Food Research 6 (Suppl.

2) : 134 - 154 (2023)

Journal homepage: https://www.myfoodresearch.com

REVIEW
Herbal infusion – processing techniques, bioactivity, quality, and safety

1,*
Zayapor, M.N. and 2Syahida, M.
1
Food Safety and Nutrition Program, Food Science and Technology Research Center, MARDI Johor
Baharu, No. 4, Jalan Taruka, Kawasan Perindustrian Tampoi, 80350 Johor Baharu, Johor Darul Takzim,
Malaysia
2
Food Safety and Nutrttion Program, Food Science and Technology Research Center, MARDI
Headquarters, Persiaran UPM-MARDI, 43400 UPM, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Article history: Abstract
Received: 30 October 2021
Received in revised form: 1
December 2021
Botanical remedy, including herbal infusion or tisane, is getting attention from the health-
Accepted: 29 December 2022 conscious consumer to provide dietary polyphenol/dietary antioxidants. However, some
Available Online: 15 January quality and pharmacological aspects of dried herbs used in the tisane or herbal tea are
2023 taken for granted and can place the consumer's health and safety at risk. The purpose of
Keywords:
this review is to investigate pre-harvesting and post-harvesting aspects of herbal tea that
Infusion, implicate the quality, i.e., therapeutic properties and safety, i.e., toxicity. Selection of
Polyherbal, botanical origin, agricultural practice, and pharmacological background
Tisane, (pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic aspects) of botanical material are the identified
Therapeutic,
Toxicity vital factors in the pre-harvesting aspects that should be considered before introducing the
monoherbal or polyherbal preparation to ensure optimum benefits and safety. Besides the
DOI: herbal blending preparation, the tea processing standard and drying technique are vital in
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.6(S2).019
ensuring the stability of herbal tea and consequently determining the quality of herbal
infusion. The variation of processing techniques used and the pharmacological factors of
herbal sources have laced on the quality and authenticity issues of herbal infusion and still
need further studies to identify the potential health risks to the consumer.

1. Introduction leaves with medicinal herbs or the herbs alone known as

Tea, an infusion of dried Camellia sinensis leaves, is tisane that specifically target more niche functions.
the most consumed botanical drink before coffee,
This review investigated the pre-harvesting and the
chocolate, and fruit drink. It has been a part of universal
post-harvesting aspects of herbal tea that implicate the
drinking culture that dynamically evolved over the
quality and safety.
centuries and diversified according to geographical zone,
era, and local culture. Besides its unique flavors, tea can
be a versatile ingredient compared to coffee on the 2. Herbal teas or tisane: Which term is appropriate?
market shelves. This versatility is steered by consumer’s Herbal tea is primarily consumed in every part of the
desire to consume botanical remedies to fight off chronic world as a traditional preparation to maintain general
ailments such as metabolic syndrome (cardiovascular health or alleviate specific morbidity. It is prepared from
heart disease, diabetes, and blood hypertension), the aqueous extraction of different parts of various plants
including anti-obesity effects (Dias et al., 2013), which (either leaves, stem, flower, fruit, seed, root, bark, or
can alleviate allergic rhinitis syndromes (Peiris et al., mixture), excluding the tea leaves of Camellia sinensis.
2019), and benefits health aging by slowing the cognitive This botanical beverage is appropriately called tisane to
decline (Divya and Ashok, 2019). A growing interest in avoid a mix-up with the actual tea, which is usually
natural products innovation throughout the years has prepared by steeping (infusion) and boiling (decoction)
driven tea leaf and its ready-to-drink (RTD) products to or combination (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2018). They
be consumed for a variety of health purposes, made have gained growing interest among scientists and
either from fermented tea (kombucha) or a mixture of tea consumers due to their therapeutic and pleasant sensorial
properties due to a broad spectrum of phytochemical

*Corresponding author. eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2023

Email: zayapor@mardi.gov.my The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources
 135 Zayapor and Syahida / Food Research 6 (Suppl. 2) (2023) 134 - 154

substances that display myriads of bioactivities (Herrera tonic; (3) flatus-relieving; (4) stimulant or sedative; and
et al., 2018). The phytochemical profile of herbal tea (5) medicinal therapy (Van Wyk and Gorelik, 2017).
variation depends on the species, agronomic aspects, Table 1 shows some scientific research on several herbal
manufacturing parameters, and domestic brewing infusions with several therapeutic features, with most of
REVIEW

techniques (infusion or decoction). It is perpetuated as a them are air-dried and rarely followed the standard tea
potential health tonic or dietary supplement in improving processing. Only a handful of researches showed the
healthy aging (Alferink et al., 2017; Shen et al., 2020). comparisons of processing techniques on herbal tea
From economic standpoints, herbal tea saw progressive quality. More research is needed to study the influence of
growth by 8 percent in 2011, with growing market standard tea processing on herbal tea quality to acquire
demand for herbal and fruit teas (Mansur, 2019). further knowledge on the dietary antioxidant potential.
Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia), Gotu kola/Pengaga
(Centella asiatica), Sabah Snake grass/Belalai Gajah A variety of botanical sources has been applied as
(Clinacanthus nutans), Cat’s whisker/Misai Kucing the ingredient in the herbal infusion, including coffee by-
(Orthosiphon stamineus), Kacip Fatimah (Labisia products such as coffee-blossom tea, coffee-leaves tea,
pothoina), Noni /Mengkudu (Morinda citrifolia) are coffee-husks tea, and silver skin (Klingel et al., 2020).
among the herbs popular in Malaysia used as a part of Among the agricultural by-products that gain attention
this traditional preparation. Leaves are the most used are the leaves. Two different tea processing methods,
plant part from these popular Malaysian herbs groups, namely the Japanese-green-tea process (JGT) and black-
having relatively higher polyphenol content and tea-process (BTP), along with the age of coffee leaves
proportionally higher in antioxidant activities than any (young and mature), have been employed, and the initial
part due to the greater exposure to UV-radiation-caused method results in higher antioxidant and anti-
cell oxidative damage (Ribaudo et al., 2019). European inflammatory activities (Chen et al., 2019). Fermented
herbs such as German chamomile (Matricaria grape by-products like skins and seeds have been applied
chamomilla) for insomnia and diabetic control, in herbal infusion and serves as an imperative medium
spearmint (Mentha spicata) for osteoarthritic stiffness for supplementing dietary polyphenol – antioxidants
and hormone control, rosehip (Rosa rugosa) for minor (Vilela and Pinto, 2019). However, despite potential
menstruation pain, and lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) therapeutic benefits in male papaya flower herbal
for oxidative stress are made into tisane for daily diet infusion, its sensory scores were perceived lower than
supplement (1-3 cups) to enhance body’s well-being the commercial teas (Bergonio and Perez, 2016). This
(Etheridge and Derbyshire, 2019). Oxidative stress poor sensorial acceptability may dampen purchase
significantly impacts many chronic co-morbidities, such intention and decrease its marketability.
as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and The antioxidant status of herbal infusion may vary
premature aging. Dietary antioxidants sourced from the due to the variety of herbal blends in the composition,
botanical diet include herbal infusions, have been manufacturing form (course, fine powder, or granule),
evaluated, but their antioxidant mechanisms need further and processing method. Three factors should be
studies (Li et al., 2014) and can be valuable tools to considered in evaluating the herbal infusions: 1)
predict their activity against its therapeutic effect characterization of bioactive substances which may
(Magcwebeba et al., 2016). affect the antioxidant/oxidant capacity of tea types; 2)
The gaining popularity of herbal infusion is due to comparison of antioxidant/oxidant capacity values
beneficial health effects and sensory characteristics, among the similar study; 3) appropriate sample size
especially for antioxidant function and color. However, before making general conclusion (Ağagündüz, 2020).
the color parameters of herbal infusion and their 2.1 Tea enrichment: Pharmacological effects in herbal
antioxidant property values were more inconstant than tea mixtures
the green teas (Jin et al., 2016). Thus, it is impossible to
justify the correlation between these two qualities. In Turkish monoherbal tisane from Melissa officinallis,
general, the researcher found that most herbal infusions Sideritis libanotica subsp. linearis and Stachys thirkei
have lower antioxidant property values than green teas. showed that they could be dietary polyphenol sources
Only a few herbal infusions could be equivalent or and possessed potent antioxidant properties (Ertas and
exceptional to green teas, such as Rattan tea (Ampelopsis Yener, 2020). Since most herbal beverages are prepared
grossedentata) and Chinese rose tea (Rosa chinensis from a single ingredient, some are blended in polyherbal
Jacq.) A popular alternative to typical tea in South Africa mixtures to improve their palatability, like bush tea with
is the Cape herbal infusion which is comprised of 15 rooibos and honeybush tea (Malongane et al., 2020).
herbal species are classified into five categories: (1) However, some are blended to promote pharmacological
leisure beverages (desirable aroma or flavor); (2) bitter effects enhancement or synergism. For example, a

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Table 1. Variety of herbal infusion, either monoherbal or polyherbal, derived from several types of processing and featuring
some therapeutic properties
Herbal infusion/ tisane Type of processing Therapeutic features Reference
Bergamot leaves(Citrus bergamia) Fresh Anti-inflammatory Baron et al. (2021)

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Rooibos leaves tea Air-dried Neuroprotective effect Pyrzanowska et al. (2021)
Mempening leaves
Air-dried Anti-diabetic Almurdani et al. (2020)
(Lithocarpus bancanus)
Wild bitter
Melon leaves (Momordica charantia
Α-amylase and α-glucosidase
Linn., Cucurbitaceae), Air-dried Chokki et al., (2020)
inhibitory activities
and brimstone tree leaves (Morinda
lucida Benth, Rubiaceae)
Asian Agrimony Tea (Agrimonia α-glucosidase inhibitor (anti- Kashchenko and Olennikov
Air-dried
asiatica Juz., Rosaceae) diabetic) (2020)
Common fig leaves (Ficus carica) Air-dried Hypoglycaemic effect Gillani et al. (2018)
Inhibitory Activity against
Acorn leaves (Quercus
Fresh α-glucosidase and Protein Xu, Wang, Yue et al. (2018)
liaotungensis)
Tyrosine Phosphatase 1B
Adesmia boronioides and Solidago Anti-proliferative activity
Air-dried Gastaldi et al., (2018)
chilensis (anticancer)
Coffee leaves/walnut leaves Air-dried Dietary antioxidant Colomban et al. (2017)
Bush sedum (Sedum dendroideum) Antioxidant and gastric health-
Fresh da Luz et al., (2019)
tea promoting effects
Billberry leaves (Vaccinium α-glucosidase inhibitor (anti-
Dried Bljajić et al., (2017)
myrtillus) diabetic)
Natural source of antioxidants, a
Sweet potato leaves (Ipomoea
Green potential to prevent non- Mbouche et al. (2019)
batatas)
communicable diseases
Hungarian thyme (Thymus
Air-dried Antioxidant, anti-bacterial Arsenijević et al. (2016)
pannonicus)
Common mugwort (Artemisia Hepatoprotective effects and
Fresh Corrêa-Ferreira et al. (2017)
vulgaris L.) aerial parts immunomodulatory properties
Zedoary rhizome Air-force oven- Anti-hypercholesteraemic
Tariq et al. (2016)
(Curcuma zedoaria Roscoe.) dried and anti-lipidemic
Anti-hyperlipidaemia and anti-
Cocoa (Camellia ptilophylla) leaves Shade-dried Li, Yuan, Wang et al. (2017)
obesity activities
Antioxidant, anti-diabetic (α-
Beach wormwood
Air-dried (leaves glucosidase inhibitor), anti-
(Artemisia campestris Pereira et al., (2018)
and roots) hyperpigmentation (tyrosine
subsp. maritima)
inhibitor)
decreased intestinal inflammation
Air-dried
Copaifera malmei leaves by reducing macroscopical and Pavan et al., (2021)
microscopical colon injury
Lavender (Lavandula spica) Air-dried Reduce depression and anxiety Bazrafshan et al. (2020)
Anti-diabetic (regulation on
Soursop (Annona Muricata L) leaves Fresh Yunivita et al. (2019)
glucose absorption)
Chicory leaves (Cichorium intybus
Shade-dried Modulate bone loss Mohamed and Badr (2019)
L.)
Massoia (Massoia aromatica Becc.,
Dried bark Immunomodulator in vitro Hertiani et al. (2018)
Lauraceae) bark
Dolo magota (Garcinia latissima) Cabinet- Anti-cholesterol (HMG-CoA
Monalissa et al. (2018)
fruit dehydrated reductase inhibitor)
Yareta or llareta (Azorella compacta) Oven-dried (at 40°
immunomodulator in vitro Tumová et al. (2017)
whole plant C)
Asian Agrimony Tea (Agrimonia Kashchenko and Olennikov
Air-dried Anti-diabetic
asiatica Juz., Rosaceae) (2020)
Hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta) leaves Air-dried Anti-inflammatory Kim et al. (2019)
Air-dried floral treatment of feverish colds and
Lime flowers (Tiliae flos), Melnyk et al. (2021)
part coughs
Hairy rupturewort (Herniaria hirsuta Anti-urolithiasis and anti-
aerial parts van Dooren et al. (2016)
L) cholelithiasis
Fresh and antioxidant, antimicrobial, and
Cinnamomum porrectum Saetan et al. (2016)
Blanched-dried anti-inflammatory activities
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Table 1 (Cont.). Variety of herbal infusion, either monoherbal or polyherbal, derived from several types of processing and
featuring some therapeutic properties
Herbal infusion/ tisane Type of processing Therapeutic features Reference
Betel leaves (Piper bettle L.) Fresh Anti-fungal Sartini et al. (2020)
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Coltsfoot leaves (Tussilago farfara Anti-viral (source of essential Chromchenkova et al.

Air-dried
L.) amino acids) (2020)
Improve blood lipid profile
Laurus nobilis leaves Air-dried Chbili et al. (2020)
(Cardioprotective)
Antioxidant and anti-
Antirhea borbonica leaves Air-dried Veeren et al. (2020)
inflammatory
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica),
Dedalu (Scurrula sp), and Puteri Fresh and air-dried Anti-diabetic (α-amylase inhibitor Devi. Sy et al. (2019)
Malu (Mimosa pudica)
Thai summer tea (Aegle marmelos
(L.)
Oven-dried at 45–
Correa, Stevia rebaudiana (Bert.) Antioxidant Tipduangta et al. (2019)
50°C
Bertoni, Pandanus amaryllifolius
Roxb. and Morus alba L.)
‘Beluntas’ (Pluchea indica),
Turmeric Air-dried Anti-microbial and antioxidant Zabidi et al. (2020)
(Curcuma longa) and Their Mixtures
polyherbal tisane composed of Bay laurel (Laurus sesquiterpenes, which are responsible for flavor as well
nobilis) leaves and Walnut (Juglans regia) leaves at (Hajdari et al., 2020).
equal amounts possessed high bioactivity compared to
individuals (Finimundy et al., 2020). However, additive
3. Tea processing steps
or unwanted antagonistic effects may arise from these
mixtures (Pyrzynska and Sentkowska, 2019). Thus, there Different types of teas are produced due to the
is a need to study the possible herb-drug interactions processing methods with either the inclusion or
carefully. A few teas or herbal enrichment efforts have exclusion of any processing step, type of leaves used (2 -
been documented to share the polyherbal mixture 3 small leaves and tender buds or large and thick leaves
benefits and drawbacks (Table 2). A few herbal of aerial tree parts), cultivation region, or mixed with
enrichment efforts have been documented to share the other herbs/spices as well as scented with selected herbs
polyherbal mixture benefits and drawbacks of the (Zhang et al., 2020). The tea processing steps involved
polyphenol contents/antioxidant activities (Table 2). plucking, withering/wilting, bruising, oxidation/
Even though the listed research mostly showed fermentation, “kill-green”/fixing, sweltering/yellowing,
beneficial impacts due to synergistic herbal blending, a rolling/shaping, drying, aging/curing, and lastly, sorting
considerable study on pharmacodynamics and (Figure 1). In addition, some manufacturers employed a
pharmacokinetics must be done to eliminate the risk of traditional technique known as crush, tear and curl, CTC)
antagonistic effects. Meanwhile, the use of sweeteners in their processing, complementing the steps mentioned
also shall be considered, which may have additive effects earlier (Li et al., 2021). These processing steps derived
on the retention of phenolic compounds and their the tea variants such as green, white, yellow, and the
antioxidant activity, particularly stevia and steviol widely consumed black tea. In comparison, green, white,
glycosides (Celaya et al., 2021). Moreover, Zayapor et and black tea have greater antioxidant capacity than fresh
al. (2021) found that the pharmacological effects were orange and apple juice and serve significant sources of
influenced by sugar concentration and the type of dietary phenolic antioxidants (Shannon et al., 2017).
sweeteners used, i.e., refined white sugar or unrefined
brown sugars.

Additionally, tea enriched with spices is popular in

Northern Indian, such as Kahwa, a traditional mixture of
green tea extract and other spices such as saffron,
cardamom, or occasionally supplemented with pepper or Figure 1. Common tea processing steps
cinnamon and almond pieces. It was found that this tea
has high antioxidant activity (DPPH at 40.68% At the initial stage, harvesting tea leaves is
inhibition) (Dhanjal et al., 2020), which could be conducted with either hand plucking, mechanical, or
contributed by these spices chemical compositions shear harvesting, impacting the tea flavor, health
(qualitatively and quantitatively) of monoterpenes and benefits, and production economy. The hand plucking of

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 Zayapor and Syahida / Food Research 6 (Suppl. 2) (2023) 134 - 154 138

Table 2. List of pharmacological effects in several mixed herbal infusions

Herbs mixture Pharmacological effect References
Moringa oleifera leaves + ginger Antagonistic effect in total phenolic content
Moringa oleifera leaves + tulsi, and Moringa Kumar et al. (2018)
additive effect

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oleifera leaves + lemongrass
Synergistic effect on the activities of superoxide
Pu‐erh tea + the pericarp of Citrus reticulate
dismutase (SOD) and the activities of Zheng et al. (2020)
chachi
glutathione peroxidase (GSH‐Px)
Stevia leaves + lemongrass, chamomile + tea
Synergistic effect on ABTS antioxidant activity Castañeda-Saucedo et
leaves
al. (2020)
Spearmint leaves + black, red, and green teas Synergistic effect on DPPH antioxidant activity
Breadfruit leaves + cinnamon + clove Additive effect on phenolic content Lutfiani et al. (2020)
Bitter melon (Momordica charantia L) + red
Nasution and Syamira
ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) + curcuma Synergistic effect on DPPH antioxidant activity
(2020)
(Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb)
Black berry (Morus nigra) + artichoke (Cynara Synergistic hepatoprotective and antioxidant
Youssef et al. (2017)
cardunculus) + fig (Ficus carica) infusions effect
Thymus mastichina +
Laurus nobilis + Juglan regia; Origanum Synergistic effect on anti-tumor, anti-
vulgare + Chamaemelum nobile + L. nobilis + inflammatory, anti-fungal activity, anti-lipid Finimundy et al. (2020)
J. regia; Rosmarinus o peroxidation, and anti-bacterial
cinalis + C. nobile + L. nobilis + J. regia)
Synergism on the antioxidant parameters
Larrea cuneifolia + Zuccagnia punctata +
(ABTS, FRAP, and 2-deoxy-D-ribose Carabajal et al. (2020)
Larrea divaricata.
degradation assay)

two young leaves and their terminal bud are carried out Withering duration can significantly influence amino
at up to 4 plucking seasons (flush). The first flush acid content (especially theanine, a glutamic acid analog)
(spring/Sencha) is between February to April, the second and some essential and toxic mineral content (Al, Pb,
(summer) is between April to June, the third is the and Ni) (Jabeen et al., 2019). At this step, oxidation is
monsoon between June and October, and the autumn is started at a slow pace, where the longer withering
between October and November in the Northern duration, the more prolonged oxidation is and furthering
hemisphere. The later the flush stage is the more intense the development of color and flavor of the tea.
flavor and color of tea. However, the monsoon and
autumn flush teas are considered lower quality and sold However, the withering step is excluded in green and
as a commercial tea bag or mixed with herbs and spice. yellow tea processing but subjected to heat treatment or
Besides the plucking season factor that determines tea sweltering to depress the PPO or peroxidase enzymatic
quality, the plucking interval also has a crucial factor, browning involved in oxidation. The oxidation defines
where the 7-day plucking round produced a better the tea into categories: non-oxidized (green and yellow),
polyphenol profile than the 5-day but contained higher moderately oxidized (oolong), totally oxidized (red/
ash and fiber (Teshome, 2019). The mechanical and black), and prolonged oxidation (Pu’er/dark teas). The
shear harvesting, on the other hand, are done at the aerial essential quality parameters in oxidation include exhaust
part of the tea tree, and the leaves' maturity is largely temperature: 25°C - 27°C and humidity: 95% with
varied in bioactive composition and further impacted the concurrent air-flow to supply oxygen-rich air (Tharaga et
flavor and antioxidant capacity (Kumar et al., 2018). al., 2018). The duration of oxidation may depend on the
desired quality of a final product. Sweltering, also known
Leaves withering is conducted indoors (preferably in as fixing or kill-green step, is carried out by steam
a controlled environment to avoid environmental factors blanching, pan firing, or tumble heating (standard
fluctuations) or outdoors to reduce the moisture content methods). The yellowing time influences the retention of
by approximately 30% to 40 % and play an essential role bioactive components. Low blanching temperature and
in the quality of black tea (Ye et al., 2019). The optimum short blanching time were more beneficial to retain the
withering duration is between 14 to 16-hour at a rate of 6 active components, and the optimum blanching
kg/m2, at more than 30°C to achieve quality teas and conditions were 120°C for 1 min (Lin et al., 2006).
allow desired flavor development (Tang et al., 2018; Commonly, the tea leaves are warmed up to 37°C for 6 -
Sharma and Dutta, 2018; Kalidass et al., 2019). In a 8 hrs, with the optimum sweltering duration is 12 hours
herbal tea study, the withering temperature at 90°C for 2 (An et al., 2019). The depression of enzymatic browning
mins produces Ulam raja (Cosmos caudatus) that retains during this stage significantly impacts the amino acids
the highest bioactive components (Aprilia et al., 2020). and polyphenol profiles that contribute to the sensorial

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and bioactivity qualities of the green and yellow teas infusions. The kahwa daun was slowly dried by the
(Guo et al., 2021). Blanching maintained the mentioned technique to a moisture content of 3.6 - 7.6%
chlorophylls and increased TPC and TFC due to the (wb) (Novita et al. 2018).
expanded pore size of dried leaves and increased yield
REVIEW

extractability (Saetan et al., 2016). A combination of Modern methods such as microwave drying, freeze-
steam blanching and oven drying of fresh litchi pericarps drying, and superheated steam (SHS) have been shown
could retain the phenolic compounds and antioxidant to retain higher antioxidant and therapeutic properties
capacity as a raw material (Kessy et al., 2016). However, than conventional oven drying (Jimenez-Garcia et al.,
steam blanching significantly reduced the total phenolic 2020). Freeze drying was cited as the drying technique
and flavonoids content in Moringa oleifera leaves that retained the highest polyphenol content and
infusion (Wickramasinghe et al., 2020) and contrarily antioxidant property values (Rabeta and Lin, 2015; Feng
increased the total carotenoid content (Nobosse et al., et al., 2018). However, oven drying retained higher
2017). antioxidant properties than SHS at 150°C and 175°C at
the exact time (Roslan et al., 2020). The author believed
A unique difference between green and yellow tea that the reduced polyphenol content is due to enzymatic
production is “sealed yellowing” (Men-huang, 悶黄), and thermal degradation. Since the conventional drying
showed a reasonable antioxidant retention at higher
involving a slow-oxidation process before drying. This
temperatures (> 150°C), less than 60 mins provides a
step helps alleviate the grassy note character associated
more economically feasible option. After analysing the
with green tea by resting the heated and dampened tea
process advantages between the tea processing technique
leaves for some time (Xu, Wang, Zhao et al., 2018). The
of green and yellow, the latter was found to offer more
other oxidation process or bruising step intensifies the
explorative potential due to higher antioxidant activity
tea leaves' oxidation through kneading-crushing (heavy
(DPPH scavenging potency and activity) than the green
bruising) or tossing-shaking (light bruising). Some
tea (Li, Chen, Zhu et al., 2017), anti-hyperlipidemia
referred to this step as rolling and employing cutting,
(Teng et al., 2018) the presumptive unique polyphenol
tearing, and curling, CTC technique. These actions
profile without grassy-note flavor. Moreover, the yellow
induced polyphenol oxidase activity, which significantly
tea showed a strong inhibitory effect against the serum
influences the color and flavor of the tea. Most black tea
pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor
in the market is produced by this method (Sarkar et al.,
necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and against gastric injury
2016).
(Wang et al., 2013).
Among the tea process unit operations, indoor
3.1 Herbal tea drying
withering, pan-firing, and drying steps impacted its
catechin concentrations due to enzymatic oxidation, Traditionally, drying of botanical parts used as an
thermal degradation, and epimerization (Theppakorn, infusion is carried out either shade-drying, air-drying, or
2016). The epimerization of catechins was enhanced by solar-drying as it is the most feasible way to achieve.
the firing/roasting process in large-leaf yellow tea Convection oven drying is later introduced to achieve
production, thus enhancing the levels of α-glucosidase consistent drying but negatively affects the
inhibition and improves the hypoglycemic effect (Zhou phytochemical composition and color. Table 3 listed
et al., 2018). In his latest research finding, Zhou et al. some of the favorable drying parameters used to evaluate
(2019) found that both yellowing and roasting are the drying effect of herbal tea, whereby different profiles
essential in acquiring a better polyphenol profile and of polyphenol were obtained from different drying
desirable sensory properties. However, steaming and techniques (Pariyani et al., 2017). In general, low
coarse kneading (intense rolling) are the essential temperature and shorter drying duration are encouraged
parameters for the Japanese green tea manufacturing to avoid detrimental effects on the herbal tea quality but
process (Qin et al., 2018) to achieve those qualities, even are sufficient to reduce its moisture content to less than
though the latter step is similar to the CTC technique. 8%. Free freeze-drying has shown the best drying
Steam treatment was effective in reducing the technique in retaining the herbal tea quality among the
undesirable vegetal aroma intensities in the Cyclopia techniques studied but has an economic drawback on the
longifolia infusion, and at the same time, increased production scale. For future study, optimum operational
sweet, fruity intensities (Alexander et al., 2018). The control combined with programmed drying strategies
traditional Sumatran coffee leaves herbal infusion, should be emphasized for effective dehydration but
kahwa daun, involved three main processing techniques feasible in energy and capital expenditure.
over low heat: pendiangan (traditional drying by a
fireplace), smoking, and toasting, which differed from
the typical tea processing techniques and other herbal
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4. Advantages and disadvantages of herbal infusions the highest polyphenol content found in the petioles and
Herbal products consumed are varied by cultures, leaves of Sweet cherry (Prunus avium) cultivars Burlat
geographical availability, and therapeutic purposes. The and Regina (Dziadek et al., 2018). Leaves harvesting by
phytochemical composition of those herbs, especially mechanical means was found to provide additional value

REVIEW
polyphenol, shall be paid special attention to select a in polyphenolic content than the traditional-derived
proper extraction method and the solvent used to obtain method, particularly for chlorogenic acid but does not
its optimum quality and meet the consumers’ safety significantly differentiate consumers' sensory
requirements. Water is the most practical and non-toxic preferences (Coelho et al., 2016).
solvent ready for consumption (Bhebhe et al., 2015). In
Light is one of the most important environmental
comparison with traditional water extractions, hot water
factors influencing herb quality, including phytonutrient
infusion was an effective method for polyphenol
content and effects on growth and development. The
extraction (Cittan et al., 2018). It may provide higher
recent development and adoption of light-emitting diodes
antioxidant values over decoctions (Fotakis et al., 2016),
provide opportunities for targeted regulation of growth
but to a lesser extent than the modern microwave-
and phytonutrient accumulation by herbs to optimize
assisted extraction (MAE) (Petkova et al., 2017).
productivity and quality under controlled environments.
However, MAE has its drawback due to the possibility of
Red, blue, and ultraviolet (UV) light enhanced the
contaminant trace elements (Kilic and Soylak, 2020).
concentration of essential oils and phenolic compounds
Modern-day water extraction, such as hydrothermal
in various herbs and improved antioxidant capacities of
extraction, is applicable for the isolation of polyphenols
herbs compared with white light or sunlight, yet these
(Machmudah et al., 2016; Apea-Bah et al., 2020) but
improvement effects varied among species, compounds,
tends to retain more saponin than any other
and light treatments (Dou et al., 2017).
phytochemical (Ojiako et al., 2018).
The bioactive compound content can be manipulated
5. Botanical bioactive components: plant by light irradiation to respond to a specific wavelength
physiological factor and intensity of light. When Red Raspberry (Rubus
idaeus) is exposed to blue LED light, its leaves increase
A few studies have shown that the phytochemical
the content of Flavan-3-ols and the number of total
composition of an herbal infusion is heavily impacted by
polyphenols overall (Kobori et al., 2019). While the
the botanical part used, type of harvesting (hand-picked
antioxidant activity and the polyphenol content in wheat
or mechanical), and maturity stage. Sea fennel
sprouts (Triticum aestivum L.) were enhanced when
(Crithmum maritimum) infusion prepared from leaves
illuminated with blue LED light and sunlight,
was rich in phenolic compounds, especially Chlorogenic
respectively (Raiciu et al., 2020). Supplementation of
acid, compared to stem and flower (Pereira et al., 2017).
blue (430 and 460 nm) and UV-A lights (380 and 400
While, honeybush (Cyclopia maculate) stems infusion
nm) to Pak choi (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis) before
contained significantly higher hesperidin levels than the
harvest also showed remarkably higher contents of total
leaves (du Preez et al., 2016). The leaves of cat’s claw
phenolics and flavonoids (Mao et al., 2021). However,
(Uncaria tomentosa L.) are also reserved as the more
Benincasa et al. (2020) reported that the effect of light
affluent plant part in proanthocyanidins and polyphenol
was species-specific and generally not significant for
than its bark (Navarro-Hoyos et al., 2018). The age of
sprouts. Light irradiation exposure under a particular
the leaf dramatically influences the level of phenolic and
wavelength and intensity is not only manipulated during
flavonoids and relatively their antioxidant properties.
the pre-harvest stage. Some researchers extend the
The level of phenolic and flavonoids in mature leaves of
application to manipulate the content of polyphenol and
Aquilaria beccariana are higher than the young and old
their antioxidant properties at the post-harvest stage in
leaves, and their levels are almost equal (Anwar et al.,
fresh products, like cabbage (Lee et al., 2014), tomato
2017).
(Castagna et al., 2014), and Tatar buckwheat sprout
Moreover, Cosmos caudatus infusion prepared from (Ghimeray et al., 2014).
old leaves showed decreased antioxidant activity but
significantly had higher mineral content than mature and 6. Botanical bioactive components: post-production
young leaves (Fatanah et al., 2016). In another study, the qualities – storage and steeping factors
yellow-fallen breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) leaves
Efforts in retaining the therapeutic-derived
flaunted the best anti-cholesterol activity correlated with
compounds have been introduced to ensure the consumer
its flavonoid content compared to the fresh green leaves
obtains its optimum benefit. However, botanical
(Riasari et al., 2018). The petioles were also identified as
ingredients for infusion are susceptible to quality
a significant antioxidant activity source characterized by

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 141 Zayapor and Syahida / Food Research 6 (Suppl. 2) (2023) 134 - 154

changes upon distribution and storage of the product, did not find it significantly different. Additionally,
especially the light exposure. The UV irradiation prolonging the brewing time does not increase
decreases the antioxidative properties of Echinaceae antioxidant extraction capability (Cleverdon et al.,
purpureae dried florets if the herb is irradiated longer 2018).
REVIEW

than 10 mins (Ramos and Pilawa, 2015). The light

irradiation influence on the botanical product at the post-
7. Safety: natural phytochemical toxicity, heavy
harvest stage depends on the light components and the
metal, and mycotoxin toxicity
solvent used. For example, oleuropein, a bioactive
compound from Olea europaea leaves, decomposes Multiple studies showed the compelling therapeutic,
faster under UV-C light in water than in ethanol (Longo and antioxidant effects of botanical sources used to
et al., 2017). Storing plant infusion for more than three prepare the herbal infusion and represent an essential
months at a high temperature (50°C) showed a 50% loss source of dietary polyphenols and antioxidants to protect
in the total antioxidant activity and color fading (Jiménez against biological oxidative stress. However,
-Zamora et al., 2016). Therefore, it is advisable to store understudied herbal selection in the blending or
the dried herbs for infusion in a UV-light protected preparation and over-dose consumption of herbal
container at a temperature lower than ambient. infusions may cause adverse health effects due to
toxicity (Talib et al., 2020). Herbal product
Brewing or steeping factors, including the plant part, manufacturers shall be responsible for producing
temperature, time, and the ratio of the herb: water (HW), standardized, evidence-proof safety and effective
play significant influences in bioactive compound materials through robust preclinical and clinical studies
extractions. In general, total polyphenol content before gaining approval for the products' health claims
increased with a longer steep time, and hot-water (Ahmad et al., 2015). In herbal infusion, safety issues
extraction is preferable in achieving the best infusion may be due to toxin contamination either derived from
with high antioxidant activities (Erkekoglou et al., 2017). pre-harvest (pesticide residue and heavy metal exposure)
An optimum level of antioxidant and therapeutic or post-harvest periods (mycotoxin contamination)
properties of Acantholippia deserticola infusion was (Sedova et al., 2018). Another chance of herbal toxicity
demonstrated at an HW ratio of 1:500 (w/v) for 5 mins at exposure is selecting the understudied plant material as
100°C (Larrazabal et al., 2018). Oven-dried breadfruit the infusion ingredient or overdosage consumptions
(Artocarpus altilis) leaf infused at 100°C, for 3 mins and (Woo et al., 2012). Pharmacological knowledge is
HW ratio of 1: 100 (w/v) displayed the highest required for herbal tea producers to identify the potential
antioxidant and phytochemicals properties (Azli et al., herbal ingredient toxicity and the safe dosage before the
2018). However, McAlpine and Ward (2016) found that product reaches the consumer.
the polyphenol contents were greatly influenced by the
first 5 mins of brewing time but not their antioxidant 7.1 Pesticide residues
capacity. However, consumers usually prepare infusions Pesticides are classified as organochlorine,
under suboptimal conditions, i.e., the duration of organophosphate, carbamate, and pyrethroid, which are
brewing, which is insufficient to extract the bioactive widely used to control agricultural pests for benefiting
compound, thus incapable of showing substantial higher yields. It becomes a consumer safety concern
therapeutic effect (Sun et al., 2017; Rocha et al., 2020). when the residues are off the limit or accumulated in the
Another brewing factor to be considered is the leaf body system. Common pesticide residue detected in
condition: loose-leaf or ground powder and preparation herbal infusion includes biphenyl, chlorpyriphos,
pack type: loose-leaf, bagged, or powdered. An infusion diethyltoluamide (DEET), terbuthylazine, piperonyl
prepared from ground herbs has high TPC and butoxide, pendimethalin, pirimiphos-methyl,
antioxidant activity even nearly multiplied compared to tebuconazole, and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene
loose leaf (Kharobi and Soubh, 2019), which due to the (p,p’-DDE) (Beneta et al., 2018). Organic farming is an
water to the contact-surface area in powder is higher and approach to eliminate these pesticides from introducing
facilitate an effective extraction. Nowadays, consumers into the infusion. The migration of pesticides into
prefer preparing herbal infusions from tea bags instead of infusion is generally increased with increasing pesticide
loose-leaf for the sake of convenience. However, the water-solubility, pesticide concentrations, and brewing
evidence showed mixed findings that preparation-pack conditions (high water temperature and longer duration)
either in a bag or loose-leaf significantly influenced the (Jiang et al., 2020). The percentages of pesticide
polyphenol content and antioxidant activity. De Almeida migration to infusions ranged from 6.74% for heptachlor
et al. (2019) evidenced that tea bags showed higher to 86.6% for endrin in Polish tea, and herbal infusion
antioxidant activity than loose-leaf samples under the samplings (Witczak et al., 2018) raised a sense of
same brewing conditions, but (Farooq and Sehgal, 2018) particular awareness. However, the author detected
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 Zayapor and Syahida / Food Research 6 (Suppl. 2) (2023) 134 - 154 142

levels of residual organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) al., 2019).

found below MRLs' limit.
Meanwhile, Ababneh (2017) reported that the
A list of studies on synergistic toxicity between estimated daily intake for the toxic elements of lead and

REVIEW
pesticide and heavy metals in agricultural impact has cadmium via herbal infusions intake was distant from the
been reviewed by Alengebawy et al. (2021), but their World Health Organization (WHO) tolerable daily intake
implications on human health are still under infancy and still safe. Even though the estimative of exposure
studied to suggest a conclusion. Pesticides have different assessment for blood lead and inorganic arsenic showed
penetration abilities on the leaf surface and water that the current intake of herbal infusion is considered
solubility. Topical pesticide residues can be reduced by lower than the benchmark dose lower limit, children and
spraying water before harvesting the fresh leaves (Gao et pregnant women shall be cautious and limit the
al., 2020). However, health concerns arise when the consumption to less than a single cup daily (Colapinto et
herbs are prematurely harvested before the absorbed al., 2016; Milani et al., 2018; Milani et al., 2019).
pesticide is periodically degraded. Risk assessment for
pesticide residue intake may help establish a realistic 7.3 Phytochemical toxicity
maximum residue limit (MRL) of pesticides in herbal Botanical products are considered therapeutic and
infusion through a reliable, robust, and time-efficient safe, but some are pharmaceutically identified and
detection technique (Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020). proven to be lethal for human consumption. Adverse
Pyrethroids are the insecticides derived from the reaction to primary organ dysfunction occurs when
pyrethrum flowers (Chrysanthemum coccineum and exposed to excessive dosage or antagonistic effects of
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium). Since it is a botanical combined bioactive compounds. Hepatotoxicity may be
-derived compound, most people think it is safe, and the most recurrent adverse reaction associated with
providentially its migration rate is low (<6.70%), with its herbal remedies causing liver dysfunctions such as
estimated values of the exposure risk being within the transient liver enzyme abnormalities (Reddy et al.,
safe limit (Xiao et al., 2017). 2016). It was found that approximately half of the
commercial herbs and their blends contained at least one
7.2 Heavy metal contamination alkaloid. Pyrrolizidines were the most frequently present,
where the phytochemical migration to homemade
Botanical products are the main channel of heavy infusions may derive 45% pyrrolizidine (PA) and 6%
metals migration to the food system via agricultural soil. steroidal alkaloids (Nardin et al., 2018) require
Accumulation and exceeding the permissible limits of authoritative needs for routine controls. The occurrence
aluminum, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, and concentration of PAs in herbal products were
zinc, cadmium, mercury, and lead are linked with health correlated with the presence of PA-producing plants
dysfunctions, and the herbal infusion can provide a (Mulder et al., 2015), i.e., Western herbs: borage leaf,
valuable complementary source of these elements comfrey and coltsfoot, and Chinese medicinal herbs:
(Długaszek and Kaszczuk, 2020). Manganese and Eupatorium cannabinum, E. japonicum, and Crotalaria
rubidium concentrations in the Austrian herbal infusion assamica. PA is terminally mutagenic, genotoxic, and
were lower than in the tea sample (Winkler et al., 2020), carcinogenic, and herbal infusions were the typical
and it was found that the elemental contents can be contributors to the total exposure to PAs, up to 890 ng/kg
increased with the lemon addition (Gorgulu et al., 2016), BW per day (European Food Safety Authority (EFSA),
where acidification showed higher ion concentrations, 2016). However, based on Balanced Risk-Benefit
except for fluoride ions (Milovanovic et al., 2018). Analysis (BRBA) data, PA contamination outweighs its
Barium had the highest extractability, whereas chromium benefits (Habs et al., 2017).
had the lowest extractability, and the level of polyphenol
content correlated with the level of copper and Another type of alkaloid abundant in herbal
manganese contents in the herbal infusions (Theuma and infusions is tropane (TA) (Gañán et al., 2020), in which
Attard, 2020). Interestingly, the migration rates for the atropine and scopolamine were the most frequently
concerned metals vary significantly between herbal detected TAs. The migration rate for atropine and
infusion and tea, attributed to the level of tannin, which scopolamine to a standard-prepared herbal infusion was
has metal-chelating properties (Schulzki et al., 2017). approximately 50% (Mulder et al., 2016). It is naturally
Some herbs that have been identified as potent chelating present in most Solanaceae family plant members, i.e.,
agents used in heavy metals toxicity therapy include milk Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), and has
thistle (Silybum marianum), cilantro (Coriandrum anticholinergic properties. The estimated daily acute
sativum), ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), turmeric (Curcuma dietary exposure to TA was an alarm warning to children
longa), and green algae (Chlorophyta) (Mehrandish et and the elderly (Arcella and Altieri, 2018).

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 143 Zayapor and Syahida / Food Research 6 (Suppl. 2) (2023) 134 - 154

Aconite roots of Aconitum plants are widely used in leaves, are widely traded in the market and without
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), with myriads of rigorous inspection from the authority, can increase the
therapeutic properties including anti-inflammatory, risk of product adulteration and consumer vulnerability
cardiotonic, analgesic, and anti-tumor. However, the to fraud. Authentication of the herbal origin and
REVIEW

herb intake can cause adverse effects in humans if taken bioactive presence is viable and recommended for the
from insufficient decoction time or exceeding the enforcement work using reliable and fast detection tools
recommended dose, causing aconite poisonings such as spectroscopic fingerprinting technique -
(cardiotoxicity) like life-threatening bradycardia, chemometric analysis.
ventricular arrhythmia, and hypotension (Sheth et al.,
2015; Chou et al., 2018; Bonanno et al., 2020). Ongoing Monoherbal tea produced using standard tea
educational campaigns on pharmacology/medication processing methods such as green or yellow-type on
intake should be instigated for botanical pharmaceutical/ herbal tea is a promising alternative for dietary
nutraceutical use to avoid intoxications and effective antioxidants. However, replication of the processing
dosage. technique does not guarantee replicated health benefits
as standard tea. Thus, extensive research on the
7.4 Mycotoxin contamination pharmacological quality is granted to ensure the efficacy
and fill in the discrepancy between the standard tea.
Dried herbs can harbor fungal growth, which later
causes health concern over mycotoxins occurrence. The This review can conclude that herbal infusion may
reported occurrence in dried herbs was only 12%; provide some therapeutic benefits due to extensive
however, the health threat assessment revealed an scientific evidence. However, two significant issues must
alarming health threat for HT-2 toxin by fusariums in the be clarified before ambiguous health claims and
infusions (Caldeirão et al., 2021). A study in Latvia therapeutic allegations are blatantly advertised. First,
found that 90% of tea samples were positive for authentication of botanical origin and the representative
mycotoxin contamination, where Enniatin B and percentage in the mixture involving polyherbal tea
deoxynivalenol (DON) were the most frequently blending need to be established. Second, the efficacy
detected mycotoxins. The migration rate of mycotoxins level of responsible bioactive compounds should be
from dry herbs to infusion is 32–100% (Reinholds et al., established and set as a biochemical marker for quality
2019). Even though the initial author quoted the HT-2 control with a fast and reliable detection tool and
alarming exposure, aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A still method. Finally, an evidence-based safety dosage for
demonstrated a health risk, with the margin of exposure chronic consumption is due until a clinical trial with a
values being below 10,000. The occurrence of AF type sufficient sample size is done to conclude the verdict.
B1 and G1 was more than 50% in camomile infusion,
where the total AF concentration can reach more than 30
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