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Music Iconography: What is ist all about? Some remarks and considerations
with a selected bibliography

Article · January 2008

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 Music Iconography: What is it all about?
Some remarks and considerations with a
selected Bibliography1
Antonio Baldassarre
(President of RIdIM-Commission Mixte)

I have to tell you I enjoy being on a construction site.

Tino Faussone in Primo Levi, La chiave a stella2

A glance at the output of music iconography research reveals

an obvious topical and methodological plurality that can easily be
misunderstood as a kind of eclecticism.3 That is why music iconography
research still appears – metaphorically speaking – more like a construction
site than a garden in the style of André Le Nôtre. The topical and
methodological plurality of music iconography is, however, the result of the
development of music iconography as a research field and its specific
dependence on an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary and/or multidisciplinary

1
The following considerations - originally presented during the 18th edition of the ANPPOM
annual congress, in Salvador (Bahia - Brazil) - September 2008 - are partly based on further
exploring and summarizing ideas that I have discussed within my papers “Quo vadis music
iconography? The Répertoire International d’Iconographie Musicale as a case study”, in:
Fontes Artis Musicae, Vol. 54, No. 2 (2007), 440-452, “Mapping music iconography”, in:
Proceedings of the International Conference of IAML/IAMIC/IMS, Göteborg 2006. Ed. Chris
Walton (forthcoming), and “The Jester of Musicology or The Place and Function of Music
Iconography in Institutions of Higher Education”, keynote lecture, presented at the
international conference Thinking Music in Art: New Directions in Music Iconography,
University of Otago, New Zealand, 26 – 28 June 2008.
2
Primo Levi, La chiave a stella. Turin: Einaudi, 1978 (English translation by the author).
3
The chronologically arranged list of studies at the end of this paper, including research on
dance and ethnomusicological topics reflects the plurality of topical and methodological
aspects of music iconography research.

Ictus 09-2 69
discourse to generate useful scholarly knowledge.4 It is noteworthy that music
iconography research and cataloguing projects strongly depend on a
successful discourse with other disciplines. The interdisciplinary focus in
music iconography is not a mere fashion or some promotional hype utilized
by academic institutions to market their programs, but rather, a focus essential
to an adequate analysis of visual sources.
Already in the 1970s Emanuel Winternitz, one of the founding fathers
of music iconography, emphasized the interdisciplinary nature of scholarly
research in music iconography, and even went so far as to hope that music
iconography would help “to free musicology from that isolation into which
so many specialized branches of research have fallen in our overspecializing
times.”5 This hope has not materialized within the last four decades.
Musicology, on the one hand, is still shaped by being extremely specialized,
strongly supported by “the reward system”, as James Anderson Winn has
pointed out, “by which universities” still “hire, promote, and remunerate their
faculties.”6 This tendency was enforced by the cultural shift with its dramatic

4
To simplify matters, the term “interdisciplinarity” will also be applied for marking the
shared perspectives of trandisciplinarity and multidisciplinartiy. It is, however, important to
emphasize that both transdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity are only related to but not
congruent with the concept of interdisciplinarity. For further information on this topic see,
for instance: Practicing Interdisciplinarity. Ed. Peter Weingart and Nice Stehr. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 2000, Transdisciplinarity: Joint problem solving among science,
technology, and society. Ed. Julie Thompson Klein et al. Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag, 2000,
William H. Newell, “A Theory of Interdisciplinary Studies”, in: Issues in Integrative Studies
19 (2001), 1-25, and Transdisziplinarität: Bestandesaufnahme und Perspektiven. Beiträge
zur THESIS-Arbeitstagung im Oktober 2003 in Göttingen. Ed. Frank Brand et al. Göttingen:
Universitätsverlag, 2004.
5
Emanuel Winternitz, “The Iconology of Music: Potential and Pitfalls“. In: Perspectives in
Musicology. Ed. Barry S. Brook et al. New York: Norton, 1972, 80-90 (quote, 90).
6
See James Anderson Winn, The Pale of Words. Reflections on the Humanities and Performance.
New Haven (CT) and London: Yale University Press, 1998, 116. Any criticism of the
specialization within the humanities has also to take into consideration the conditions that have
favored such a development. Specialization in the humanities has to be considered as a reaction
to changes within the paradigm of science during the last third of the nineteenth century. In the
course of this development the natural sciences were based primarily on “objective” methods
and the notion of empirically developed “facts” began to dominate. The scientific canon of the
disciplines strongly challenged the humanities with their primarily religious-metaphysical
foundation as it is paradigmatically presented in the concept of classical historicism by Leopold
von Ranke. It was Max Weber who definitely pulled the rug from under such a historic-
philosophical concept at the beginning of the twentieth century (see, for instance, Max Weber,
“Wissenschaft als Beruf” (lecture 1922), in: Max-Weber-Gesamtausgabe, Abt. I, Vol. 17. Ed.
Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Wolfgang Schluchter. Tübingen: Mohr-Siebeck, 1992, 70-111).

70 Ictus 09-2
effect on the university within the last three decades out of which many
scholars started advocating the “University of Excellence” 7 or
Exzellenzenförderung (the promotion of excellence in academia) although
both strongly buttress solipsism and fragmentation.
Music iconography, on the other hand, still experiences a kind of a
feeble existence in today’s academia. The reasons for this situation are
manifold and do interact with each other. For instance, many scholars still
fear that interdisciplinarity weakens the traditional classification of scholarship
according to disciplines as it has developed since the nineteenth century and
which still essentially shapes the professional identity of both the scholars
and the institutional integration of the disciplines.8 Moreover, the first attempts
to extend the musicological curriculum to include music iconography along
with its appropriate methodological approaches coincided with a seismic
shift in the humanities which eventually resulted, as far as music research is
concerned, in the still ongoing “struggle for the cultural authority to speak
about music.”9 This may also explain some of the structural problems the
international inventory for musical iconography, the Répertoire International

However, the influence of natural science with its empiric perspective cannot be underestimated
– Anton Springer (1825-1891, for instance, the first professor of art history at Leipzig University
treated art history dependent on source study, emphasizing exact description and the
development of scientific – i.e. “objective” - criteria. The affinity to favor “facts” instead of
“theories” as Georg G. Iggers has pointed out “and to scientifically accept only what can be
substantiated by sources” benefited specialization und philology within the humanities to such
an extent that both were strongly criticized for this approach already in the nineteenth century.
No less then Johann Gustav Droysen, the author of numerous eminent and influential history
studies, lamented in a letter that “any garbage that is treated with a special study, (is) blazoned
out with the fanfare of science” (Georg G. Iggers, Deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft. Eine Kritik
der traditionellen Geschichtsauffassung von Herder bis zur Gegenwart. Vienna etc.: Böhlau,
1997 (3rd edition), 171 (English as The German Concept of History. Middletown (CT):
Wesleyan University Press, 1968) and (Johann Gustav Droysen, Briefwechsel. Ed. Rudolf
Hübner. Stuttgart-Berlin-Leipzig: Deutsch Verlagsanstalt, 1929, Vol. 2, 977-978).
7
Bill Readings, The University in Ruins. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996,
46.
8
However, interdisciplinarity aims to increase the capacity of traditional disciplines to cope
with the problems of science and society. Interdisciplinarity does not attack the traditional
disciplines but enhances the treatment of complex questions beyond the boundaries of the
single disciplines and benefits from the tension created by the discourse among the different
disciplines.
9
Kevin Korsyn, “The Aging of the New Musicology”, paper delivered at the International
Symposium Approaches to Music Research: between Practice and Epistemology, Ljubljana,
8 – 9 May 2008, 16. See also Kevin Korsyn, Decentering Music: A Critique of Contemporary
Musical Research. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Ictus 09-2 71
d’Iconographie Musicale, has experienced since its establishment in 1971, a
topic I will return to shortly. Last but not least, as far as disciplines which
use visual documents as auxiliary rather than primary sources are concerned,
the lack of agreement about how visual sources should be acquired and
used is noteworthy. The field of history provides an elucidating example of
this situation. While some history scholars emphasize the benefits of cross-
fertilization between the disciplines,10 others are quite hesitant to accept the
use of visual sources as evidence, arguing that art is not only formed through
purposes and traditions but also to a large extent through imagination.11
Indeed, on the one hand, visual sources are epistemological documents that
often provide information that oral and written sources on paper cannot
express or which have been neglected or omitted by contemporary writers.
On the other hand, one always has to take into account that pictorial
documents do not necessarily follow what is generally called historical truth
or credibility. Especially within music iconography research scholars have
to keep in mind that the visual source with musical subject matter is seldom
a means of musical communication, meaning that criteria of music are most
often not the main guiding principle in the process of artistic creation.12 This
is, indeed, not only the case with depictions with a predominantly symbolic,
allegoric, mythological or religious narrative, as for instance, Raphael’s
Parnass fresco at the Stanza della Segnatura at the Vatican (fig. 1) and the
depiction of Saint Cecilia of the Kreuz Altar by The Master of the Saint
Bartholomew Altar (fig. 2, 3 and 4) but also with images that seemingly
mirror reality (fig. 5 and 6).
The depiction of the lira da braccio with nine rather than the expected
seven strings in Raphael’s Parnass, played by Apollo who is sitting in the
center of the fresco, is, as I have argued in another study, not the result of a
true copy of existing instruments, but rather the symbolic and ideological
narrative embodied in the fresco. It symbolizes the revitalized concept of

10
See for instance, Theodor Raab and Jonathan Brown (Eds.), “The Evidence of Art: Images
and Meaning in History”. Journal of Interdisciplinary History XVII (1986), Peter Burke,
Augenzeugenschaft. Bilder als historische Quallen. Berlin: Klaus Wagenbach, 2003 (English
as Eyewitnessing. The Use of Images as Historical Evidence. Ithaca (N.Y.): Cornell University
Press, 2001), and Bernd Roeck, Das historische Auge. Kunstwerke als Zeugen ihrer Zeit: Von
der Renaissance zur Revolution. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2004.
11
See for instance Francis Haskall, History and Its Images: Art and Interpretation of the Past.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.
12
See Tilman Seebass, “Prospettive dell’iconografia musicale. Considerazioni di un
medievalista”, in: Rivista italiana di musicologia, XVIII/1 (1983), 67-86, particularly 71.

72 Ictus 09-2
Ictus 09-2
73
Fig. 1, Raphael (Rafaello Santi), Parnass, 1509-1511, Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican State
Fig. 2: Master of the Saint Bartholomew
Altar, Saint John the Baptist and Saint
Cecilia, Kreuz Altar, left wing, about 1490-
1495, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne

Fig. 3: Master of the Saint Bartholomew

Altar, Saint John the Baptist and Saint
Cecilia, Kreuz Altar, left wing (detail),
about 1490-1495, Wallraf-Richartz-
Museum, Cologne

74 Ictus 09-2
Ictus 09-2
75
Fig. 4: Master of the Saint Bartholomew Altar, Saint Cecilia, Saint Agnes and Saint Bartholomew, 1485-1510, triptych (central
panel), wood, 129 x 161 cm, Alte Pinakothek, Munich
Fig. 5: Jakob Gauermann, Polsterltanz, 1820, oil on canvas, 31.0 x 45.1 cm, Private
Collection

Fig. 6: Anonymous, Músicos Mexicanos, probably 18th century, Italian, aquatint,

reproduced in Fernando Benítez, Historia de La Ciudad de México, México D.F.:
Salvat, 1984, Vol. 1, 77.
76 Ictus 09-2
the ancient poet-singer in the Renaissance, surrounded by the nine muses
who are represented in the nine strings of the instrument.13
The depiction of Saint Cecilia on the left wing of the Kreuz Altar com-
bines realistic and supernatural features. Saint Cecilia is pumping and playing
a portative organ while a small angel helps to manipulate the instrument.
The “realistic” impression is supported by the “individualized” presentations
of the two figures (Saint John the Baptist and Saint Cecilia) as if they were
“portraits” by which the artist seems to want to make the viewer forget that
the depicted figures are stylized images of Saints. Yet, neither the situation
nor the depiction of the musical instrument can be taken as evidence for a
real musical communication. The portative organ, for instance, is depicted
with a corrupted keyboard as a close glance proves (fig. 3).
Furthermore this depiction of Saint Cecilia is strikingly similar to an
illustration of the same saint by the Master of the Saint Bartholomew Altar
preserved on the central panel of the Saint Bartholomew Altar which clearly
indicates that the artist is following certain artistic patterns or traditions within
the representation of Saint Cecilia (fig. 4).
Although both Jakob Gauermann’s canvas Polsterltanz of 1820 (fig.
5) and the Italian aquatint of apparently indigenous Mexican musicians by
an anonymous artist (fig. 6) intend to present a detail of everyday life, they
are both highly charged with ideological narratives. While Gauermann’s
depiction of the traditional Polsterltanz (pillow dance) is ideologically and
stylistically influenced by the Biedermeier concept of idealization, the Mexican
musicians are the product of a European vision of the cultivated yet exotic
savages whose exoticism is neutralized by shaping them as ancient Greek
or Roman individuals.
Although the majority of examples used so far belong to (high) Western
art, it is important to explicitly point out that for music iconography research
all visual documents are valuable primary sources independent of their artistic
value. Music iconography research cares about the quality and amount of
information a visual object may provide, and not about the artistic value. In
contrast to art history and musicology whose basic categories of research
are still strongly referring to the artwork and its author, the focus of music
iconography is the iconographical/iconological content of the visual source
itself. However, it cannot be denied that objects of so-called high culture still

13
Antonio Baldassarre, Die Lira da braccio im humanistischen Kontext Italiens, in: Music in
Art, Vol. XXIV, No. 1-2 (1999), 5-28 (also in Chinese in Yi shu zhong de yin yue, vol. 1/2006).

Ictus 09-2 77
frame the core sources within music iconography research. This
concentration on Western art and objects of high-culture cannot simply be
dismissed as elitism, but has historical and practical reasons. Historically,
music iconography research, including its methodology, emerged in close
connection to music history research during a period dominated by Western
musical artworks and its methodological perspectives. In practical terms
this focus was the result of easy availability of source material through
museums and art collections. This availability has exerted and still wields a
significant influence in maintaining the involvement of music iconography
research with the analysis and interpretation of high art.

***

With respect to the availability of visual sources and the increasing

interest in these sources to achieve scientific knowledge, Edward Dent (1876-
1957) advocated for an international inventory of iconographic sources with
musical subject already in 1929.14 His vision finally materialized in the
establishment of the Répertoire International d’Iconographie Musicale (also
known as RIdIM) in 197115 on the initiative of Barry S. Brook (1918-1997),
Geneviève Thibault Comtesse de Chambure (1902-1975) and Harald
Heckmann (*1924) and with the strong support of Emanuel Winternitz (1898-
1983), Howard Mayer Brown (1930-1993) and Walter Salmen (*1926).16
Since the late 1980s RIdIM has functioned primarily through ongoing activities
of individuals in many countries doing scholarly research and cataloguing
often at their own expense and with minimal institutional support. Since that
period RIdIM continued to be an international project but lacked both a
clear structure and a functioning Commission Mixte. Thanks to joint activities

14
See Minutes of the Directorium Meeting of the International Musicological Society, 1929
(Archives of the International Musicological Society, Basel, Switzerland).
15
See “Actes du Neuvième Congrès International des Bibliothèques Musicales, St. Gall, 22–
28 août 1971”, in: Fontes Artis Musicae, Vol. XIX (1972), 196–203, Barry S. Brook et al.,
“RIdIM: A new international venture in musical iconography”, in Notes, Vol. 28, no. 4
(1972), 652–663, Victor Ravizza, “Zu einem internationalen Repertorium der
Musikikonographie”, in: Acta Musicologica, Vol. 44, no. 1 (1972), 101–108; Antonio
Baldassarre, “Looking back and forward”. In: RIdIM Newsletter, 1 (2006), 2-4; and Antonio
Baldassarre, “Quo vadis music iconography?” (see footnote 1), 441-443.
16
Further information about the establishment of RIdIM as an international venture is
provided in my editorials to the RIdIM Newsletters nos. 1-3 (2006-2008).

78 Ictus 09-2
of the three sponsoring societies – the International Association of Music
Libraries, Archives and Documentation Centers (IAML), the International
Musicological Society (IMS) and the International Committee of Musical
Instrument Museums and Collections (CIMCIM) of the International Council
of Museums (ICOM) – it was possible to re-establish stable and transparent
structures which finally resulted in the appointment of a new Commission
Mixte in 2005.
In contrast to the other so-called “R-Projects” – i.e. the Répertoire
International des Source Musicales (RISM), the Répertoire International de
Littérature Musicale (RILM) and the Répertoire International de la Presse
Musicale (RIPM) – RIdIM was, however, destined not only for functioning
as an inventory project but also for promoting research in music iconography.
This research depends significantly on the availability of source material for
which the RIdIM database and the establishment of RIdIM working groups
and national centers are the most effective tools.
The development of the RIdIM database for cataloguing music-related
objects was one of the most challenging projects that the Commission Mixte
approached since 2005. The success of having been able to launch the first
test version of this database in March 2008 benefited from the imperturbable
belief in its necessity by the Commission Mixte, despite the extensive time
and energy required to achieve this goal, and from the knowledge and
expertise on many database aspects, provided by the four advisory members
of the Commission Mixte.17

***

Although, as mentioned, plurality is a characteristic feature of the actual

situation of music iconography research, one can – theoretically – distinguish
two different main approaches. The “traditional” branch focuses primarily
on the analysis and interpretation of organological aspects and historical
music performance practices, including questions concerning the identification
of visible musical scores and depicted people. Two of the first examples
representing this approach are Martin Gerbert’s (1720-1793) De cantu et
musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque ad praesens tempus of
1774 in which he used visual sources in addition to written documents to

17
The RIdIM database can be accessed via the RIdIM website at “www.ridim.org”. At the
moment it is open to cataloguers only. Public access is scheduled for 2009.

Ictus 09-2 79
reconstruct musical performance practices of the Middle Ages,18 and the
work of Guillaume André Villoteau (1759-1839) who seems to have been
the first scholar to apply visual sources within a music ethnographical study
focusing on historic and contemporary musical practices in Greece and
Egypt.19
The other branch is chiefly concerned about studying and interpreting
music iconographical sources from a socio-cultural point of view, based on
achievements of Aby Warburg (Abraham Moritz Warburg) (1866-1929) and
his school that were further developed by Fritz Saxl (1890-1948), Erwin
Panofsky (1892-1968) and Edgar Wind (1900-1971),20 and as far as music
iconography in particular is concerned by Emanuel Winternitz (1898-1983),
Howard Mayer Brown (1930-1993) and Richard D. Leppert.21 Of special
influence were the studies by Erwin Panofsky insofar as he introduced an
elaborated meanwhile, however, highly criticized methodological perspective
for research in iconography, particularly with his Studies in Iconology
published in 1939.22
These two perspectives do not exclude each other but rather often
merge in scholarly practice. An interesting example is found in a close reading
of the canvas, The Morse and Cator Family by Johann Zoffany (fig. 7).
The painting depicts the two families gathered for a musical
performance. Robert Morse is playing the cello; his sisters Anne Francis
and Sarah are seated at the harpsichord and Sarah’s husband, William Cator,

18
Martin Gerbert, De cantu et musica sacra a prima ecclesiae aetate usque ad praesens
tempus, Monasterium Sancti Blasii 1774. Reprint ed. Othmar Wessely. Graz: Akademische
Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1968.
19
Guillaume André Villoteau, De l’État actuel de l’art musical en Égypte, ou Relation historique
et descriptive des recherches et observations faites sur la musique en ce pays. Paris: Impr.
impériale, 1812, and Description historique, technique et littéraire des instruments de musique
des Orientaux. Paris: Impr. impériale, 1813. See also Guillaume André Villoteau, Dissertation
sur les diverses espèces d’instrumens de musique que l’on remarque parmi les sculptures
que décorent les antiques monumens de l’Égypte, et sur les noms que leur donnèrent en leur
langue propre les premiers peuples de ce pays. Paris: Impr. de C.L.F. Panckoucke, 1822.
20
See for instance Fritz Saxl, “A Battle Scene without a Hero”, in: Journal of the Warburg
and Courtauld Institutes III (1939/40), 70-87, and Edgar Wind, Pagan Mysteries in the
Renaissance. London: Faber and Faber, 1968 (new and enlarged edition). For literature
concerning Panofsky see appendix.
21
See appendix.
22
Erwin Panofsky, Studies in Iconology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1939. A
discussion about Panofsky’s methodology and the criticism is provided in Antonio Baldassarre,
“Mapping music iconography” (see footnote 1).

80 Ictus 09-2
stands on the right. Zoffany’s painting depicts a typical eighteenth century
musical gathering as he has provided in a very similar way in his painting
George, 3rd Earl Cowper, with the Family of Charles Gore in ca. 1775
(fig. 8).

Fig. 7: Johann Zoffany, The Morse and Cator Family, ca. 1783/84, 110.2 x 100.1
cm, Aberdeen Art Gallery and Museum

Fig. 8: Johann Zoffany, George, 3rd Earl Cowper, with the Family of Charles Gore, ca.
1775, oil on canvas, 78.7.x 97.8 cm, Private Collection

In this respect the portrait of the Morse and Cator Family offers
interesting insights into the musical performance practices of eighteenth
century English culture. In addition, it provides valuable information
concerning the playing and construction of the depicted instruments.
Ictus 09-2 81
Fig. 9: Johann Zoffany, Colonel Blair with his family and an Indian Ayah, 1810, oil
on canvas, 96.5 x 134.6 cm, The Tate Gallery, London

However, the canvas includes another important but hidden narrative

that can only be discovered from a cultural point of view. The omnipresence
of conventional eighteenth century English culture mirrored in the fine cos-
tumes and elegant interior suppresses the information that this canvas shows
the families in their home in Calcutta, India. In this respect the canvas reveals,
as Richard D. Leppert has convincingly argued,23 the power of English
colonialists in eighteenth century India. Zoffany gave this idea even more
explicit expression in his portrait of Colonel Blair with his family of 1810
by depicting an Indian servant on the right side (fig. 9).

***

Music iconography research and RIdIM make significant contributions

to other research fields. They not only provide source material but also

23
See Richard D. Leppert, “Music, domestic life, and cultural chauvinism: images of British
subjects at home in India”, In: Music and Society: the politics of composition, and
representation. Ed. Richard D. Leppert and Susan McClary. Cambridge and New York:
Oxford University Press, 1987, 63-104.

82 Ictus 09-2
support the interpretation and understanding of source material from an
interdisciplinary point of view. The benefit of such interdisciplinary enterprises
ranges from the identification of portrayed people, depicted music or musi-
cal scenes and of musical instruments (including their symbolism) to the
understanding of other specific particularities embodied in images that can
only be understood and appreciated with musical knowledge. A full
appreciation of the narrative of Hans Holbein the Younger’s painting The
Ambassadors, for instance, depends to a significant extent on musical
knowledge (fig. 10).
Holbein’s canvas is a double-portrait of Jean de Dinteville (left), who
became French ambassador to the English court of Henry VIII in 1533, and
Georges de Selves (right), bishop of Lavaur, and depicts the visit of the

Fig. 10: Hans Holbein The Younger, The Ambassadors, 1533, oil on wood, 206.0
x. 209.0 cm, National Gallery, London
Ictus 09-2 83
Fig. 11: Hans Holbein The Younger, The Ambassadors (detail), 1533, oil on wood,
206.0 x 209.0 cm, National Gallery, London

bishop in London during a politically crucial situation. The center of the

painting is fully occupied by a shelf and objects with highly symbolic value
and a skull. The broken sixth string of the depicted lute and the flute case fit
into the overall narrative of Holbein’s painting as does the songbook by
combining two songs of the second edition of Johann Walther’s Geistliches
Gesangbuch (Worms, Peter Schöffer, 1525) that do not, however, appear
on the opposite pages as in Holbein’s depiction (fig. 11).24
Holbein combines Walther’s song “Komm heiliger geyste” after Martin
Luther’s translation of “Veni sancte spiritus” and the beginning of Luther’s
reduced version of The Ten Commandments “Mensch wiltu leben seliglich”.
The broken string, the flute case and the songs, however, support the painting’s
narrative as a vanitas or memento mori depiction, referring to the historical
event of Henry VIII’s divorce that caused a huge political crisis all over
Europe.25

24
Markus Jenny, “Ein frühes Zeugnis für die kirchenverbindliche Bedeutung des evangelischen
Kirchenliedes”, in: Jahrbuch für Liturgik und Hymnologie, VIII (1963), 123-128; and Mary
Rasmussen, “The case of the flutes in Holbein’s ‘The ambassadors’”, in: Early Music, XXIII/
1 (1995), 115-123.
25
For further information on the analysis and interpretation of Holbein’s Ambassador see,
for instance: Mary Hervey, Holbein’s Ambassadors: The Picture and the Men. London:
George Bell and Sons, 1900, John Rowlands, Holbein: The Paintings of Hans Holbein the
Younger. Boston: David R. Godine, 1985, Peter Cornelius Claussen, “Der doppelte Boden
unter Holbeins Gesandten”, in: Hülle und Fülle. Festschrift für Tilmann Buddensieg. Ed.
Andreas Beyer et al. Alfter: Verlag und Datenbank für Geisteswissenschaften, 1993, 177-
202, Susan Foister, Roy Ashok and Martin Wyld, Making and Meaning: Holbein’s
Ambassadors. London: National Gallery Publications, 1997, Etty Dekker and Kristen
Lippincott, “The Scientific Instruments in Holbein’s Ambassadors”, in: Journal of the Warburg

84 Ictus 09-2
 Another interesting example of the benefits of cross-fertilization is the
famous portrait of Louis XIV, the Sun King, painted by Hyacinthe Rigaud
(fig. 12) which initially may not even appear to be concerned with music.

Fig. 12: Hyacinthe Rigaud, Louis XIV, (detail), 1701, Oil on canvas, 279 x 190 cm,
Musée du Louvre, Paris

and Courtauld Institutes 62 (1999), 93-125, Jeanette Zwingenberger, The Shadow of Death in
the Work of Hans Holbein the Younger. London: Parkstone Press, 1999, Giles Hudson, “The
Vanity of the Sciences”, in: Annals of Science 60, 2 (2003), 201–205, and John North, “The
Ambassador” Secret: Holbein and the World of the Renaissance. London: Phoenix, 2004.

Ictus 09-2 85
 It is well known that Louis XIV was very aware of the remarkable
power of the arts concerning both his political agenda and his political image
as evidenced by many descriptions in his Memoirs and the almost unrestrained
promotion of the arts as the most effective means of the king’s self-
portrayal.26 The role the arts played within the construction of the political
image of the Sun King can hardly be overestimated, as Peter Burke has
explored in his elucidating study.27
Generally, portraits of rulers have a very explicit narrative: to perform
power, fame and prestige. Thus it is not surprising that these kind of portraits
follow more or less normative rules. Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo (1538-1600)
demanded in Trattato dell’arte della Pittura (1584)28 that portraits should
display kings and princes with an awe-inspiring habitus and not primarily
care about the true appearance of the portrayed person.29
Louis XIV liked Rigaud‘s portrait very much and commissioned
numerous copies.30 Although at first glance, the portrait fits perfectly into
the normative rules of a traditional state-portrait, the depiction’s narrative is
extremely bizarre. Following the traditional norms its pictorial allusions to
Renaissance traditions are quite unremarkable. The depictions of a classical
pillar and an allegorical Justice figure on the pillar’s pedestal as well as of a
red velvet curtain and the royal garment are features connecting this parti-
cular portrait to the tradition of state-portrait painting since the Renaissance.
The king himself is, however, depicted simultaneously in a natural and an
idealized manner. The upper part of the portrait, particularly the face, presents
the king as an aging individual31 a depiction most uncommon for representative

26
Louis XIV, Mémoires. Ed as Mémoires du Louis XIV by Charles Dreyss, 2 Vols. Paris:
Didier & Cie, 1860 and as Louis XIV, Mémoires by Jean Longnon, Paris: Jules Tallandier,
1927, Reprint Paris: Tallandier, 2001.
27
Peter Burke, The fabrication of Louis XIV. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press, 1992.
28
The Trattato dell’arte della Pittura is Lomazzo’s chief work. It appeared in seven volumes
in Milan in 1584. Its enormous success finds evidence in English and French translations that
were published soon after the Italian edition.
29
See Enrico Castelnuovo, “Il significato del ritratto pittorico nella società“. In: Storia
d’Italia Einaudi, vol. V/2. Torino: Einaudi, 1973, 1033-1094.
30
See Werner Willi Ekkehard Mai, “Le Portrait du roi”, Staatsporträt und Kunsttheorie in
der Epoche Ludwigs XIV. PhD dissertation, Universität Bonn, 1975.
31
Another striking example depicting Louis XIV as an aging individual is the famous portrait
bust by Antoine Benoist (1706, wax and other materials, Château de Versailles).

86 Ictus 09-2
portraits at that time and contradictory to the aforementioned requirement
of Lomazzo.
As Ragnhild Marie Hatton has pointed out one can even detect the
tired eyes and the sunken cheeks, most probably caused by the king’s recent,
and well documented, dental surgery when having a close look at the
canvas.32
In contrast, the king’s lower part, especially the elegant legs and their
particular position allude to the period when Louis used to appear on stage
as a dancer,33 an activity which he had, however, abandoned already thirty
years before the portrait was painted. A comparison with the famous drawing
of the costume sketch depicting the king dancing in the role of Apollo in
Ballet royal de la nuit of 1653 clarifies this interpretation (fig. 13-15).
Although Rigaud’s portrait of Louis XIV represents the explicit narrative
of state-portraits, its true value can only be appreciated when analyzing it
with respect to its relations with musical practice matters, the socio-cultural
space and the communication process activated by the painting’s aesthetic
and symbolic means.34
With respect to state-portraits, a glaring absence or omission is that of
any laughter unless the portrayed person wishes to be explicitly presented
as a tribune of the people. Laughing was – and still seems to be – incompatible
with the idea of political power. With respect to the pictorial representation
of Louis XIV, a striking example is the rejection of an equestrian sculpture
of the Sun King by Gianlorenzo Bernini because of an unbecoming smile.35
It is striking that portraits of musicians and composers often closely
duplicate the described narrative of state-portraits as the following four
illustrations reveal (fig. 16-19).
The figures play with stylizations known from portraits of rulers. When
laughing is depicted in portraits of musicians, the narrative is shifted away

32
Ragnhild Marie Hatton, Louis XIV and his World. London: Thames and Hudson, 1972, 101.
33
Anthony Blunt, Art and Architecture in France (1953). Harmondsworth (N.Y.): Penguin
Books, 1980 (4th edition), 401.
34
Thus, it is surely no coincidence that more then a century later, Napoléon Bonaparte, then
Emperor of France, was depicted by Jacques-Louis David in a manner alluding to Rigaud’s
portrait of Louis XIV. See Jacques-Louis David, The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the
Tuileries, 1812, oil on canvas, 203.9 x 125.1 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, Samuel
H. Kress Collection.
35
Rudolf Wittkower: “Vicissitudes of a Dynastic Monument” (1961), in: Rudolf Wittkower:
Studies in the Italian Baroque. London: Thames & Hudson, 1975, 83-102.

Ictus 09-2 87
Fig. 13: Louis as Apollo, anonymous costume sketch for the performance of Ballet
royal de la nuit (Paris 1654), Cabinet des Estampes, Bibliothèque Nationale,
Paris
88 Ictus 09-2
Fig. 14: Louis as Apollo (detail), Fig. 15: Hyacinthe Rigaud, Louis
anonymous costume sketch for the XIV, (detail), 1701, Oil on canvas,
performance of Lully’s Ballet royal 279 x 190 cm, Musée du Louvre,
de la nuit (Paris 1654), Cabinet des Paris
Estampes, Bibliothèque Nationale,
Paris

from presenting a musician or composer as a person involved in serious

activities as I have discussed in my forthcoming paper Mapping music
iconography. 36

36
See Antonio Baldassarre, “Mapping Music Iconography” (see footnote 1). Elucidating
insights about the methodology concerning portraits of musicians are provided by Alan
Davison, Martin Wehnert, and Martine Clouzot (see appendix) as well as in The image of the
individual: portraits in the Renaissance. Ed. Nicholas Mann and Luke Syson. London:
Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press, 1998.

Ictus 09-2 89
Fig. 16: Leonardo da Vinci, Portrait of a Musician, 1490, oil on panel, 43 x 31 cm,
Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan

Fig. 17: Attributed to Antonio Domenico Gabbiani, Musician with a lute, ca. 1640-
1700, Museo dell’Academia, Florence

90 Ictus 09-2
Fig. 18: Joseph Willibrod Mähler, Ludwig van Beethoven, 1804-05, Oil on canvas,
Historisches Museum – Beethoven Pasqualatihaus, Vienna

Ictus 09-2 91
Fig. 19: Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, 1910, Oil on canvas, 175,5 x 85 cm,
Museen der Stadt Wien, Vienna

92 Ictus 09-2
 ***

The considerations outlined up to this point prove that visual documents

have a significant value in understanding not only the past but also cultural
practices in general. They should be appreciated as written sources and
treated with the same attention and caution. As it cannot be taken for granted
that written sources are in any case faithful records, visual sources do not,
as mentioned, necessarily follow principles of historical truth or credibility.
Ambiguity is embodied in any epistemological document, regardless of its
physical nature. The fact that we often forget to question what we see is a
typical symptom of our time, caused by what Alan Trachtenberg calls the
“idea of photo camera”, which also significantly shapes our perception of
the past. Since “the idea of camera has so implanted itself that our very
imagination of the past takes the snapshot as its notion of adequacy, the
equivalent of having been there.”37 Yet, even documents with a twisted,
questionable or false nature are anything else then useless from a scholarly
point of view.38 For they can provide interesting information about the past
and social and cultural practices, as I have discussed above with respect to
Raphael’s Parnass fresco and Zoffany’s The Morse and Cator Family,
for instance.
The value of visual documents as important source material is
unfortunately not mirrored in the role and function music iconography plays
in institutions of higher education today, particularly in the context of
musicology. With the exception of Musical Iconography: the manual for
cataloguing musical subjects in Western art before 1800 by Howard
Mayer Brown and Joan Lascelle of 1972,39 major textbooks dealing with

37
Alan Trachtenberg, “Albums of War: On Reading Civil War Photographs”, in:
Representations 9 (1985), 1-32 (quote 1). This critique has been further considered and
developed by Susan Sontag, Roland Barthes and Michael J. Shapiro. See for instance Susan
Sontag, On photography. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977, and Regarding the pain
of others. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003, Roland Barthes, La chambre claire:
note sur la photographie. Paris: Gallimard, 1980 (English as Camera lucida: reflections on
photography. Transl. Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, 1981), and Michael J.
Shapiro, The politics of representation: writing practices in biography, photography, and
policy analysis. Madison (WI): University of Wisconsin Press, 1988.
38
It is well known that retouching of photographs, for instance, is a common practice in
popular journals and magazines. It was also regularly used in a political context to alter the
pictorial representation of leading figures in culture and economy.
39
Howard Mayer Brown and Joan Lascelle, Musical Iconography: A Manual for Cataloguing
Musical Subjects in Western Art Before 1800. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1972.

Ictus 09-2 93
musicology or music history have generally little or no substantial references
to topical and methodological issues of music iconography. Topical plurality
and methodological eclecticism are still suspected of promoting relativism
although both aspects are quite characteristic for musicology and many other
well-established disciplines of the humanities.40
The neglect of music iconography research is in addition quite surprising
when taking into consideration that pictures are often used in classrooms or
in books on musical topics. Nevertheless, to lament about this status is to
overlook an unexpected opportunity. I would argue that the almost basic
neglect of music iconography in the academic curriculum can be considered
as an advantage for music iconography research in general, especially when
taking into consideration that any institutionalization embodies the danger of
neutralizing and domesticating innovations as, for instance, New Musicology
had to learn the hard way.41 In addition, as long as the contemporary university
is mostly resistant to interdisciplinary research and reacts with anxiety or
authoritarian positions42 regarding the shift the humanities experienced within
the last three decades, music iconography research is better off performing
the role of a critical observer. On the basis of its inherit interdisciplinary and
topical pluralism, music iconography seems to be predestined to adduce

40
Eliane Sisman, “President’s Message to the AMS”, in: American Musicological Society
Newsletter, August 2005, 5.
41
See, for instance, Ian Biddle, “On the radical in musicology”, in: Radical Musicology, Vol.
1, 2006 (http://www.radical-musicology.org.uk/2006/Biddle.htm) (15 April 2008); Kevin
Korsyn, Decentering Music, and “The Aging of the New Musicology” (both see footnote 9).
42
See, for instance, Eliane Sisman, “President’s Message to the AMS” (see footnote 40), 5;
Ludwig Finscher, “’Diversi diversa orant’. Bemerkungen zur Lage der deutschen
Musikwissenschaft”, in: Archiv für Musikwissenschaft, Vol. 57, No. 1 (2000), 9-17, and
Laurenz Lütteken, “Vorwort” and “’Und was ist denn Musik?’ Von der Notwendigkeit einer
marginalen Wissenschaft”, in: Musikwissenschaft. Eine Positionsbestimmung. Ed. Laurenz
Lütteken. Kassel etc.: Bärenreiter, 2007, 40-66. The entire current discussion shows many
similarities with the intellectual dispute at the beginning of the twentieth century that arose
from the need of the bourgeoisie for new patterns of orientation. Just as at that time, today
historicism is experiencing a significant crisis, convincingly analyzed by Ernst Troeltsch in
“Die Krise des Historismus” (in: Die Neue Rundschau 33 (1922), Vol. 1, pp. 572-590) as far
as the early twentieth century discourse is concerned. In contrast, Jean-François Lyotard has
pointed out the close connection between the Modern and Postmodern discourse on pluralism
and relativism of values (Jean-François Lyotard, La condition postmoderne. Rapport sur le
savoir. Paris: Minuit, 1979; English as The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge.
Transl. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi, with a foreword by Fredric Jameson.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984).

94 Ictus 09-2
evidence that speaking about music can only benefit from diversity, continuous
examination of viewpoints, and critical thinking, by applying a concept from
psychology and education science: the “tolerance of ambiguity”.43 This
concept incorporates the willingness to accept ambiguous situations not as a
threat but as a chance to understand differences and diversity and to reflect
upon given situations. Unfortunately, resistance to ambiguity in the form of
non-productive struggles for dominance of one or another single
methodological perspective threatens to totally undermine its newly emerging
success. “Tolerance of ambiguity” is especially well suited to the particular
aims of the humanities, i.e. to understand the human being, the relationship
among human beings and their relationship to the environment, as performed
in state, society, and culture and expressed in language, myth, religion, arts,
philosophy, and science,44 and needs to be vigorously promoted within music
iconographic studies.

APPENDIX45

Edward BUHLE, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des

frühen Mittelalters. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1903 (Reprint
Walluf: Sändig, 1972).

43
See for example, Adrian Furnham and Tracy Ribchester. “Tolerance of Ambiguity: A
review of the concept, its measurement and applications”, in: Current Psychology, Vol. 14,
No. 3 (1995), 179-199 (1995), Michael J. Kirton, Adaption-Innovation. In the Context of
Diversity and Change. London and New York: Routledge, 2003, and David J. Wilkinson, The
Ambiguity Advantage: What great leaders are great at. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
44
See Wilhelm Dilthey, Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften. Leipzig: Dunker, 1883; and
Der Aufbau der geschichtlichen Welt in den Geisteswissenschaften. Berlin: s.n., 1910. English
as Introduction to the human sciences. Ed., with an introduction by Rudolf A. Makkreel and
Frithjof Rodi Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press, 1989.
45
For further bibliographic information see Frederick Crane, A Bibliography of the Iconography
of Music. New York: The Research Center for Musical Iconography, Graduate Center of the
City University of New York, 1971, Henri van der WAAL, A preliminary list of iconographic
literature in the field of music compiled from the files of ICONCLASS, Leiden, 1971 (published
at: http://web.gc.cuny.edu/rcmi/RCMIpublications.htm), and the bibliographies published
in Imago Musicae (International Yearbook of Musical Iconography, published under the
auspices of the Répertoire International d’Iconographie Musicale), Kassel etc., 1984ff., and
in Musique - Images - Instruments. Revue française d’organologie et d’iconographie musicale,
Paris 1995ff.

Ictus 09-2 95
Hugo LEICHTENTRITT, “Was lehren uns die Bildwerke des 14. - 17. Jahrhunderts
über die Instrumentalmusik ihrer Zeit?”, in: Sammelbände der
Internationalen Musikgesellschaft 7 (1905/06), 315-364.
Max SAUERLANDT, Die Musik in fünf Jahrhunderten der europäischen
Malerei: etwa 1450 bis 1850. Königstein/Ts.: Langewiesche, 1922.
Georg KINSKY et al. (Ed.), Geschichte der Musik in Bildern. Leipzig: Breitkopf
und Härtel, 1929 (English as History of Music in Pictures. London
and Toronto: J.M. Dent and Sons. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1930).
Leo SCHRADE, “Die Darstellung der Töne an den Kapitellen der Abteikirche
zu Cluny. Ein Beitrag zum Symbolismus mittelalterlicher Kunst”, in:
Deutsche Vierteljahresschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und
Geistesgeschichte 7 (1929), 229-266.
Erwin PANOFSKY, Studies in Iconology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1939.
Max F. SCHNEIDER, Arnold Böcklin: ein Maler aus dem Geiste der Musik.
Basel: Holbein-Verlag, 1943.
Lawrence HAWARD, Musik in der Malerei. Zurich: Thomas-Verlag, 1948.
Erwin PANOFSKY, Gothic Architecture and scholasticism. Latrobe (PA):
Archabbey Press, 1951.
Erwin PANOFSKY, Meaning in the Visual Arts. Garden City (NY): Doubleday,
1955 (Reprint Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982).
Otto Erich DEUTSCH, “Was heisst und zu welchem Ende studiert man
Ikonographie?”, in: Schweizerische Musikzeitung 100 (1960), 230-233.
Walter S ALMEN, Der fahrende Musiker im europäischen Mittelalter.
Kassel: Hinnenthal, 1960.
Heinrich BESSELER and Max SCHNEIDER (Ed.) (later continued by Werner
BACHMANN), Musikgeschichte in Bildern. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher
Verlag für Musik, 1961ff.
Patricia EGAN, “’Concert’ Scenes in Musical Paintings of the Renaissance”, in:
Journal of the American Musicological Society 14 (1961), 184-195.
Karl Michael KOMMA, Musikgeschichte in Bildern. Stuttgart: Kröner, 1961.
Emanuel WINTERNITZ, “The Visual Arts as a Source for the Historian of
Music”, in: Kongressbericht der International Musicological
Society New York 1961. Kassel etc.: Bärenreiter, 1961, 109-120.
Reinhold H AMMERSTEIN , Die Musik der Engel. Untersuchungen zur
Musikanschauung des Mittelalters. Bern etc.: Francke, 1962.
Jan BIALOSTOCKI, “Iconography and Iconology”, in: Encyclopedia of World
Art, vol. 8 (1963), 769–785.
Walter VETTER, “Italienische Musik im Lichte von Dichtung und bildender
Kunst”, in: Jahrbuch für Musikwissenschaft 1964, 54-95.
96 Ictus 09-2
François LESURE, Musik und Gesellschaft im Bild. Zeugnisse der Malerei
aus sechs Jahrhunderten. Kassel etc.: Bärenreiter, 1966 (English
as Music and Art in Society. University Park (PA): Pennsylvania
State University, 1968).
Emanuel WINTERNITZ, Musical Instruments and their Symbolism in Western
Art. London: Faber & Faber, 1967.
Emanuel WINTERNITZ, Gaudenzio Ferrari, la sua scuola e la protostoria
del violino. Varallo Sesia: Società conservazione opere arte monumenti
Valesesi, 1967.
Gustave REESE, “Musical Compositions in Renaissance Intarsia”, in: Journal
of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 2 (1968), 74-97.
James TRAVIS, Miscellanea musica celtica. Brooklyn, NY: Institute of
Mediæval Music, 1968.
Victor RAVIZZA, Das instrumentale Ensemble von 1400-1500 in Italien.
Wandel eines Klangbildes. Bern: P. Haupt, 1970.
Robert BRAIN and Adam POLLOCK, Bangwa funerary sculpture. London:
Duckworth, 1971.
Walter S A L M E N , “Neue Bildquellen zur Praxis von Haus- und
Kammermusik im 16. Jahrhundert”, in: Colloquium musica
camaralis. Ed. Rudolf Pecman. Brno: Mezinárodní Hudební Fes-
tival, 1971, 37-47.
Barry S. BROOK et al., “RIdIM: A new international venture in musical
iconography”, in Notes, Vol. 28, no. 4 (1972), 652–663.
Howard Mayer BROWN and Joan LASCELLE, Musical Iconography: A Ma-
nual for Cataloguing Musical Subjects in Western Art Before
1800. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press, 1972.
Victor RAVIZZA, “Zu einem internationalen Repertorium der Musikikonographie”,
in: Acta Musicologica, Vol. 44, no. 1 (1972), 101–108.
Volker SCHERLIESS, Musikalische Noten auf Kunstwerken der italienischen
Renaissance bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts. Hamburg: Karl
Dieter Wagner, 1972.
Emanuel WINTERNITZ, “The Iconology of Music: Potential and Pitfalls”, in:
Perspectives in Musicology. Ed. Barry S. Brook et al. New York:
Norton, 1972, 80-90.
Howard Mayer BROWN, Sixteenth-Century Instrumentation: The Music
for the Florentine Intermedii. Rome: American Institute of
Musicology, 1973.
Georgia FRANZIUS, Tänzer und Tänze in der archaischen Vasenmalerei.
Göttingen: s.n., 1973.
Ictus 09-2 97
Tilman SEEBASS, Musikdarstellung und Psalterillustration im früheren
Mittelalter: Studien ausgehend von einer Ikonologie der Handschrift
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale, fonds latin 1118. Bern: Francke, 1973.
Brigitte BACHMANN-GEISER, Studien zur Frühgeschichte der Violine. Bern
etc.: Haupt, 1974.
Reinhold HAMMERSTEIN, Diabolus in musica: Studien zur Ikonographie
der Musik im Mittelalter. Bern: Francke, 1974.
Albert Pomme de MIRIMONDE, Saint-Cécile: metamorphoses d’un thème
musical. Geneva: Minkoff, 1974.
Albert Pomme de MIRIMONDE, L’iconographie musicale sous les rois
Bourbons. Paris: Picard, 1975-1977.
Norma SCHWENDENER, How to perform the dances of old Mexico. Detroit,
Mich.: Blaine Ethridge, 1975.
Dagmar DROYSEN, “Über Darstellung und Benennung von Musikinstrumenten
in der mittelalterlichen Buchmalerei”, in: Studia instrumentorum
musicae popularis 4 (1976), 51-55.
Walter SALMEN, Musikleben im 16. Jahrhundert. Leipzig: VEB Deutscher
Verlag für Musik, 1976.
Marianne BRÖCKER, Die Drehleier: ihr Bau und ihre Geschichte, 2 vols. Bonn:
Verlag für systematische Musikwissenschaft, 1977 (2nd, enlarged edition).
Genette FOSTER, The Symbolism of Music and Musical Instruments in
Thirteenth-Century French Manuscript Illuminations. PhD
dissertation, City University of New York, 1977.
Richard D. LEPPERT, The theme of music in Flemish paintings of the
seventeenth century. Munich: Musikverlag Katzbichler, 1977.
Albert Pomme de MIRIMONDE, Astrologie et musique. Geneva: Minkoff, 1977.
Alain DANIÉLOU, Südasien: die indische Musik und ihre Tradition. Leipzig:
VEB Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1978.
Helmut GIESEL, Studien zur Symbolik der Musikinstrumente im Schrifttum
der alten und mittelalterlichen Kirchen (von den Anfängen bis
zum 13. Jahrhundert). Regensburg: Bosse, 1978.
Elena FERRARI BARASSI, Strumenti musicali e testimonianze teoriche nel
medio evo. Cremona: Fondazione Claudio Monteverdi, 1979.
Richard D. LEPPERT, “Concert in a House. Musical Iconography and Musi-
cal Thoughts”, in: Early Music 7 (1979), 3-17.
Karl-August WIRTH, “Die kolorierten Federzeichnungen in Cod. 2975 der
österreichischen Nationalbibliothek. Ein Beitrag zur Ikonographie der
Artes Liberales im 15. Jahrhundert”, in: Anzeiger des Germanischen
Nationalmuseums 1979, 67-110.
98 Ictus 09-2
Peter CROSSLEY-HOLLAND, Musical artifacts of Pre-Hispanic West Mexico. Los
Angeles, CA: University of California. Program in Ethnomusicology, 1980.
Dagmar H OFFMANN -A XTHELM , “Instrumentensymbolik und
Aufführungspraxis. Zum Verhältnis von Symbolik und Realität in der
mittellalterlichen Musikanschauung”, in: Basler Jahrbuch für
historische Musikpraxis 4 (1980), 9-90.
Ulrich FABRICIUS, “Musik und Musikinstrumente in Darstellungen der
frühchristlichen Kunst”, in: Festschrift für Bruno Grusnick zum 80.
Geburtstag. Ed. Rolf Saltzwedel and Klaus D. Koch. Neuhausen-
Stuttgart: Hänssler, 1981.
Gabriele Christiane BUSCH, Ikonographische Studien zum Solotanz im
Mittelalter. Innsbruck: Helbling, 1982.
James MCKINNON, “Iconography”, in: Musicology in the 1980s. Methods,
Goals, Opportunities. Ed. D. Ken Holoman and Claude V. Palisca.
New York: Da Capo Press, 1982, 79–93.
Walter SALMEN und Gabrielle BUSCH-SALMEN, Musiker im Porträt. 5 Bände.
München: Beck, 1982-1984.
Edmund A. BOWLES, La Pratique musicale au Moyen Age. Geneva: Minkoff
et Lattes, 1983.
Elena FERRARI BARASSI, Testimonianze organologiche nelle fonti teoriche
dei secoli X-XIV. Cremona: Fondazione Claudio Monteverdi, 1983.
Febo GUIZZI, “Considerazioni preliminary sull’iconografia come fonte ausiliaria
nella ricerca etnomusicologica”, in: Rivista italiana di musicologia
18 (1983), 87–101.
James PORTER, “Harps, pipes and silent stones: the problem of Pictish music”,
in: Selected reports in ethnomusicology 4 (1983), 243-268.
Tilman SEEBASS, “Prospettive dell’iconografia musicale. Considerazioni di
un medievalista”, in: Rivista italiana di musicologia, Vol. XVIII, no.
1 (1983), 67–86.
Gerhard STRADNER, Spielpraxis und Instrumentarium um 1500, dargestellt
an Sch. Virdungs Musica getutscht (Basel 1511). Vienna: Verband
der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft, 1983.
William L. BARCHAM, “Costumes in the frescos of Tiepolo and Eighteenth-
Century Opera”, in: Opera and Vivaldi. Ed. Michael Collins and
Elise K. Kirk. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 1984, 149-169.
Nancy van DEUSEN, “Manuscript and Milieu: Illustration in Liturgical Music
Manuscripts”, in: In memoriam Gordon Athol Anderson. Ed.
Nancy van Deusen. Binningen: Institute for Medieval Music, 1984,
71-86.
Ictus 09-2 99
Ildikó EMBER, Musik in der Malerei: Musik als Symbol in der Malerei
der europäischen Renaissance und des Barock. Budapest: Corvina
Kiadó, 1984.
Andrew GREEN, “Musical Iconography: The History of Music through Artists’
Eyes”, in: City University of New York Graduate School Magazi-
ne 3/1 (1984), 2-8.
Reinhold HAMMERSTEIN, “Musik und bildende Kunst. Zur Geschichte ihrer
Beziehungen”, in: Imago Musicae 1 (1984), 1-20.
Peter R EIDEMEISTER (Ed.), Mittelalterliche Musikinstrumente -
Ikonographie und Spielpraxis. Winterthur: Amadeus, 1984.
Bernd ROESNER, “Bildende Kunst und Musik”, in: Bildende Kunst 32 (1984),
248-250.
Egberto BERMÚDEZ, Los instrumentos musicales en Colombia. Bogotá:
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1985.
Walter DENNY, “Music and musicians in Islamic art”, in: Asian music 17
(1985/86), 37-68.
T. C. LAI and Robert MOK, Jade flute: the story of Chinese music. New
York: Schocken Books, 1985.
Richard D. LEPPERT, “Men, Women, and Music at Home. The Influence of
Cultural Values on Musical Life in Eighteenth-Century England”, in:
Imago Musicae 2 (1985), 51-133.
John A. STINSON, The Iconography and Iconology of Musical Instruments
in Trecento Florence and Their Relationship in Fourteenth-
Century Music. PhD dissertation, University of Melbourne, 1985.
Luciano CHELES, The Studiolo of Urbino. An Iconographic Investigation.
Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert, 1986.
Reis FLORA, “Miniature paintings: important sources for music history”, in:
Asian music 18 (1986/87), 196-230.
Monika HOLL, “’Der Musica Trumpf’ - Eine Bilddokumentation von 1607
zur Auffassung des Humanismus in Deutschland”, in: Imago Musicae
3 (1986), 9-30.
Carlotta GIUCASTRO LONGO, “Iconografia musicale: il metodo, i problemi, la
scheda”, in: Venezia arti. Bollettino del Dipartimento di Storia e
Critica dell’Arte, 1 (1987), 45–50.
Martin JULLIAN and Gerard LE VOT, “Notes sur la cohérence formelle des
miniatures à sujet musical du manuscrit b.I.2 de l’Estoral”, in: Revis-
ta de Musicología 10 (1987), 105-114.
Richard PESTELL, “Medieval Art and the Performances of Medieval Music”,
in: Early Music 14 (1987), 56-68.
100 Ictus 09-2
Nico STAITI, Musica angelica e musica umana nell’iconografia italiana dei
secoli XVI e XVII. PhD dissertation, Università di Bologna 1987/88.
Fede B ERTI , Lo specchio della musica. Iconografia musicale nella
ceramica attica di Spina (Exhibition catalogue). Bologna: Nuova
Alfa Editoriale, 1988.
Reis FLORA, “Music archaeological data from the Indus Valley civilization,
ca. 2400-1700 B.C.”, in: The archaeology of early music cultures.
Ed. ICTM Study Group on Music Archaeology. Bonn: Verlag für
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