NCM 110

1 – History 2 – Hardware 3 – Software 4 – Database 5 – Standards 6 - Interaction

LESSON 1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF NI

- Nursing Informatics (NI) is a title that evolved from the French word “informatics”
which referred to the field of applied computer science concerned with the
processing of information such as nursing information (Nelson, 2013). The
computer was seen as a tool that could be used in many environments.
- Today, computers in nursing are used to manage patient care information,
monitor quality, and evaluate outcomes. Computers and networks are also being
used for communicating (sending and receiving) data and messages via the
Internet, accessing resources, and interacting with patients on the Web. Nurses
are increasingly becoming involved with systems used for planning, budgeting,
and policy-making for patient care services, as well as enhancing nursing
education and distance learning with new media modalities. Computers are also
used to document and process real-time plans of care, support nursing research,
test new systems, design new knowledge data- bases, develop data
warehouses, and advance the role of nursing in the healthcare industry and
nursing science.
- NURSING SCIENCE
o A branch of science that deals with the principles and applications of
nursing and related services
- COMPUTER SCIENCE
o Is the study of computers and computational systems
- INFORMATION SCIENCE
o Is a field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification,
manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection
of information.
- 4 Major Historical Perspectives
o Six Time Period
 PRIOR TO 1960s
 Computers were first developed in the late 1930s to early
1940s
 Use in the healthcare industry occurred in the 1950s and
1960s
 Computers were initially used in healthcare facilities for basic
office administrative and financial accounting functions.
  Punch Card – A piece of stiff paper that contain digital
information represented by holes in predefined position
 Card Reader – Read data from a card shape storage
medium
 1960s
 Computer technology in healthcare settings were being
explored
 Nursing practice standards were reviewed, and nursing
resources were analyzed
 Hospital Information Systems were developed primarily to
process financial transactions and serve as billing and
accounting systems
 Vendors of computer systems were beginning to enter the
health care field
 The nurses’ stations in the hospitals were viewed as the hub
of information exchange
 Introduction of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), online data
communications and real time processing
 1970s
 Hospitals began developing computer-based information
systems
 Physician order entry and results reports
 Pharmacy reports
 Laboratory reports
 Radiology reports
 Radiology reports
 Physiologic monitoring systems in the intensive care units
 Started to include care planning, decision support, and
interdisciplinary problem lists.
 Hospital Information Systems further advanced
 Computer–based Management Information System (MIS) in
public health was developed for statistical purposes.
 1980s
 Nursing Informatics (NI) emerged
 Nursing profession need to update its practice standards and
determine its data standards, vocabularies, and classification
schemes that could be used for the Computer-based Patient
Record Systems (CPRS)
  Microcomputers / Personal Computers emerged to bring
computing power to workplace. Mostly served as stand
alone system.
 Many mainframe healthcare information systems emerged
with nursing subsystems:
 Order Entry (like Kardex), results reporting, vital signs,
narrative nursing notes, discharge planning systems
 1990s
 Computer technology become an integral part of healthcare
settings, nursing practice and the profession
 NI was approved by ANA as a new nursing specialty
 Demand for NI specialty increased greatly
 Laptops and notebooks were utilized at bedside and all
point-of-care settings
 Local Area Network (LAN) were developed in hospitals and
Wide Area Network (WAN) were used to link care across
healthcare facilities
 Internet is widely used and helped information and
knowledge databases to be integrated into bedside systems
 Web became the means to communicate online services
and resources to the nursing community
 POST 2000
 Developed of wireless point-of-care system with focus on
open source system
 Clinical Information System (CIS) became the individualized
in the Electronic Patient Record (EPR) and patient specific
systems considered for lifelong longitudinal record for the
Electronic Health Record (EHR)
 Mobile technology advances: Wireless tablet computers,
Personal Digital Assistants, Smartphones, Voice Over
Internet Protocol (VOIP), Health Smartcards
 Telenursing became popular: Remote monitoring of ICU
patients and community patients
o Four Major Nursing Areas PERA
 Nursing Practice
 Nursing Education
 Nursing Research
 Nursing Administration
o Standard Initiatives
 Nursing Practice Standards
  The ANA is considered as the official nursing organization
that contributes in the development and recommendation of
standards of nursing practice worldwide. ANA
published: Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice (ANA,
2008) , Nursing Informatics: Scope and Standards of
Practice (ANA, 2010)
 Nursing Education Standards
 The National League for Nursing (NLN) has been
the primary professional organization that accredits
undergraduate nursing programs.
 The American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN),
which also accredits nursing education programs,
 Nursing Content Standards
 1893 - Standardization of healthcare data began
 1955 - Virginia Henderson published her 14 Daily Patterns
of Living as the list of activities and conditions that became
the beginning of nursing practice standards
 1959 - standardization of nursing began
 1970 - ANA accepted the Nursing Process as the
professional standards for nursing practice
 1973 - standardization of nursing content— data elements
 2002 - SNOMED-CT became the International Health
Terminology Standards Development Organization
(IHTSDO)
o Significant Landmark Events
 A. Conferences and Workshops
 American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) Annual
Symposium
 Healthcare Information and Management and Systems
Society (HIMSS) Annual Conference and Exhibition
 Annual Summer Institute in Nursing Informatics (SINI) at
University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD
 Annual Rutgers State University of New Jersey College of
Nursing: Nursing and Computer Technology Conference
 Annual American Academy of Nursing
 Sigma Theta Tau International: Bi-Annual Conference
 Nursing Informatics Special Interest Group of the
International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA/NI-SIG):
Tri-Annual Conference
  International Medical Informatics Association (IMIA):
Triennial Congress
 B. Professional Councils and/or Committees
 American Nurses Association (ANA) - Nursing Informatics
Database Steering Committee
 National League for Nursing (NLN) - Educational Technology
and Information Management Advisory Council (ETIMC)
 American Academy of Nursing (AAN) - Expert Panel of
Nursing Informatics
 C. Credentialing/Certification/Fellowship
 American Nurses Association (ANA); American Nurses
Credentialing Center (ANCC) - Informatics Nursing
Certification
 Healthcare Information and Management and Systems
Society (HIMSS) - Certified Professional in Healthcare
Information Management and Systems (CPHIMS)
- Computer in Nursing Practice
o Point-of-Care systems and Clinical Information Systems
 Work lists to remind staff of planned nursing interventions
 Computer generated client documentation
o Bedside Data Entry
 Records clients assessments, medication administration, progress
notes, care plan updating, client acuity and accrued charges
o Electronic Medical Record (EMR) and Computer-Based Patient Record
(CPR)
 Provides easy retrieval of specific data such as trends in vital signs,
immunization records, current problems
o Computerized record keeping, Computerized assisted Instructions,
Interactive Video Technology, Distance learning, Testing (NCLEX),
Student and course record management
o Computerized current literature searching on a specific problem and its
related concepts
o Search literature for instruments that have already been established or to
design and test instruments that need to be developed for past study
o Create form for the collection of data such as informed consent,
demographic data, and recording forms
o Speeds completion or research projects
- Computers in Nursing Administration
 o Administrators can use employee databases to communicate with
employees, examine staffing patterns, staff scheduling, and create budget
programs
o Client records to be searched for trends, number of cases, most
expensive cases, and client outcomes
o Computer controlled heating, air conditioning, ventilation, and alarm
systems
LESSON 1.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE
- Computer hardware is defined as all of the physical components of a computer.
- A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions
(software) stored in its own memory unit, that can accept data (input), manipulate
data (process), and produce information (output) from the processing.
- Required Hardware Components of a Computer
o MOTHERBOARD
 The box of any computer contains a motherboard. The
motherboard is a thin, flat sheet made of a firm, nonconducting
material on which the internal components—printed circuits, chips,
slots, and so on—of the computer are mounted.
 The motherboard is made of a dielectric or nonconducting plastic
material.
- Memory
o Memory refers to the electronic storage devices or chips on the
motherboard of a computer. There are three key types of memory in a
computer. They are read-only memory (ROM), the main memory known
as random access memory (RAM), and cache.
 Read-Only Memory. Read-onlymemory (ROM)is a form of
permanent storage in the computer. It carries instructions that allow
the computer to be booted (started), and other essential machine
instructions. Its programming is stored by the manufacturer and
cannot be changed by the user. This means that data and
programs in ROM can only be read by the computer, and cannot be
erased or altered by users. ROM storage is not erased when the
computer is turned off.
 Random Access Memory. Random access memory(RAM) refers to
working memory used for primary storage. It is used as temporary
storage. Also known as main memory, RAM can be accessed,
used, changed, and written on repeatedly. RAM is the work area
available to the CPU for all processing applications. RAM is a
permanent part of the computer. Because everything in RAM
 unloads (is lost) when the computer is turned off, RAM is called
volatile (unstable) memory.
 Cache. Cache is a smaller form of RAM. Its purpose is to speed up
processing by storing frequently called items in a small, rapid
access memory location.
- Input and Output
o To do work, the computer must have a way of receiving commands and
data from outside and a way of reporting out its work. The motherboard
itself cannot communicate with users.
o INPUT DEVICES
 These devices allow the computer to receive information from the
outside world. The most common input devices are the keyboard
and mouse. Others include the touch screen, light pen, and
scanner.
 In healthcare computing, many medical devices serve as input
devices. For example,
 the electrodes placed on a patient’s body
 The oximetry device placed on a patient’s finger uses light
waves to detect impulses
 Voice systems allow the nurse to speak into a microphone
(which is the input device) to record data
o OUTPUT DEVICES
 These devices allow the computer to report its results to the
external world. Output devices are defined as any equipment that
translates the computer information into something readable by
people or other machines. Output can be in the form of text, data
files, sound, graphics, or signals to other devices. The most
obvious output devices are the monitor (display screen) and
printer.
 In healthcare settings, a variety of medical devices serve as output
devices. Heart monitors are output devices recording and
displaying heart rhythm patterns, and initiating alarms when certain
conditions are met.
- Storage Media
o Storage includes the main memory but also external devices on which
programs and data are stored. The most common storage device is the
computer’s hard drive. Other common media include external hard drives,
flash drives, and read/write digital versatile disks (DVDs) and compact
disks (CDs). The hard drive and diskettes are magnetic storage media.
DVDs and CD-ROMs are a form of optical storage. Optical media are read
by a laser “eye” rather than a magnet.
 Hard Drive. The hard drive is a peripheral device that has very high
speed and high density. That is, it is a very fast means of storing
and retrieving data as well as having a large storage capacity
compared with other types of storage. The hard drive is the main
storage device of a computer.
 USB Flash Drive. A USB flash drive is actually a form of a small,
removable hard drive that is inserted into the USB port of the
computer. The USB drive is also known as pen drive, jump drive,
thistle drive, pocket drive, and so forth.
 Optical Media. Optical media include CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray. CD-
ROMs and DVDs are rigid disks that hold a higher density of
information and have higher speed. Until the late 1990s, CD-ROMs
were strictly input devices. They were designed to store sound and
data, and held about 737MB of information, and large laser writers
were required to store data on them. Thus, they were read-only
media. However, technology developed in the 1980s by Philips
Corporation permitted the development of a new type of CD that
could be written on by the user. It is called CD-RW for compact disc
read–write.
  Cloud Storage. An extension of the online storage service offered
by individual vendors is cloud storage. Data stored “in the cloud”
are still stored on commercial computers called servers. However,
“cloud” refers to a distributed system of many commercial,
networked servers that communicate through the Internet, and work
together so closely that they can essentially function as one large
system.
- Major Types of Computers
o The computers discussed so far are general purpose machines, because
the user can program them to process all types of problems and can solve
any problem that can be broken down into a set of logical sequential
instructions.
 Supercomputers
 Largest type of computer specially designed for scientific
applications requiring gigantic amount of data calculations
 Mainframe Computers
 Use by large organizations such as banks to control the
entire business operation
 Microcomputers / Personal Computers (PCs)
 Computers that process specific applications
 Often used as stand-alone computers or in a network
 Handheld Computers
 Small computers. Have almost the same functionality and
processing capabilities as the standard microcomputers

LESSON 1.3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

- Software is the general term applied to the instructions that direct the computer’s
hardware to perform work. It is distinguished from hardware by its conceptual
rather than physical nature. Hardware consists of physical components, whereas
software consists of instructions communicated electronically to the hardware.
- Software is needed for two purposes:
o First, computers do not directly understand human language, and software
is needed to translate instructions created in human language into
machine language.
o Second, packaged or stored software is needed to make the computer an
economical work tool. Theoretically, users could create their own software
to use the computer. However, writing software instructions
(programming) is extremely difficult, time-consuming, and, for most
people, tedious. It is much more practical and economical for one highly
 skilled person or programming team to develop programs that many other
people can buy and use to do common tasks.
- CATEGORIES OF SOFTWARE:
o System Software
 System software consists of a variety of programs that control the
individual computer and make the user’s application programs work
well with the hardware. System software consists of a variety of
programs that initialize, or boot up, the computer when it is first
turned on and thereafter control all the functions of the computer
hard- ware and applications software.
 Systems software can be categorized under the following:
 Operating System (OS): Harnesses communication between
hardware, system programs, and other applications. (i.e.
Windows 10, IOS, Android, Linux)
 Device driver: Enables device communication with the OS
and other programs
 Firmware: Set of instructions programmed on a hardware
device. It provides the necessary instructions for how the
device communicates with the other computer hardware.
 Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-level
machine codes
o Utility Software
 Utility programs include programs designed to keep the computer
system operating efficiently. They do this by adding power to the
functioning of the system software or supporting the OS or
applications software programs.
 Utility programs help the users in disk formatting, data
compression, data backup, scanning for viruses etc.
 Few examples of utility software are:
 Anti-virus
 Registry cleaners
 Disk defragmenters
 Data backup utility
 Disk cleaners
 Software Useful to Nurses
 NCSBN Learning Extension
o Medication Flashcards
o This simple app downloads a medication library to
your phone. Great for students preparing for exams or
nurses who need a quick reference point.
 NCLEX RN Mastery (National Council Licensure
Examination)
o Study Aid
o Hundreds of practice questions and sample quizzes.
When you give a wrong answer, the app gives you a
detailed reason why
 PEPID
o Drug and Clinical Resource
o This app provides detailed information for all elements
of patient care. Students gain a credible and complete
resource guide for coursework, lab exercises, and
clinical practice.
 Epocrates
o Clinical Care Assistant
o This app streamlines searches for information on
prescription drugs, drug interactions, and a directory
of providers. Nursing students can prevent mistakes
on exams, and most importantly, provide proper
treatment when they begin practicing
 Medscape
o Informational Resource
o Published by WebMD, this free app provides access
to a medical directory, continuing education, medical
news, and a clinical reference library. The news
aspect of this app helps students stay up to date in
the industry
 WebMD
o Healthcare app you need to check symptoms; learn
about conditions and drugs; research treatments and
diagnoses; find doctors and specialists in your area;
get Rx discounts available at your local pharmacy;
and set medication reminders.
 Med Mnemonics
o This app provides over 1,500 acronyms, rhymes, and
memory tricks to help nurses quickly learn numerous
medical conditions, symptoms, and other medical
terminology
 Taber’s Medical Dictionary
 o The mobile app includes photos, videos, audio
pronunciations, and functionality to save favorite
entries. This dictionary has 65,000 definitions to help
nursing students study for tests
 Nursing Central
o Comprehensive Reference Resource
o The app includes access to Davis’s Drug Guide,
Taber’s Medical Dictionary, Diseases and Disorders,
and MEDLINE Search and Journals, among other
databases
 NurseGrid
o The app lets you schedule across all worksites, view
who’s on your shift, message other nurses
o Applications Software
 Applications software includes all the various programs people use
to do work, process data, play games, communicate with others,
and watch videos and multimedia programs on a computer. Unlike
system and utility pro- grams, they are written for system users to
make use of the computer. When the user orders the OS to run an
application program, the OS transfers the program from the hard
drive, or removable media, and executes it.
 It can be called an application or simply an app.
 Word, Excel, PowerPoint, G-Drive, Netflix

LESSON 1.4 DATA, INFORMATION, KNOWLEDGE, WISDOM

- DATABASE
o A database is an organized collection of related data.
o Healthcare professionals may store patient medical records in either paper
or digital format but more and more healthcare organizations are
converting to digital records. They can use each of these databases to
store data and to search for information. The possibility of finding
information in these databases depends on several factors. Four of the
most important are the following:
 The data naming (indexing) and organizational schemes
 The size and complexity of the database
 The type of data within the database
 The database search methodology
o Organizations use information systems to process data and produce
information.
- TYPES OF DATA
 o When developing automated database systems, the designer defines
each data element. As part of this process, the designer classifies the
data. There are two primary approaches to classifying data in a database
system.
 Conceptual Data Types. Conceptual data types reflect how users
view the data. The source of the data may be the basis of
conceptual data types. For example, the lab produces lab data, and
the X-ray department produces image data. Conceptual data can
also have its basis on the event that the data are attempting to
capture. Assessment data, intervention data, and outcome data are
examples of data that reflect event capturing.
 Computer-Based Data Types. Alphanumeric data include letters
and numbers in any combination; however, you cannot perform
numeric calculations on the numbers in an alphanumeric field. For
example, an address is alphanumeric data that may include both
numbers and letters. A social security number is an example of
alphanumeric data compressing numbers and sometimes dashes.
- OTHERS
 Database Life Cycle
 The development and use of a DBMS follow a systematic
process called the life cycle of a database system. The
number of steps used to describe this process can vary from
one author to another.
 Initiation
 Initiation occurs when one identifies a need or problem and
sees the development of a DBMS as a potential solution.
This initial assessment looks at what is the need, what do we
want to accomplish, what are the current approaches, and
what are the potential options for dealing with the need are.
 Planning and Analysis
 This step begins with an assessment of the user’s view and
the development of the conceptual model and ends with the
logical model. What are the information needs of the
department and how does the department use the
information? This includes the internal and external uses of
information.
 Detailed Systems Design and Development
 The detailed systems design begins with the selection of the
physical model: hierarchical, network, relational, or object-
oriented. Using the physical model, IT develops each table
 and the relationships between the tables. At this point, IT will
carefully design the data entry screens and the format for
all output reports.
 Implementation
 Implementation includes training the users, testing the
system, finalizing the procedure manual for use of the
system, piloting the DBMS, and finally “going live.”
 Training users can take the form of online tutorials or live
training as well as access to a help desk and/or super users
who can provide help 24/7.
 Testing the system is generally done in a development
environment with simulated data.
 The procedure manual outlines the “rules” for how one uses
the system in day-to-day operations.
 Evaluation and Maintenance
 When IT installs a new database system, the developers and
the users can be too anxious to immediately evaluate the
system. Initial or early evaluations may have limited value. It
will take a few weeks or even months for users to adjust their
work routines to this new approach to information
management. It is not unusual for there to be adjustments to
the database as well as revisions in the procedure manual
during this initial period of use.
- Data to Information
o Common Database Operations
 DBMSs vary from small programs running on a personal computer
to massive programs that manage the data for large international
enterprises. No matter what size or how a DBMS is used, there are
common operations that DBMSs perform. There are three basic
types of data processing operations. These include data input, data
processing, and data output.
 Data Input Operations
 One uses data input operations to enter new data, update
data in the system, or change/ modify data in the DBMS.
One usually enters data through a set of screens that the
designers have designed for data entry.
 Data Processing Processes
 Data processing processes are DBMS-directed actions that
the computer performs on entered data. The purpose is to
extract information, discover new meanings, reorder data,
 and so forth. It is these processes that one uses to convert
raw data into meaningful information.
 Data Output Operations
 These operations include online and written reports. Output
can also include presentation of the processed data in charts
and graphs for easier understanding. The approach to
designing these reports will have a major impact on what
information the reader actually gains from the report.
Reports that are clear and concise help the reader see the
information in the data.
- Information to Knowledge
o Information
 A collection of data which conveys some meaningful idea.
 When data is collated or organized into something meaningful, it
gains significance. This meaningful organization is information.
o Knowledge
 Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information.
 When a student "memorizes" information, then he/she obtained
knowledge.
 Knowledge is an organization and processing to convey
understanding, experience, and accumulated learning.
 Comprises strategy, practice, method, or approach.
o Data Mining
 Traditional methods of retrieving information from databases no
longer work with the sheer amount of data that the healthcare
industry is producing. The purpose of data mining is to find
previously unknown patterns and trends that will assist in providing
quality care, predicting best treatment choices, and utilizing health
resources in a cost-effective manner.
o Benchmarking
 Benchmarking is a process where one compares outcome
measures with industry averages.
 The process of benchmarking means to determine the goal or
objectives, define appropriate indicators, collect data, and
determine results
o Outcome Probabilities
 The concept of outcome probability is built on the statistical concept
of probability. If one would toss a fair coin in the air 100 times, one
would expect that 50% of the time the coin would come up heads.
- Wisdom (intelligence)
 o Is seen as the possession of knowledge such that one is able not only to
observe patterns of information within data and make intelligent
connections between different patterns, but also to feel the
principles which underlie the patterns themselves.
o It is uniquely a human state and computers do not have, and will never
have the ability to posses wisdom.
o It embodies principle, insight and moral.
- The Nelson data to wisdom continuum moves from data to information to
knowledge to wisdom with constant interaction within and across these concepts
as well as the environment
o Data are raw, uninterrupted facts without meaning
o Information is facts with meaning
o Knowledge is understanding the information
o Wisdom is knowledge used to make appropriate decisions and acting on
those decisions

LESSON 1.5 HEALTH DATA STANDARD

- Why is There a Need for Health Data Standards?
o The ability to communicate in a way that ensures the message is received
and the content is understood is dependent on standards.
o Data standards are intended to reduce ambiguity (vague, not clearly
understandable) in communication so that the actions taken based on
data are consistent with the actual meaning of that data.
- Standards Development Process and Related Organizations
o These emerging organizations are involved in standards development,
coordination, and harmonization in all sectors of the economy.
o Some of the major national and international organizations are:
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 European Technical Committee for Standardization -In 1990, TC
251 on medical informatics was established by the European
Committee for Standardization (CEN)
 Health IT Standards Committee - By the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA)
 Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise (IHE)
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 Object Management Group -While the organizations described thus
far are made up of volunteer-based SDOs, the Object Management
Group (OMG)
 Public Health Data Standards Consortium (PHDSC)
- Current Health Data Standards Initiatives
 o Health Information Exchange and Interoperability
 Formal entities are emerging to provide both the structure and the
function for health information exchange efforts at independent and
governmental or regional/state levels.
 These organizations, called Health Information Exchanges (HIEs),
are geographically defined entities that develop and manage a set
of contractual conventions and terms, and arrange for the
governance and means of electronic exchange of information.
- The Business Value of Health Data Standard
o Defining information exchange requirements will enhance the ability to
automate interaction with external partners, which in turn will improve
efficiency and decrease costs by using data standards to develop
emergency department data collection system thus generated a positive
return on investment

LESSON 1.6 HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION

- Interactive Products
o How many of these interactive devices do you use daily?
 Smartphone
 Laptop or desktop computer
 Remote control
 Vending machine
 Automated teller machine
o Our lives today have been dependent on many devices such as
smartphones and computers, and we interact with them on a day-to-day
basis. We do a lot of things using these devices.
o But, has it crossed your mind how these devices are DESIGNED?
o In this course, we will explored the different principles involved in the
design of interactive products.
o Good or Bad Technology?
 Given the following technologies, do you think they are GOOD or
BAD?
 Smartphone
 Smartwatch
 Google Glass
 Do you think these technologies are GOOD or BAD? We can
further ask the following:
 What is it that makes technology "good" or "bad"?
 How can we build "good" technologies?
  How can we verify or validate the "goodness" of our
technologies?
 But do you think asking "Is it a good or bad technology?" the right
question? The answer actually depends on many factors which this
course does not cover.
o In this course, however, we will try to look into "good" or "bad" technology
in their DESIGN.
- Brief History of HCI
o The history of how HCI came to be is quite rich. We can look into how
each of the interactive devices have evolved. In this section, we will
outline how the "study of how humans interact with computers" grew.
o Before Computers
 Factories, mass producing different products, felt the need that how
their workers performed, i.e. their efficiency, during work will affect
their yield. These studies started already last century.
 World War II also took interest in building more effective weapons.
This led to the study of how machines and human interact to
increase efficiency and effectiveness.
 The Ergonomics Research Society was established in 1949 and
they focused on physical characteristics of machines and systems
and how these affect human performance.
 Ergonomics and human factors, separate but very related
disciplines, both are concerned with user performance in the
context of a system. These are actually some areas that will have
influence on how computers were designed later.
o Dawn of Personal Computing
 Until mid to late 1970s, HCI wasn't particularly important. This is
mainly because there were only a few users of computers that time.
Frequent computer users were only academics or professionals,
with a few hobbyists. At this time, no studies focused on how those
users interacted with computers.
 However, computers became more common, and this led to
researchers specializing in interactions between computers and
people. The masses wanted computing and they didn’t want to go
through complicated rigmarole to do what they wanted with a
computer. They want simple use and access to computers.
o Allied Fields
 Cognitive sciences (a broad and heady mix which
includes psychology, language, artificial
intelligence, philosophy and even anthropology) had been making
 steady progress during the 1970s and by the end of the decade
they were ready to help articulate the systems and science required
to develop user interfaces that worked for the masses.
o HCI Emerges
 With the growing need to create computer systems that appeal to
wide users, HCI became the academic discipline that most of us
think oh as UI design - the way that humans and computers interact
to ever increasing levels of both complexity and simplicity.
 The term HCI became popular in the 1980s.
 John Carroll, the the Edward Frymoyer Chair Professor of
Information Sciences and Technology at the Pennsylvania State
University says that the discipline of Human Computer Interaction
was born (or perhaps “emerged” is a better word) in 1980 as all
these separate disciplines began to realign around a single
objective; making computing easier for the masses.
- Definition of HCI
o We have already talked about interactive products and even good and bad
design, but we have not formally defined what HCI is.
o HCI, or Human-Computer Interaction, is a specialized field of study
concerned with the interaction between people (users) and computers.
This field is multi-disciplinary, i.e. many disciplines are involved. These
include computer science, cognitive science, human factors, among
others.
o Further, in this study, we are concerned with the physical, psychological,
and theoretical aspects of the process of interaction.
o Is there a unified theory in the study of HCI? NONE.
 However, in this study, we focus in four main components:
 The human being (or the user)
 The computer (or the interactive technology)
 The task (what is being done by the user on the computer)
 The usability (how well the task is done by the user on the
computer)
- USABILITY AND USER EXPERIENCE
o Usability
 Definition of Usability
 In our study of HCI, usability will become a very prevalent
word. We define this loosely as "measure of how well a
specific user in a specific context can use a product/design
to achieve a defined
goal effectively, efficiently and satisfactorily."
  Usability Differentiated
 We play with three "variations" of the word use in our study
on usability:
o Useful (Effectiveness) - This means that the object
accomplishes what is required
o Usable (Efficiency) - This means that the object
accomplishes what is required easily and naturally,
without danger or error
o Used (Satisfaction) - This means that the object is
attractive, engaging, fun, or simply, people want to
use it
 Usable Systems
 How then do we make usable systems? This question is
quite hard to answer, but the approach that should be used
is one that is centered on the USER (user-centered design).
 The human being (or the user) SHOULD NOT have to adapt
to the system, i.e. the system should be designed with the
user in mind.
 Further, the system should support human capabilities. The
system should capitalize on what the users are good at.
Also, the system should compensate for human limitations.
Human beings are not perfect, and the system being
designed should need to take into account where humans
are not good at. Designers should consider what might help
people in the way they currently do things. Designers should
think through what might provide quality user experiences.
 How do we do that? Designers should listen to what the
actual users want and get them involved. In the analysis,
design, and development of systems, tried and tested user-
centered methods should be used.
o Usability Goals
 We have mentioned earlier the three main components of a usable
system. They are as follows: effectiveness, efficiency, and
satisfaction.
 In this section, we explore further the different usability goals.
 What are usability goals? These are what we should strive for that
our system should be.
 What are the usability goals? The system should:
 be effective to use
 be efficient to use
  be safe to use
 have good utility
 be easy to learn
 be easy to remember how to use
 To illustrate each of these usability goals, let us use a device that
can send and receive text messages. Let us call this as TD (texting
device).
 Effectiveness
 This is the very general goal. Effectiveness refers to how
good a product is at doing what it is supposed to do. For
example, if TD actually allows you to send and receive text
messages, then the device is effective to use. You know that
a message is received, or the message is sent. These are
some manifestations that the device is effective to use.
 We can ask ourselves about the product: Is the product
capable of allowing people to learn, carry out their work
efficiently, access the information they need, or buy the
goods they want?
 Efficiency
 This refers to the way a product supports users in carrying
out their tasks. In the example about TD, it is efficient if it
allows you to type your message easily, without much
trouble. Does it use QWERTY keyboard? Or the typical
keypad where you repeatedly press a key to obtain a
particular character? Also, if you can read the messages
properly, it is also efficient.
 Once users have learned how to use a certain product to carry out
their tasks, can they sustain a high level of productivity?
 Safety
 This refers to the ability of the product or device to protect
the users from dangerous conditions and undesirable
situations. These conditions and situations refer to external
conditions, unwanted actions, and consequences of making
errors. For example, when using TD, how do you delete a
mistyped text? If it allows you to delete a character that you
mistyped, then, the device allows you to fix errors, and thus,
safe. If the device requires that you have to be outdoors in
order to send and receive messages, then probably the
device may not be totally safe to use.
  What is the range of errors that are possible using the
product and what measures are there to permit users to
recover from them easily?
 Utility
 This refers to the extent to which the product provides the
right kind of functionality so that users can do what they
need and want to do. Utility simply refers to how good is a
product being such product. In TD, does the device allow
you to reply directly? Will it nest the conversation so you can
easily read previous conversations with the person? Will it
be able to save the contacts? In other words, how good does
it offer the functionalities of a device that sends and receives
text messages?
 Does the product provide an appropriate set of functions that
will enable users to carry out all their tasks in the way they
want to do them?
 Learnability
 This refers to how easy a system is to learn to use. When
you use TD, how easy is it for you to learn how to send a
message? How to read a received message? Do users need
to consult a manual or undergo training to be able to learn
how to use the device? If one can learn how to use TD by
just exploring, then we can say that the device is learnable.
 Is it possible for the user to work out how to use the product
by exploring the interface and trying out certain actions?
How hard will it be to learn the whole set of functions this
way?
 Memorability
 Now, once you have learned how to use the device, how
easy is it to remember how to use it? This is memorability.
This usability goal is very important in interactive products
that are not used frequently. In TD, once you have
successfully sent the first message, will you be able to
remember exactly how to do it the second time? The third
time? Do you remember how to use it then?
 What kinds of interface support have been provided to help
users remember how to carry out tasks, especially for
products and operations they use infrequently?
 The usability goals outlined above make up a usable system.
o User Experience
 We now move on to another prevalent term in HCI, user
experience.
 User Experience (UX) encompasses all aspects of the end-user's
interaction with the company, its services, and its products.
 The first requirement for an exemplary user experience is to meet
the exact needs of the customer, without fuss or bother. Next
comes simplicity and elegance that produce products that are a joy
to own, a joy to use. True user experience goes far beyond giving
customers what they say they want, or providing checklist features.
In order to achieve high-quality user experience in a company's
offerings there must be a seamless merging of the services of
multiple disciplines, including engineering, marketing, graphical and
industrial design, and interface design.
 It's important to distinguish the total user experience from the user
interface (UI), even though the UI is obviously an extremely
important part of the design. As an example, consider a website
with movie reviews. Even if the UI for finding a film is perfect, the
UX will be poor for a user who wants information about a small
independent release if the underlying database only contains
movies from the major studios.
 We should also distinguish UX and usability: According to the
definition of usability, it is a quality attribute of the UI, covering
whether the system is easy to learn, efficient to use, pleasant, and
so forth. Again, this is very important, and again total user
experience is an even broader concept.
 Further, UX refers to how a product behaves and is used by people
in real life. This is the way people feel about it and their pleasure
and satisfaction when using it, looking at it, holding it, and opening
or closing it.
 According to Jesse Garrett (2010), "every product that is used by
someone has a user experience: newspapers, ketchup bottles,
reclining armchairs, cardigan sweaters."
 It is important to point out that one cannot design a user
experience, only design for a user experience. In particular, one
cannot design a sensual experience, but only create the design
features that can evoke it. For example, the outside case of a
smartphone can be designed to be smooth, silky, and fit in the palm
of a hand; when held, touched, looked at, and interacted with, that
can provoke a sensual and satisfying user experience. Conversely,
if it is designed to be heavy and awkward to hold, it is much more
 likely to end up providing a poor user experience—one that is
uncomfortable and unpleasant.
 Here are the different desirable and undesirable aspects of user
experience.
 Desirable aspects
 Enjoyable - supporting creativity
 Engaging - cognitively stimulating
 Pleasurable - fun
 Exciting - provocative
 Entertaining - surprising
 Satisfying - rewarding
 Helpful - emotionally fulfilling
 Motivating
 Challenging
 Enhancing sociability
 Undesirable aspects
 Boring - unpleasant
 Frustrating - patronizing
 Making one feel guilty - making one feel stupid
 Annoying - cutesy
 Childish - gimmicky
 The concept of UX is broader compared to usability as they
encompass a wider aspect on the user's side. In addition, UX is
more subjective.

o Usability vs. User Experience

 Throughout the course, we will be encountering these two terms
frequently. But how do they differ primarily?
 Usability goals are generally objective, and can be measured using
certain metrics (we will talk about this in Module 4). We can
measure how efficient is a system in doing a task. We can measure
how learnable is a system.
 On the other hand, user experience goals are somewhat subjective.
What can be enjoyable for one user may not necessarily be for
another. Although, there are still ways to measure these aspects.
 Are there trade-offs between two kinds of goals? For example, can
a product be both fun and safe? Can you think of examples?