for the particular trait.
There can be two possible genotypes of an unknown dominant phenotype
as illustrated below.
Possibility 1. If the unknown is homozygous yellow (YY) then crossing
with green recessive (yy) gives all yellow offspring (i.e., all Yy) as shown
below:
248
Possibility 2. If the unknown is heterozygous yellow (Yy), then crossing
with green recessive results in 50% yellow (Yy) and 50% green (yy)
progeny as shown below:
In case of a double heterozygous, i.e., heterozygous yellow and round ( Yy

Rr) crossed with double recessive, i.e., recessive green and wrinkled ( yy
rr) the ratio will be 1 : 1 : 1 :1.
3. Monohybrid Cross: ‘It is a cross between two individuals of a
species which is made to study the inheritance of a single pair of
factors or genes of a trait.’ A ratio among the offspring of F2
generation of a monohybrid cross is called a ‘monohybrid ratio.’ It is
usually 3 : 1 (phenotypic ratio) or 1 : 2 : 1 (genotypic ratio), in which
1/4 individuals carry the recessive trait, 1/4 pure dominant and 1/2
have impure dominant trait.
249
4. It is well established that there are two alleles for a single gene.
However, sometimes in a population there can be more than two alleles
for a certain gene which can be illustrated by the ABO blood group
system. In ABO blood group system there are three alleles IA, IB and IO in
the population. The alleles decide the type of glycoprotein found on the
surface of erythrocytes (red blood cells). There are four blood types
phenotype as depicted in table 1. The Individual with blood group A
express A type of glycoprotein while the individual with blood group B
express B type of glycoprotein. The individual with blood group AB
expresses both types of glycoprotein while O type individual contains
neither A or B.
Alleles IA and IB are dominant to IO so A type individuals can have IA IA or IA
IO genotype. Similarly, B type can have I B IB or IB IO genotype. Alleles IA and
IB are co-dominant, so when present together in AB, individuals are
expressed together. Alleles IO is recessive so O type individuals are
recessive homozygous IO IO. ABO Blood type example demonstrates
unique combination of multiple alleles as well as co-dominance.
250
5. Sometimes genes have serious effect on development, and physiology
of the organism in such a way that organism is unable to survive. Such
genes are known as lethal genes. The particular allele responsible for
death of the organism is known as lethal alleles. Lethal allele can be
dominant or recessive.
For example: The dominant allele C in chicken has serious effect in
development of the organism and results in following phenotype:
Aberrant form “creepers” in Heterozygous individual (Cc)
Completely “lethal” in homozygous dominant (CC).
When two heterozygous creeper individuals are mated, progeny are
obtained in phenotypic ratio of 2 (Creeper): 1(Normal) instead of 3 : 1
monohybrid Mendelian ratio.
251
6. Mendel then thought how the segregation of factors for a particular
trait at the time of gamete formation (Principle of segregation) could be
effected with the segregation of factors for the other traits. With this
question in his mind, he carried out similar sets of cross hybridization
experiments between parents differing in contrasting set of two traits,
(for example, round or wrinkled seed shape and yellow or green seed
colour). Such a cross between parents which differs in contrasting form
of two traits is known as Dihybrid cross or inheritance. The F1 progeny
generated is known as Dihybrid.
The cross was made between the double dominant plants (round seed
shape with yellow seed colour) with double recessive parent (wrinkled
seed shape with green seed colour) and the following points were
observed:
All round yellow seeds were observed in F1 generation indicating
dominant factor for a gene was expressed in the same manner as in
monohybrid cross.
On self-fertilization of F1 plants, F2 seeds were obtained and segregated
in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 based on their phenotype.
In addition to parental phenotype combination, two new phenotype
combinations/ recombinants (wrinkled and yellow and round and green
seeds) were observed. Mendel hypothesized that the factors for different
traits separate and assort independently in the gametes (factor for seed
shape can assort with any seed colour factor and vice versa) then F1
plants should produce four types of gametes.
So male and female F1 plant gametes can fuse randomly and combine in
16 possible ways which can be simply represented by a simple square
popularly known as Punnett’s square.
Mendel observed similar results when he analyzed results of dihybrid
cross for the other pair of traits as well. The dihybrid results did not
contradict monohybrid results, the round seeds and wrinkled seeds as
well as yellow and green seeds were in ratio of 3 : 1. He hypothesized
dihybrid cross event as two independent monohybrid cross events.
252
7. Test cross can be used to differentiate genotype of dihybrid organisms
(whether it is homozygous and heterozygous for the traits) if
phenotypically same for a traits. For example: plants with similar
phenotype rounded seed shape and yellow seed colour can have different
genotype RRYY or RrYy. So the genotype of such plants can be identified
by test cross. So plant with unknown genotype is crossed with plant with
recessive form of both the traits. There are two possibilities 1. If progeny
plants are observed in phenotypic dihybrid test ratio 1 (round and
253
yellow):1 (round and green):1 (wrinkled and yellow):1 (wrinkled and
green), then the parent plant must have heterozygous genotype for both
the traits.
8. Significance of Recombination
The major significance is generation of variations. Due to crossing over,
genes even on the same chromosome can be assorted differently. It leads
to variations in the progeny. The variations are very useful in nature as it
provides raw material on which natural selection can act.
The frequency of crossing over becomes higher with increase in physical
distance between gene loci. So recombinant frequency between two
genes can be used to determine distance between genes, hence it helps
to create chromosome map.
9. Sex Determination in Humans

In humans and other placental mammals, male and female differ in their
chromosome complement. Generally, there are two types of
chromosomes, autosomes and sex chromosomes. Generally, in one sex
(mostly female), both the sex-chromosomes are alike/homomorphic (XX)
and in other sex (male) there are two different/heteromorphic sex
chromosomes (XY). As the females are homomorphic (44 autosomes and
XX) so female produces single type of ovum containing 22 autosomes and
one X chromosome while males are heteromorphic (44 autosomes and
XY) so male produces two types of sperm, one containing 22 autosomes
and an X chromosome while other with 22 autosomes and a Y
chromosome. It is the Y chromosome which determines the sex of the
individual. Y chromosome has Testis-determining factor (TDF) gene which
254
produces testis determining factor which causes primordial gonadal
tissue in developing foetus to differentiate into testis. In the absence of
TDF, tissue differentiates into ovaries. So Individuals with Y chromosome
are genetically male. Individuals without Y chromosome are genetically
female. So the sex in human is determined at the moment of conception
or fertilization of male (sperms) and female gamete (ovum). If ovum gets
fertilized by sperm containing an X-chromosome, then resulting zygote
will have two XX chromosomes and will develop into female.
But if ovum gets fertilized by sperm containing a Y-chromosome, then
resulting zygote will have two XY chromosomes and will develop into
male. So biologically, father is responsible for sex of the child.
Evidence for Role of Y Chromosomes in Sex Determination in Humans
The early evidence for the role of Y chromosome in sex determination is
provided by certain individuals with chromosome number abnormality i.e.
turner syndrome and Klinefelter syndrome which are caused by non-
disjunction of sex chromosomes in meiosis.
Turner syndrome: Here, individuals have 45 chromosomes in contrast to
normal complement of 46 chromosomes. The turner individuals have
chromosome complement 45 (XO) and are sterile female. They tend to
have short height; fail to develop secondary sexual characters and
immature internal sex organs.
It indicates presence of two X chromosomes is not important at least in
female sex determination obviously it is essential for proper development
of female.
Klinefelter syndrome: Here individuals have 47 chromosomes in contrast
to normal complement of 46 chromosomes. The Klinefelter individuals
have chromosome complement 47 (XXY) and sterile male. They tend to
have underdeveloped testis, taller than the average male, breast
development.
It indicates that despite the presence of two XX chromosomes, the sex of
the individual is male. Thus, the presence of Y chromosome determines
maleness.
10. Chromosome non-disjunction is the failure of the homologous
chromosomes to separate at anaphase at the time of cell division. The
phenomenon was first observed by C. Bridges in drosophila. It involves
autosomes or sex chromosomes. Generally, two sex chromosome
synapse at the time of meiosis and segregate equally in the gametes so
gametes have single sex chromosomes.
If synapsed sex chromosomes fail to separate, then one type of gamete
receives both sex chromosomes while other receives none.
255
For example: If non-disjunction of sex chromosomes happens in egg
formation, then one egg will receive both X chromosomes while other
receives none in contrast to equal distribution of sex chromosomes. The
fusion of the egg with normal sperm with single chromosome X or Y leads
to individuals with XXX (super-female), XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), XO
(Turner syndrome) and YO (lethal phenotype).
11. Linked genes are located on the same chromosome, and so they do
not assort independently during gamete production in meiosis. The law of
independent assortment applies only to genes located on different
chromosomes, since there is a 50% chance that a chromosome inherited
from the father will be passed on to a gamete, and 50% chance that the
homologous chromosome inherited from the mother will be passed on to
the same gamete. However, this law does not apply to genes located on
the same chromosome, since these are passed on to gametes together.
However, keeping in mind the chances of recombination during crossing
over, the farther apart the two loci of the genes are, the less likely the
two traits are to be inherited together.
12. A chromosome map is the linear arrangement of genes in the
chromosome with their relative distance. It is based on fact that the
frequency of crossing over between two genes is directly proportional to
the physical distance between the two. Therefore, the distance between
genes is indicated by percentage of crossing over (recombinant
frequency). The distance unit is map unit or 1cM (centi-Morgan, in honour
of T. H. Morgan), so When 1% recombinant frequency is observed between
two genes, then genes are said to be 1 map unit apart.
T. H. Morgan and Sturtevant carried out extensive work in drosophila in
finding recombination frequency between different genes and based on
recombination data, they generated chromosome map.
256
257
But based on the information, possibility B represents the actual order of
genes.
At the same time, we should remember even when genes are very far,
there are 100% chances of crossing over but recombinant frequency will
not exceed more than 50% only because with increased distance, double
or multiple cross events happen which cancel the effect of single cross
over.
13. Genetic research is a complicated thing. The scientists understand
how the genes function and how they affect human health; however, the
diseases that are triggered by genetic factors do not always function “by
the rule" except for a few disorders which are directly caused by genetic
abnormalities and mutations such as Marfan syndrome (genetic disorder
of the connective tissue resulting in abnormal height and limb length),
Huntington disease (neurodegenerative disorder), Niemann-Pick disease
(metabolic disorder), Roberts syndrome (very rare prenatal retardation),
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (rare genetic mutation causing build-up of uric
acid in body fluids) and many others. People with certain genes are at
increased risk of conditions associated with those particular genes. In
other words, you are more likely to be affected by diseases which are
inheritable and conditions that run in your family although they are not
directly inherited. And the list of conditions that can be influenced by
genetic factors are virtually countless. Genetic researches help identify
diseases and health problems that are more likely to be influenced by
genetic factors as well as to assess the risk of a particular disease in an
individual. These researches are known as genetic tests. When a genetic
test confirms a high risk of certain condition, an expert in the field
determines preventive measures to reduce the risk of that particular
disease. Genetic testing is very reliable; however, it cannot tell you for
sure whether you will develop a particular disease or not.
Healthy people have been intrigued by the possibility that genetic testing
may tell them more about what the future may hold and then using that
knowledge improves their health.
258
There is now very reliable evidence that certain gene variants confer a
high risk of developing breast, ovarian or bowel cancer. In these
instances, high levels of surveillance coupled with medical interventions
such as surgery could detect cancer early or prevent cancer.
In the future, people who do not have any reason to believe they are at
increased risk to develop cancer may choose to have genomic
sequencing so they can learn more about their risk and take appropriate
actions to reduce it.
But there are a number of genetic variants with only limited evidence to
suggest a connection between the gene and the development of disease.
Using genetic testing for predictive purposes comes with a number of
ethical dilemmas.
The NIH recently announced funding of research programmes to
investigate the use of genomic sequencing in the screening of newborns.
As well as diagnosing conditions affecting these babies sooner, genomic
sequencing can also predict the development of rare inherited adult onset
conditions such as some cancers.
This is the information that some healthy, high-risk adults prefer not to
know, while others cope by learning as much as possible.
There is currently no consistent view on how inadvertent predictive
testing (or incidental findings, which may or may not have health
implications some time in the future) should be managed, particularly
when testing would be performed at birth or during pregnancy.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ............................. is linear arrangement of genes in chromosome.
2. Chromatids which participate in crossing over
generate ............................ .
Ans. 1. Chromosome map, 2. Recombinant chromatids
Answer in one word:
1. Chromosome theory of inheritance was given by ............................ .
2. Morphological appearance for particular trait
constitutes ............................ .
Ans. 1. Sutton and Boveri, 2. Phenotype
259
Unit 18:
Mutations
1.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Substitution of one base by another may lead to ................................... or .................. mutation.
(ii) Now disjunction of chromosomes can lead to ................. or ................. .
(iii) Induced mutation happens due to ................. and ................. .
(iv) If a chromosomes breaks and fuses again in reverse order, it is called ................. .
2.SELF EVALUATION
(i) Tell the cause of the following diseases
(a) Sickle cell anaemia
(b) Huntington disease
(c) Dawn’s syndrome
(d) Albinism
(ii) .................... have helped develop resistance in virus and bacteria.

(i) Silent, missense, nonsense
(ii) Monosomy, trisomy
(iii) Physical mutagen or chemical mutagens
(iv) inversion

(i) (a) valine is coded in place of glutamine
(b) addition of CAG repeats
(c) trisomy of chromosome number
260
(d) DOPA is not converted to melanin.
(ii) Rapid rate of mutation
END UNIT
ASSESSMENT
1. Mutations can broadly be categorized as somatic and germ-line, depending on whether mutation
occurs in a somatic cell or gamete.
2. When breaks occur in chromosomes, their structures do not change.
3. Induced mutation happens due to mutagens (agents that induce mutations).
4. Removal of amino group from a base is called deamination.
5. Albinism is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation.
6. Haemophilia A and Haemophilia B are a result of mutations in different genes.
7. There is no interaction between genotype and environment that determines the phenotype shown
by any individual.
8. Sickle cell anaemia is due to a dominant sex-linked allele.
9. Mutagens are DNA sequences which get changed due to radiations and chemicals.
10. Mutation has important role in bacterial resistance to antibiotics.
1. A point mutation that changes a codon specifying an amino acid into a stop codon is called
(a) missense mutation (b) nonsense mutation
(c) frame shift mutation (d) silent mutation
2. Sickle cell anaemia results because of
(a) deletion mutation (b) insertion mutation
(c) substitution mutation (d) chromosomal mutation
3. In mutational event, when adenine is replaced by guanine, it is a case of
(a) transition (b) transcription
(c) transversion (d) frame shift mutation
4. Which of the following is not ionising radiation
(a) X rays (c) UV rays
(b) cosmic rays (d) alpha rays
5. Which of the following chemicals can affect non-replicating DNA?
(a) nitrous acid (b) Acridine dyes
(c) bromouracil (d) None of the above
6. Phenotype of individual depends upon
(a) environment only (b) genotype only
(c) environment and genotype (d) mutagens
7. Which is the type of chromosome structure mutation?
(a) Aneuploidy (b) Polyploidy
(c) Trisomy (d) duplication
261
8. Which is the example for gene mutation?
(a) Turner syndrome (b) Klinefelter syndrome
(c) Haemophilia (d) Down syndrome
9. Thymine dimers are caused by
(a) X-Rays (b) Gamma rays
(c) alpha or beta particles (d) UV rays
10. A mutation that causes the change in one aminoacid with chemically similar amino
acid is known as
(a) Non-conservative mutation (b) Conservative mutation
(c) Non-sense mutation (d) Silent mutation
III. Long Questions
1. In your own words, explain what is mutation.
2. Describe the types of mutation and causes of mutations.
3. Explain the significance of mutations.
4. Explain that gene mutation occurs by substitution, deletion, inversion and insertion of base pairs in
DNA. Outline how such mutations may affect the phenotype.
5. Explain that the environment may affect the phenotype.
6. Outline the effects of mutant alleles on the phenotype in the following human conditions: albinism,
sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and Huntington’s disease.
7. Explain the relationship between genes, enzymes and phenotypes with respect to the gene for
tyrosinase involved in the production of melanin.
8. Explain how a change in the base sequence of the gene for haemoglobin results in abnormal
haemoglobin and sickle-shaped red blood cells.
9. Distinguish between gene and chromosomal mutation.
10. Mutation plays a significant role in evolution. State the role. Also, evolution is the biggest theory
supporting environment sustenance. Guide the role of mutation in developing a sustained
environment and continue the diversity in organisms.
ANSWER TO STUDENT’S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT

1. True: Mutations can broadly be categorized as somatic and germ-line,
depending on whether mutation occurs in a somatic cell or gamete.
2. False: Whenever breaks occur in chromosomes, their structures
change.
If a chromosome or set of chromosomes shows more than one break
followed by reunion, chromosomal rearrangements are formed.
3. True: Induced mutation happens due to mutagens (agents that induce
mutations). It can be physical mutagens or chemical mutagens.
4. True: Removal of amino group from a base is called deamination.
Deamination of cytosine produces uracil. As uracil is not a normal base
for DNA, repair system can correct the change.
262
5. True: Albinism is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. Tyrosine
is converted to DOPA by the enzyme tyrosinase and DOPA is converted to
melanin, the pigment which gives colour to the skin.
6. True: Haemophilia is of two types: haemophilia A and haemophilia B.
Though both types occur due to a defect in blood clotting process, the
two are a result of mutations in different genes.
7. False: It is the close interaction between genotype and environment
that determines the phenotype shown by any individual.
8. False; Sickle cell anaemia is due to a recessive autosomal-linked
allele. The effected individual must have both effected alleles to express
the disease.
9. False; Mutagens are agents which cause change in DNA sequences.
For example, radiations and chemicals.
10. True; Rapid rate of mutation in bacteria has helped them to evolve
resistance not only to our immune system but also to various antibiotics.
Thus, treatment against diseases caused by these microbial organisms is
becoming increasingly difficult.
II. Multiple choice Answers:

1. (b)
2. (c); Sickle cell anaemia results because of substitution mutation as
there is replacement of A nucleotide with T nucleotides in the sixth codon
of beta chain of haemoglobulin resulting in change in aminoacid.
3. (a); Purine (adenine) replacement by purine (guanine) and pyrimidine
replacement by pyrimidine is known as transition. Transversion is
replacement of purine by pyrimidine. Frame shift mutation is insertion or
deletion of nucleotides which tend to change the framework of
nucleotides. Transcription is the process of formation of mRNA from DNA.
4. (b); UV rays are not ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiations are the ones
which carry enough energy to penetrate and free the electrons from the
molecules. X-rays, Cosmic rays and alpha rays are ionizing radiations.
5. (a); as Nitrous acid can cause deamination of cytosine and adenine in
the replicating as well as non-replicating DNA. Acridine dyes and
bromouridine can effect only replicating DNA.
6. (c); Although our phenotype is governed by our genotype, environment
also plays a very important role. It is the close interaction between
genotype and environment that determines the phenotype shown by any
individual. This can be appreciated by many examples.
263
7. (d); Duplication is a type of chromosome structure mutation as number
of chromosome remains unaffected. Aneuploidy, polyploidy and trisomy
are the types of chromosome number mutation.
8. (c); Haemophilia is due to sex-linked recessive gene mutation while
other diseases happen due to abnormality in chromosome number where
more than one gene get effected.
9. (d); Thymine dimers are caused by UV rays.
10. (b); A mutation that causes the change in one amino acid with
chemically similar amino acid is known as conservative mutation.
III. Long answers:

1. Mutation is the sudden change in the genetic material of an individual.
It occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to
alter the genetic message carried by that gene. Several sudden mutations
were observed, for example, Ancon sheep is a short legged variety which
appeared suddenly in 1791 and hornless cattle developed from horned
cattle in 1889.
2. There are two types of mutations. These are:
(i) Gene or point mutations
(ii) Chromosomal mutations
(i) Gene or point mutations: Gene or point mutations involve single
nucleotides and can occur by one of the following mechanisms:
Substitution is the replacement of one base by another. One purine
replaced by another purine or pyrimidine replaced by another pyrimidine
is called transition.
Silent mutation, when the triplet codon continues to code for the same
amino acid because genetic code is degenerate, or the amino acid
substituted has similar chemical property causing no change in the
function of the protein or the change has occurred in non-coding region of
DNA.
Missense mutation, when substitution of a base produces a codon that
causes incorporation of a different amino acid. If the amino acid added is
chemically similar to the original amino acid, it is called conservative
missense mutation; but if the amino acid added is chemically dissimilar,
it is called non-conservative missense mutation.
Nonsense mutation, when substitution of a base leads to the formation of
a stop codon, terminating protein synthesis at that point. Polypeptide
thus formed is incomplete and hence non-functional.
264
Frame-shift mutation, here insertion or deletion of bases alters the
reading frame of the genetic code which is comma-less, causing the
different sequence of amino acids being coded from the point of mutation
onwards.
(i) Chromosomal mutations: Whenever breaks occur in

chromosomes, their structures change. If a chromosome or set of
chromosomes shows more than one break followed by reunion,
chromosomal rearrangements are formed. If a break occurs in a
chromosome followed by loss of the fragment, it is called
deletion, resulting in loss of genetic information. On the other
hand, if a segment occurs more than once, it results in gain of
genetic information and is called duplication. If a chromosome
breaks at two points and fuses again but in reverse order, there
is no loss or gain of genetic information but it alters the
sequence of genes in the chromosome and is called inversion.
265
Causes of mutations
(i) Random mutations can occur spontaneously due to chance as:
(a) DNA replication errors: Normally each base exists in its more stable
keto form and is responsible for the normal Watson-Crick base pairing of
T with A and C with G. However, under certain physiological conditions,
rare imino and enol forms (tautomers) of the bases are present, leading to
altered base pairing affinities.
If by chance, there is looping out of DNA from the template strand, it may
be missed by DNA polymerase, resulting in deletion mutation. Similarly, if
additional, untemplated base is synthesised by DNA polymerase, addition
mutation results.
(b) Spontaneous chemical changes include depurination and deamination:
When bond breaks between the base and the deoxyribose sugar, purine is
removed from the DNA, resulting in an apurinic site. Thousands of purines
are lost in each mammalian cell cycle. If these apurinic sites are not
repaired, DNA polymerase will not be able to add a complementary base
and will dissociate from the DNA.
Removal of amino group from a base is called deamination. Deamination
of cytosine produces uracil. As uracil is not a normal base for DNA, repair
system can correct the change. However, if not corrected, adenine will
pair up with uracil, ultimately, causing a change from C-G to T-A, a
transition mutation.
266
DNA also contains small amounts of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) in place of
normal base cytosine. Deamination of 5mC produces thymine, a normal
base in DNA and hence not corrected. Therefore, 5mC results in C-G to T-
A transitions.
(ii)Induced mutation happens due to mutagens (agents that induce
mutations). It can be physical mutagens or chemical mutagens.
(a) Radiation: H. J. Muller was the first to show, in 1927, that mutation
can be induced by X ray treatment. High energy rays collide with atoms
and cause the release of electrons, leaving positively charged free
radicals or ions. These ions, in turn, collide with other molecules, causing
release of further electrons. Thus, as the rays pass through the tissue,
they leave a core of ions along its entire track. This process of ionization
can occur by background radiation or be induced by machine-produced X
rays, protons, and neutrons, as well as by alpha, beta, and gamma rays
released by radioactive isotopes of the elements. Ultraviolet rays, though
have less energy, can raise electrons in the outer orbitals to higher
energy level called excitation. When molecules contain atoms either in
ionic state or excited state, they become chemically less stable and thus
more prone to change, making radiation as powerful mutagens. Energy of
X rays can also cause physical breaks in chromosomes, thus resulting in
the loss of chromosome segments or changes in chromosome structure
(deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation).
Mutational effect of ultra violet (UV) radiation was demonstrated by Edgar
Altenburg in 1928. UV rays are strongly absorbed by pyrimidines,
especially thymine, leading to the formation of thymine dimmers. Thymine
dimers interfere with DNA replication and DNA repair mechanism, causing
mutation in DNA.
267
Since radiation affects large segments of chromosome at the same time,
a number of characters get altered simultaneously, but molecular details
cannot be studied.
(b) Chemical: C. Auerbach first discovered the mutagenic effects of

mustard gas and related compounds during World War II. Bhopal gas
tragedy in India in December 1984 resulted in the death of 2500–6000
individuals, affecting adversely 200,000 people. Tragedy occurred with
the release of methyl iso cyanate (MIC) in the form of gas and more than
21 chemicals in the MIC storage tank. A number of tests provided
evidence that MIC is capable of inducing chromosomal damage.
People working in nickel and asbestos refineries, rubber industry, leather
industry, coal tars, wood dust are routinely exposed to a number of
mutagenic and potentially carcinogenic agents.
3. Significance of mutations
Although the term mutation was not used by Mendel, he was able to
deduce that genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in
pairs in individual organisms and if two unlike unit factors exist in the
same individual, one unit factor is dominant to the other, which is called
268
recessive. Later studies revealed the true nature of these unit factors
which are now called genes. As seen in the sections above, mutations
have played very important roles as discussed below.
(i) Role in disease: As studied in earlier sections, mutations have been

responsible for a number of diseases such as sickle cell anaemia,
haemophilia, Huntington disease, and albinism. Each individual has
tumour suppressor genes and mutation in any of these genes can lead to
the development of tumours.
(ii) Role in evolution:
(a) Mutations play the most important role of creating new alleles. If there
were no different alleles, all individuals would be homozygous at all loci.
Presence of different alleles in individuals of a population is responsible
for the diversity seen in any population. For example, blood group alleles
IA, IB and IO. So mutation can bring about a change in genetic
constitution of an organism. So mutations bring genetic polymorphism in
population which may or may not lead to evolution.
(b) Furthermore, it has been observed that certain African countries show
higher incidence of sickle cell allele as compared to other regions. Sickle
cell allele somehow confers protection against malaria and hence occurs
with higher frequency in those regions where malaria is prevalent.
Individuals homozygous for sickle cell allele do not survive as oxygen
transport to tissues is affected and individuals homozygous for the normal
allele may suffer from malaria. Hence, mutant allele in this case happens
to confer an advantage in the heterozygous condition
(c) Mutations have another very important consequence. Rapid rate of
mutation in bacteria and viruses has helped them evolve resistance not
only to our immune system but also to various antibiotics. Thus,
treatment against diseases caused by these microbial organisms is
becoming increasingly difficult.
(iii) Role in genetic research: Humans have around 20,000 genes.
Although scientists know the functions of a number of genes, vast
majority of the genes have still not been assigned function. To study the
function of a gene, researchers induce mutations in specific genes and
look for possible effects. Thus, induced mutagenesis is helping us gain
insight into genetics of cell cycle control points and hence the cells
becoming cancerous. Cytogenetic studies have revealed a high degree of
correlation between chromosomal rearrangements and leukaemias.
269
(iv) Mutations play an important role in agriculture as well by providing
diversity of alleles which may confer stress resistance, yield and regional
adaptability.
4. (i) Gene or point mutations: Gene or point mutations involve single
nucleotides and can occur by one of the following mechanisms:
Substitution is the replacement of one base by another. One purine
replaced by another purine or pyrimidine replaced by another pyrimidine
is called transition.
Deletion: Whenever breaks occur in chromosomes, their structures
change. If a chromosome or set of chromosomes shows more than one
break followed by reunion, chromosomal rearrangements are formed. If a
break occurs in a chromosome followed by loss of the fragment, it is
called deletion, resulting in loss of genetic information.
Inversion: On the other hand, if a segment occurs more than once, it
results in gain of genetic information and is called duplication. If a
chromosome breaks at two points and fuses again but in reverse order,
there is no loss or gain of genetic information but it alters the sequence
of genes in the chromosome and is called inversion.
If breaks occur in non-homologous chromosomes, and the broken
fragment from one joins another non-homologous chromosome, it results
in translocation, altering linkage relationships.
Whenever number of chromosomes gets changed, it results in numerical
changes in cromosomes. It happens due to non-disjunction failure of
homologous chromosomes to segregate at anaphase that leads to
monosomy (2n – 1) and trisomy (2n + 1)
Effects of Mutations on Phenotypes
Spontaneous or induced mutagens cause changes in genotype which
influence the phenotype.
The phenotype can be physiological, morphological, biochemical,
anatomical etc. So lets think of effect of mutation on phenotype.
A gene represents the smallest unit that can code for protein. Gene is
made up of DNA consisting of four nucleotides present in a particular
sequence, which, when read in triplet codons, code for a particular amino
acid sequence of a protein. Proteins play a number of important functions
in the body, such as enzymes, hormones, structural etc. Whenever
nucleotide sequence in DNA changes, it can lead to alteration in amino
acid sequence affecting the function of the protein.
For example:
270
Albinism is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. Tyrosine is
converted to DOPA by the enzyme tyrosinase and DOPA is converted to
melanin, the pigment which gives colour to the skin
Melanin absorbs light in the ultraviolet (UV) range and protects the skin
against UV radiation from the sun. If a mutation occurs in the gene
responsible for production of tyrosinase, tyrosine cannot be converted to
DOPA and melanin cannot be produced. Therefore, people with such a
mutation have white skin, white hair and red eyes and are very sensitive
to light.
Sickle-cell anaemia is a disease which is caused due to synthesis of
abnormal haemoglobin, the protein present in red blood cells for
transporting oxygen. This disease was first studied by J. Herrick, who
found that red blood cells in patients suffering from the disease have the
following characteristics:.
Lose their characteristic disc shape, become sickle-shaped whenever
oxygen tension becomes low.
• Rupture very easily thus causing anaemia.
271
It has also been found that sickle cells don’t easily squeeze through the
capillaries
as they are not flexible. This leads to blockage of capillaries, not letting
blood flow into tissues depriving them of oxygen and ultimately causing
tissue damage.
Thus, people suffering from sickle cell anaemia can have a number of
health problems like heart failure, pneumonia, paralysis, kidney failure,
abdominal pain, etc. Survival rate of such patients is very low. Disease
occurs in a milder form and is known as sickle cell trait wherein patients
shows some symptoms in areas of low oxygen tension but do survive.
Haemophilia normally, we find that after minor injury or prick, bleeding

automatically stops after a brief period. Excessive bleeding is prevented
by the presence of clotting factors which work in a cascade-like fashion.
However, there are individuals who continue to bleed for long periods of
272
time even with minor bruises and may also show spontaneous bleeding.
This bleeding disorder is called haemophilia. Haemophilia is of two types:
haemophilia A and haemophilia B. Though both types occur due to a
defect in blood clotting process, the two are a result of mutations in
different genes. Haemophilia A (also called classical haemophilia) is more
common, occurring with a frequency of 1 in 4000 males, and is due to
deficiency of blood clotting factor VIII. Haemophilia B (also known as
Christmas disease) is less common, occurring with a frequency of 1 in
20,000 males, and is due to deficiency of blood clotting factor IX. As the
gene F8, coding for factor VIII and gene F9, coding for factor IX are
present on X chromosome, a single copy of either of the mutant genes
can cause this disorder in males whereas females will show the disorder
only when homozygous for the mutant alleles. This accounts for the
higher frequency of the disorder seen in males in the population.
Huntington disease: All individuals have Huntington gene which codes for
huntington protein. Although it is synthesized by all cells, its critical
function is seen in the brain where it interacts with other proteins in the
nerve cells. Addition of CAG repeats in Huntington gene in excess of the
normal number increases the number of glutamines in the protein,
causing misfolding of the protein and a mutant phenotype. This protein
accumulates in nerve cells, causing extensive damage. Symptoms
include involuntary movements and progressive central nervous system
degeneration. Although Huntington disease is found to be due to
autosomal, dominant allele, expression of this allele begins only by the
age of thirty years by which time the parents have already passed on the
gene to their offspring.
5. It is not always true that phenotype is completely reflected by
genotype. Although our phenotype is governed by our genotype,
environment also plays a very important role. It is the close interaction
between genotype and environment that determines the phenotype
shown by any individual. This can be appreciated by the following
examples.
(a) A person who has normal genes for making haemoglobin but lacks
sufficient iron in the diet develops anaemia. Phenotype of this individual
can be reversed by including sufficient iron in the diet.
(b) Individual with normal genes can make adequate amounts of thyroid
hormone,thyroxine; yet, in the absence of sufficient dietary iodine, he
may develop hypothyroidism.
(c) Surrounding temperature can have an important influence on
phenotype of individuals by affecting kinetic energy of reacting
substances. Plant evening primrose shows red flowers when grown at
23°C and white flowers when grown at 18°C. Siamese cats and Himalayan
273
rabbits show white fur on all parts except nose, ears and paws, as the
wild type enzyme responsible for pigment production is functional at the
lower temperature present in extremities, but it loses its catalytic
activity at the slightly higher temperature found in the rest of the body.
(d) Individuals who are born with a deficiency of phenylalanine

hydroxylase enzyme needed to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine,
concentration of phenylalanine builds up in the body, especially in the
brain causing neurological damage. Phenylalanine-free diet allows them
to lead a nearly normal life, without showing the effects of mutation.
(e) Every day, we are exposed to a large number of chemicals in our
environment such as food additives, colouring agents in food items,
textile dyes, cosmetics, pesticides, industrial compounds. Some of these
chemicals have mutagenic effects, and can cause genetic diseases.
6. Albinism is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. Tyrosine is
DOPA and melanin cannot be produced. Therefore, people with such a
mutation have white skin, white hair and red eyes and are very sensitive
to light.
Sickle-cell anaemia is a disease which is caused due to synthesis of
abnormal haemoglobin, the protein present in red blood cells for
transporting oxygen. This disease was first studied by J. Herrick, who
found that red blood cells in patients suffering from the disease have the
following characteristics:
Lose their characteristic disc shape, become sickle-shaped whenever
oxygen tension becomes low
• Rupture very easily thus causing anaemia.
It has also been found that sickle cells don’t easily squeeze through the
capillaries as they are not flexible. This leads to blockage of capillaries,
274
not letting blood flow into tissues depriving them of oxygen and
ultimately causing tissue damage.
Haemophilia normally, we find that after minor injury or prick, bleeding

automatically stops after a brief period. Excessive bleeding is prevented
by the presence of clotting factors which work in a cascade-like fashion.
However, there are individuals who continue to bleed for long periods of
time even with minor bruises and may also show spontaneous bleeding.
This bleeding disorder is called haemophilia. Haemophilia is of two types:
haemophilia A and haemophilia B. Though both types occur due to a
defect in blood clotting process, the two are a result of mutations in
different genes.
Huntington disease: All individuals have Huntington gene which codes for
huntingtin protein. Although it is synthesized by all cells, its critical
function is seen in the brain where it interacts with other proteins in the
nerve cells. Addition of CAG repeats in Huntington gene in excess of the
normal number increases the number of glutamines in the protein,
causing misfolding of the protein and a mutant phenotype. This protein
accumulates in nerve cells, causing extensive damage. Symptoms
include involuntary movements and progressive central nervous system
degeneration. Although Huntington disease is found to be due to
autosomal, dominant allele, expression of this allele begins only by the
age of thirty years by which time the parents have already passed on the
gene to their offspring.
7. A gene represents the smallest unit that can code for protein. Gene is
made up of DNA consisting of four nucleotides present in a particular
sequence, which, when read in triplet codons, code for a particular amino
acid sequence of a protein. Proteins play a number of important functions
in the body, such as enzymes, hormones, structural etc. Whenever
275
nucleotide sequence in DNA changes, it can lead to alteration in amino
acid sequence affecting the function of the protein.
Albinism is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation. Tyrosine is
DOPA and melanin cannot be produced.
8. Work of L. Pauling showed that normal people made one type of protein
haemoglobin, while people suffering from sickle cell anaemia had another
type of haemoglobin and people with sickle cell trait had 1:1 mixture of
two types of haemoglobins. Thus, it was hypothesized that people with
sickle cell trait were heterozygous, carrying two different alleles and
making two types of haemoglobins, Hb-A and Hb-S; normal people were
homozygous and making one type of haemoglobin, Hb-A and people with
sickle cell anaemia were homozygous, making one type of haemoglobin,
Hb-S.
Haemoglobin consists of four polypeptide chains, two alpha and two beta,
each of which is associated with a heme group to bind oxygen. V. M.
Ingram on comparing the amino acid sequence of Hb-A and Hb-S found
that while beta polypeptide of Hb-A had glutamic acid (with a negative
electric charge) at the sixth position, beta polypeptide of Hb-S had valine
(with no electric charge) at the same position. This substitution of amino
acids causes the beta polypeptides to fold up in a different way causing
sickling of red blood cells.
9. Gene mutation vs chromosome mutation
276
10. Learners should attempt this question on their own.
Fill in the blanks:
1. Lack of iron causes .......................... .
2. Haemophilia occurs by substitution of single nucleotide
in .......................... .
Ans. 1. Anaemia, 2. Beta S chain in 6th amino acid.
Answer in one word:
1. An autosomal recessive disorder.
2. When substitution of a base leads to formation of stop codons.
Ans. 1. Albinism, 2. Nonsense mutation
277

s5 Biology End of Units Questions&Answers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

s5 Biology End of Units Questions&Answers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

s5 Biology End of Units Questions&Answers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BOOK OF QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS S5BIOLOGY

UNIT 1: Interdependence between Organisms within their

(i) Mutualism ........................ both organisms.

(ii) (+, 0) sign exhibits ............................

END UNIT ASSESSMENT

5. Predator-prey relationships are characterized by oscillation of both

The main reason of oscillation is that as the predator population

6. (a) Predation: It is an interaction between the two species, i.e.,

Food chains can be used to visualize the relationship of these three

Questions,Fill in the blanks:

Question in one word:

UNIT 2 Transport Across the Cell Membrane

Answers for Self-evaluation (Page 35 of Student's Book)

QUESTION FOR SELF EVALUATION

Answers for Self-evaluation (Page 41 of Student's Book)

III. Long Answer Type Questions

ANSWERS TO STUDENT'S BOOK UNIT ASSESSMENT (Pages 42–44 of Student's Book)

Question Fill in the blanks:

Question in one word:

UNIT 3: Chromosomes and Nucleic Acids

Answers Self-evaluation (Page 54 of Student's Book)

QUESTION SELF EVALUATION

Answers Self-evaluation (Page 64 of Student's Book)

QUESTION SELF EVALUATION

Answers Self-evaluation (Page 68 of Student's Book)

END UNIT ASSESSMENT

ANSWERS I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or

II. Multiple choice questions:

III. Long answer type questions:

Structures of nitrogenous bases in DNA and RNA

(C) Non-histone Proteins: Excluding histone proteins, the rest of the

2. The main structural differences between RNA and DNA

(iii) Control of Gene Expression: Chromatin is a complex of DNA and

Significance of Telomere In Replication

of nucleotides on one strand of DNA, we can immediately deduce the

Question Fill in the blanks:

Question in one word:

QUESTION SELF EVALUATION

END UNIT ASSESSMENT

7. List out the ingredients used to make DNA in a test tube.

II. Multiple choice Answers:

Single-strand DNA-binding Proteins (SSB)

(D) Mismatch Repair

8. Over the years, advantageous mutations, examples of which we look at

Question in one word:

Unit 5: Cell and Nuclear Division

Answers Self-evaluation (Page 110 of Student's Book)

END UNIT ASSESSMENT

ANSWERS I. Choose whether the following statements are True (T) or

II. Multiple choice questions:

Data Related to Time for Different Cell Cycles

Cytokinesis is a division of cytoplasm. It compartmentalizes the two

Once the crossing over process is complete, the synaptonemal complex

Questions Fill in the blanks:

Questions in one word:

Unit 6: Protein Synthesis

QUESTIONS SELF EVALUATION

QUESTIONS SELF EVALUATION

Answers Self-evaluation (Page 151 of Student's Book)

END UNIT ASSESSMENT