Tectonics

Topic 1: Plate Tectonics

1.1 Plate Tectonic Theory
Earthquakes! What caused them?

Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo&t=3s

 TB pg 1 – 4

SLS Section A 1.1:

What is the Plate Tectonic Theory?

Success Criteria:
 I can explain the plate tectonic theory
 I can describe the internal structure of the Earth
 I can explain how forces within Earth drive global
tectonic plate movements [convection currents and
slab-pull force]
 What is the plate tectonic theory?
Success Criteria:
1. I can explain the plate tectonic theory
The plate tectonic theory, which was developed in the1960s,
helps us understand why and how plates move. The theory
explains that:
▪ Earth has a three-layered structure.
▪ The Earth’s lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates.
▪ Tectonic plates are constantly moving.
▪ Plate movements result in the formation of major landforms
we find on the Earth’s surface, such as volcanoes, fold
mountain ranges, and oceanic trenches.
▪ It also explains the occurrence of certain phenomena, such as
earthquakes and tsunamis.
The evolution of the Earth’s tectonic plates
The evolution of the Earth’s tectonic plates
The evolution of the Earth’s tectonic plates
The evolution of the Earth’s tectonic plates
What is the Earth's internal structure?
Success Criteria:
2. I can describe the internal structure of the Earth

Core
• The core is the
innermost layer.
• It is the hottest layer,
with temperatures
ranging from 4,400 to
6,000°C.
• It is also the thickest
layer of about 3,300km
in thickness.
Success Criteria:
2. I can describe the internal structure of the Earth
Mantle
• The mantle lies between
the core and crust.
Temperatures here
range from 1,000 to
3,700°C.
• This layer is about
2,900km thick.
Crust
• The crust is the
outermost layer.
• It is also the thinnest
layer at about 6 to 70km
in thickness.
 Success Criteria:
2. I can describe the internal structure of the Earth
Lithosphere
The upper-most part of the
mantle and the crust above it
are the solid parts of the
Earth. Together, they are
known as the lithosphere.
Asthenosphere
Below the solid lithosphere is
the semi-solid asthenosphere.
Heat from the core causes the
rocks in the asthenosphere to
melt.
 How is
a Ferrero Rocher®
chocolate
similar to
the internal structure of
the earth?
 PAUSE
• Write down what you have learnt about
the internal structure of the earth in
your notes.
• How do you think plate movement is
related to the different layers?
 Two types of lithosphere
Success Criteria:
2. I can describe the internal structure of the Earth
• Continental lithosphere is found on land, making up the
continents.
• On the other hand, the oceanic lithosphere makes up
the seafloor.
• Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust as they
consist of different materials.
• The lithosphere is divided into huge pieces called
tectonic plates.
• There are eight major plates (e.g. North American,
South American, Eurasian plates) and several smaller
plates (e.g. Juan de Fuca, Nazca, Cocos plates).
• Have a look at the next map which shows the different
tectonic plates in the world!
➢ Tectonic plates are constantly on the move. The movement of
these plates is described by the plate tectonic theory.
➢ Most tectonic activity takes place at the boundaries of these
plates, where plates may move away from each other, move
towards each other, or slide past each other.
➢ These plate movements give rise to three main types of plate
boundaries:
➢ Divergent plate boundaries (plates are moving away from
each other)
➢ Convergent plate boundaries (plates are moving towards
each other)
➢ Transform plate boundaries (plates are sliding past each
other)
➢ Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth's most
dramatic geologic events.
➢ It is what forms volcanoes, mountain ranges and deep ocean
trenches, and causes phenomena such as earthquakes and
tsunamis.
➢ At a transform plate boundary, the plates slide past each other in
opposite directions, or in the same direction but at different speeds.
➢ As the plates try to move, friction occurs and plates become stuck.
Pressure builds up because the plates are still trying to move.
➢ When the pressure is released, it sends out huge amounts of energy
causing an earthquake.
 Video: Summary of plate tectonics

Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ugwf6IaE_k

 PAUSE
• Write down what you have learnt about
tectonic plates in your notes.
• What are the different types of tectonic
plates and plate movements ?
 Two forces responsible for plate
movements
Success Criteria:
3. I can explain how forces within Earth drive global tectonic
plate movements [convection currents and slab-pull force]

1. Convection currents
- are within the hot softened mantle below the crust
and are the driving force of overlying plates

2. Slab-pull force
- which is the gravity-controlled subduction of denser
oceanic plate hence dragging the rest of the plate along
What are convection currents?
➢ This convection process occurs within the Earth’s interior.
➢ Hotter, less dense material rises while colder, denser

material sinks. The heat from the Earth’s core causes the
material in the mantle to become less dense and rise
towards the surface.
➢ The rising material in the mantle spreads under the more
rigid crust, exerting a driving force on the overlying plates
and causing them to move.
➢ The material in the mantle then loses heat, becoming
denser and sinking towards the core, where it then gets
heated up again and the process repeats.
➢ This rising and sinking of the mantle material form a
current known as convection currents.
How do convection currents lead to tectonic plate movement?
➢ Where the rising convection currents spread beneath the plates, they
drag the plates away from each other. This creates the divergent plate
boundary.
➢ On the other hand, the convergent boundaries are found where the
convection currents are sinking.
 Video: Convection currents in the mantle

Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MmMX83diwl0

Landforms at a
divergent plate
boundary
include ocean ridges,
eg the Mid-Atlantic
ridge (where the
Eurasian plate and the
North Atlantic plate
are moving apart from
each other under the
Atlantic Ocean), rift
valleys eg the East
African Rift Valley
and shield volcanoes.
How does slab-pull force contribute to tectonic plate movement?
➢ Besides convection currents, slab-pull force also contributes to tectonic
plate movement.
➢ Tectonic plates differ in density depending on the material of the
crust. For instance, oceanic crust is denser than continental crust.
➢ When two plates converge, the denser oceanic crust is pulled down by
gravity as it subducts beneath the less dense crust.
➢ The denser oceanic crust sinks deeper into the mantle under its own
weight, pulling the rest of the plate with it. This results in further
convergence.
A convergent
boundary
with a
continental
plate
and an
oceanic plate
 Tectonics
Topic 1: Plate Tectonics
1.2 Seafloor spreading
 TB pg 5 – 7

SLS Section B 1.2:

Seafloor spreading

Success Criteria:
 I can describe how seafloor spreading leads to magma
rising through mid-oceanic ridges, forming new oceanic
crust
 I can explain how the evidence of seafloor spreading
supports the plate tectonic theory
 What is seafloor spreading?
Success Criteria:
1. I can describe how seafloor spreading leads to magma rising
through mid-oceanic ridges, forming new oceanic crust
➢ Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-
oceanic ridges where two plates are moving away from
each other.
➢ Magma from deep within the Earth then rises through

mid-ocean ridges, cools and solidifies, constructing new

oceanic crust.
➢ This is why divergent boundaries are also known as

constructive boundaries.
Magma rises through the cracks and forms new oceanic
crust at the spreading centre
 Take a look at the map of the global mid-ocean ridges.
These are areas where we see new oceanic crust being formed
due to seafloor spreading.

Seafloor spreading has been occurring for about 200 million years,
during which the Atlantic Ocean has grown, and the continents of Africa
and South America have been pushed apart!
Besides occurring at oceanic-oceanic divergent boundaries, seafloor
spreading can also occur where two continental plates diverge. If you
look at this map, you can observe the divergent plate boundaries at
the Great Rift Valley in Africa.

The Red Sea first began as a narrow lake, and has since
expanded to become a sea as the African Plate and Arabian Plate
continue to diverge.
 How does the evidence of seafloor spreading
support the theory of plate tectonics?
Success Criteria:
2. I can explain how the evidence of seafloor spreading supports the
plate tectonic theory

You will learn how the evidence of seafloor spreading

supports the theory of plate tectonics through:

1. Evidence from age of rocks

2. Evidence from limited sediment accumulation
How does evidence of age of rocks support the plate tectonic theory?
Scientists noticed that there is a pattern to the ages of rocks at the
seabed where the rocks nearer to the crest (centre) of the mid-ocean
ridge are younger and the rocks get progressively older as they spread
out from the ridge. You can notice this pattern in this map.
 How does evidence of age of rocks support the
plate tectonic theory?
➢ At crest of the mid-ocean ridge is a spreading centre, where
magma rising from the mantle cools and solidifies, forming new
seafloor.
➢ The continuous formation of new seafloor at the crest of
the ridge pushes the older seafloor further from the crest of the ridge.
➢ Hence, the ages of the rocks nearer the crest of the ridge are younger
than the rocks further away.
➢ This shows how new oceanic crust is being created at divergent
boundaries, and then spreads laterally on both sides of the mid-ocean
ridge as seafloor spreading continues due to plate movement.
➢ This pattern shows that seafloor spreading is not a random or
isolated occurrence, but rather is associated with plate movement at
boundaries.
How does evidence from limited sediment accumulation support the
plate tectonic theory?
➢ At ocean trenches, the older oceanic crust gets destroyed and is
“recycled” back into the mantle.
➢ When new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges, this younger
crust would not have existed long enough for much sediment to
accumulate, as sediment accumulation takes place over time.
How does evidence from limited sediment accumulation support the
plate tectonic theory?
➢ As a result, oceanic crusts tend to be younger than continental crusts.
The earliest dated continental crust was formed about 4.3 billion years
ago, while the oldest seafloor formed only about 180 million years ago.
This serves as evidence of seafloor spreading.
➢ Therefore, the evidence of seafloor spreading supports the theory that
tectonic plates move.
 TB pg 8 – 11
SLS Section C
1.3: How does magnetic striping support the
plate tectonic theory?
Success Criteria:
 I can explain how magnetic striping supports the plate
tectonic theory

You will learn that magnetic striping:

1. occurs due to the normal and reversed polarity of Earth's
magnetic fields, which leads to
2. stripes of rock on the seafloor with alternating magnetic
properties
 What is normal and reverse polarity?

➢ The geographic North and geographic South do not change.

➢ However, the magnetic North and magnetic South can shift,
➢ and they have in fact, reversed multiple times over geological time.
➢ Currently, the magnetic North points roughly towards the geographic
North, and the magnetic South points roughly towards the geographic
South – this is known as normal polarity as seen in the next slide.
➢ Reverse polarity happens when the magnetic North points roughly
towards the geographic South, and the magnetic South points roughly
towards geographic North.
What What
is magnetic striping?and reverse polarity?
is normal
➢ These reversals of Earth’s polarity are evidenced by

studying the magnetic properties of rock from the ocean

floor.
➢ When examining the ocean floor, you will find stripes of

rock on the seafloor with alternating magnetic

properties.
➢ Magnetic striping is the pattern where there are strips of

normal polarity rock alternating alongside strips of

reversed polarity rock. Watch the video in Section C on
SLS to learn more.
 Magnetic
Mineral
Alignment

Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhiF6IqGACo

How does magnetic striping support the plate
tectonics theory?
1. Oceanic crust is made up of basalt, a type of
volcanic rock
2. It contains iron-rich minerals that can be
influenced by Earth’s magnetic field
➢ Basaltic rocks contain magnetic minerals.
➢ Hence, when the iron-rich lava erupts from the centre of the mid-
ocean ridge, cools, and solidifies, the magnetic field of the minerals in
the lava will point towards Earth’s magnetic North, recording
evidence of Earth’s polarity at that time.
What is the evidence of magnetic striping from rock patterns?
➢ Scientists use instruments to record magnetic patterns on both sides
of the mid-ocean ridge. If you take a look at the figure below, you will
notice that there is a symmetrical zebra-like pattern on both sides of
the ridge. So this is not a random or isolated occurrence!
➢ This is evidence of iron-rich lava erupting from the centre of the
ridge as plates are moving away from each other.
➢ This lava cools and solidifies to form new oceanic crust.
➢ The crust is then pushed in both directions away from the centre of
the ridge, as the oceanic plates continue to move away from each
other.
➢ When Earth’s polarity reverses, the rocks record these magnetic
reversals since they have iron-rich minerals.
➢ Over time, as more lava moves away from the mid-ocean ridge due to
plates diverging, a symmetrical zebra-like magnetic pattern forms.
➢ The evidence of magnetic striping shows how plates are moving apart
from each other over time, supporting the theory of seafloor
spreading as you have learnt in the previous activity.
➢ Therefore, magnetic striping supports the plate tectonics theory.
To sum up… Watch this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJEZ3Vizdww
Start from 1.04
 SLS Section D TB pg 12 – 22

1.4: What will happen to different tectonic plates

when they move at the different plate boundaries?

Success Criteria:
 I can describe what happens at each plate boundary
when tectonic plates move (divergent, convergent,
transform)
Here you will learn that at DIVERGENT plate boundaries,
1. tectonic plates move apart,
2. resulting in mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes (including
submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands), rift systems,
and earthquakes.

What happens at DIVERGENT plate boundaries?

➢ At divergent plate boundaries, tectonic plates move apart,
resulting in mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes (including
submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands), rift
systems, and earthquakes.
➢ There are two kinds of divergent plate boundaries:
1. Oceanic-oceanic divergent plate boundaries
2. Continental-continental divergent plate boundaries
What happens at an oceanic-oceanic divergent plate boundary?
The figure below shows what happens when two oceanic plates
move apart. (ignore the numbers in the figure)
➢ When two oceanic plates move apart, the decrease in overlying
pressure causes parts of the underlying mantle to melt, forming
magma.
➢ Magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth’s surface,
and fills gaps caused by the spreading plates.
➢ The lava cools and solidifies to form basaltic rocks, which make up
new oceanic crust.
➢ An extensive underwater mountain chain, known as the mid-oceanic
ridge, forms at this plate boundary.
➢ This mountain ridge can stretch for thousands of kilometres across
the seafloor!
➢ One example is the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate
divergence, forming the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Some parts of the mid-
oceanic ridge may rise above sea level - if you take a look here, you
can see parts of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which have risen above sea
level at the Thingvellir National Park in Iceland (see picture).
➢ At the centre of the Mid-Atlantic ridge is a deep rift valley with steep
sides.
➢ This linear depression marks the most active zone where magma
rises to the surface and new basaltic rocks are formed.
➢ Magma from the asthenosphere rises to reach the Earth’s surface,
filling the gaps caused by the spreading plates along the central rift
valley, forming submarine volcanoes.
➢ After many eruptions, the volcanoes may break the surface of the
ocean to form islands, such as Surtsey, which formed off the coast of
Iceland in 1963 (shown in the picture here).
➢ Earthquakes also occur here due to the stress and tension released
when plates move.
What happens at a continental-continental divergent plate
boundary?
The figure shows two continental plates moving apart.
➢ When two continental plates move apart, the rock fractures and
forms parallel faults.
➢ The rock between these faults collapses to form a deep rift valley
with steep sides such as the Great Rift Valley
➢ These rift valleys are areas where earthquakes occur as stress and
tension are released when plates move.
➢ As the plates move apart, the decrease in overlying pressure
causes parts of the underlying mantle to melt, forming magma.
➢ Magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth’s surface,
forming volcanoes.
➢ Do you remember earlier, we learnt that the Red Sea at the Great
Rift Valley is one of the youngest seas formed as the Nubian Plate
diverges from the Arabian Plate?
➢ In the same area, we can also observe an example of continental-
continental plate divergence.
➢ The Great Rift Valley is formed where the Nubian Plate pulls apart
from the Somalian Plate.
➢ It is a volcanically active zone and examples of volcanoes found are
Mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro.

The Great Rift Valley System

which consists of a series of rift valleys
and volcanoes at the
continental-continental divergent plate
boundary in Africa
Here you will you will learn that at CONVERGENT plate
boundaries, tectonic plates move towards each other, resulting in
fold mountains, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes,
oceanic trenches, and earthquakes.

What happens at CONVERGENT plate boundaries?

At convergent plate boundaries, tectonic plates move towards
each other, resulting in fold mountains, volcanoes (including
submarine volcanoes), oceanic trenches, and earthquakes.
There are three kinds of convergent plate boundaries:
➢ Oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries
➢ Continental-continental convergent plate boundaries
➢ Oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries
What happens at oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries?
The figure shows two oceanic plates moving towards each other.
➢ If you look at the figure, you will notice one oceanic plate sinking
below another oceanic plate.
➢ This is known as subduction, which is the process when two
oceanic plates collide, and the denser of the two plates sinks
beneath the other plate.
➢ This forms a deep depression known as an oceanic trench in the
subduction zone.
➢ As the subducting plate sinks into the mantle, the high pressure
forces water out of its oceanic crust.
➢ Water lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle, causing it
to melt, forming magma.
➢ Magma from the asthenosphere rises to reach the Earth’s surface,
forming a crescent chain of volcanoes.
➢ Some of these volcanoes remain underwater and are known as
submarine volcanoes, while some rise above the sea level as
volcanic islands.
➢ Friction along the subducting oceanic plate also
causes earthquakes to occur.
➢ One example is where the oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath
the oceanic Philippine Plate. This results in the formation of the
world’s deepest Mariana Trench, as well as the volcanic island arc
known as the Marianas Islands. Guam, an island near the Marianas
Trench, commonly experiences earthquakes.
What happens at continental-continental convergent plate
boundaries? The figure shows two continental plates moving
towards each other.
➢ As seen in the previous figure, when two low-density continental
plates collide, subduction does not take place.
➢ This is because continental plates are too buoyant to subduct. Instead,
when the two plates collide, the enormous pressure causes the rocks
on the plates to be uplifted and buckled to form fold mountains.
➢ Earthquakes are very common here and can be violent due to the
enormous build-up of pressure. Here, magma does not rise to the
surface, hence no volcanoes are formed.
➢ An example is the Himalayan Mountain range, where Mount Everest is
located. It is formed where the continental Indian Plate converges
with the continental Eurasian Plate. Did you know that every year,
Mount Everest is becoming taller by about 5mm? The area
experiences many earthquakes, such as the devastating earthquake
that struck Nepal in 2015.
What happens at an oceanic-continental convergent plate
boundary? This figure shows an oceanic plate and a continental
plate moving towards each other.
➢ The denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate.
Similar to the oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundary, this forms
an oceanic trench in the subduction zone.
➢ As the subducting plate sinks into the mantle, the high pressure
forces water out of its oceanic crust.
➢ Water lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle, causing it
to melt, forming magma.
➢ Magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth’s
surface, forming volcanoes on the continental plate.
➢ Friction along the subducting oceanic plate causes earthquakes to
occur. The enormous pressure at this plate boundary causes the rocks
on the continental plate to be uplifted and buckled, leading to the
formation of fold mountains.
Here you will learn that at TRANSFORM plate boundaries,
tectonic plates slide past each other, resulting in faults and
earthquakes

What happens at a TRANSFORM plate boundary?

Earthquakes occur as one block of rock suddenly slips past
another. However, as magma does not rise to the Earth’s surface,
there are no volcanoes at transform plate boundaries.

The next figure shows two plates sliding past each other at a
transform plate boundary.
You may notice a lack of landforms. This is because at transform
boundaries, two plates slide horizontally alongside each other,
and no crust is created or destroyed.
However, the stress caused by the plate movement produces a fault,
which is a zone of fractures between two blocks of rocks. One of the
most famous examples is the San Andreas Fault in California, USA
(See Figure 15). Here, the relatively fast-moving Pacific plate is sliding
alongside the slower-moving North American plate. In 1989, the
Loma Prieta earthquake hit California.
 Additional videos to show
https://education.nationalgeographic
.org/resource/plate-tectonics-
video/
1)Video on overview of the theory of
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U3eT
plate tectonics plus animation of 3
0qmPJbw
plate boundaries
3) Where the Earth Drifts Apart - A
Waterlust Film About Diving Silfra,
https://education.nationalgeographic
Iceland
.org/resource/seafloor-
spreading/
2)Video on divergence and seafloor
spreading all over the world