Pollination and Fertilisation

 Pollination is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of
a carpel of a flower.

 The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant is called self-pollination. Examples: Wheat, tobacco, pea etc.

 Conditions favouring Self-Pollination

a. Bisexuality, monoecious
b. Homogamy
c. Cleistogamy

 The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another
plant of the same species is called cross-pollination. Examples: Hibiscus, china rose, brinjal etc.

 Conditions favouring Cross-Pollination

a. Unisexuality
b. Self-sterility
c. Self-poisoning
d. Heterostyly
e. Herkogamy
f. Dichogamy
g. Protandry
h. Protogyny
 Agents of Cross-Pollination

AGENT METHOD EXAMPLES OF PLANTS

 Insect Entomophily Sweet pea, Dahlia
 Wind Anemophily Maize
 Water Hydrophily Vallisneria
 Bird Ornithophily Bignonia, canna
 Bat Chiropterophily Agave, Saguaro
 Snail Malacophily Volvulopsis nummularium
 Elephant Elephophily Rafflesia
 Bee Melittophily Apple, almond
 Butterfly Psychophily Asclepias tuberosa, Echinacea purpurea
 Moth Phalaenophily Liatris spicata, Camassia scillioides
 Fly Myophily/Sapromyophily Habenaria obtusata, Trichopoda sp.
 Beetle Cantharophily Pond lily, Magnolia

 Differences between Self-Pollination and Cross-Pollination

SELF-POLLINATION CROSS-POLLINATION
 It is the transfer of pollen grains from  It is the transfer of pollen grains from the
the anther to the stigma of the same anther of one flower to the stigma of
flower. another flower of a different plant of the
same species.

 It does not require any external agent,  It requires an external agent for
such as wind, water or insects to pollination to occur.
carry out pollination.

 It can take place even when the  It can occur only when the flower is
flower is closed. open.

 In self-pollinated flowers, the anther  In cross-pollinated flowers, the anther

and stigma mature at the same time. and stigma mature at different times.

 It preserves parental characters.  It does not preserve parental characters.

 New varieties cannot be produced.  New varieties can be produced.

 As new variations are not possible,  As new variations are possible, the
the offsprings cannot adapt to offspring are healthier and are able to
changing environmental conditions. adapt to changing environmental
conditions.
 Fertilisation is the fusion of the male gamete present in the pollen with the female gamete or the egg
present in the ovule.

 Events in Fertilisation

The pollen grains germinate after falling on the stigma of the same plant species.

The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain.

The generative nucleus divides into two nuclei.

The pollen tube grows through the stigma and style and reaches the ovary.

It pushes through the micropyle and reaches the embryo sac.

The tube nucleus eventually disintegrates.

The pollen tube enters one of the synergids and releases two sperm nuclei.

One sperm nucleus enters the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus.

The other sperm nucleus moves towards the two polar nuclei and fuses with them.
 Fate of Floral Parts After Fertilization

FLORAL PART FATE

 Sepals Usually wither away, but in some cases these
remain attached to the fruit. Examples: Brinjal, tomato
etc.

 Petals Wither away

 Stamens Wither away

 Style Withers away

 Stigma Withers away

 Ovary Fruit

 Ovary wall Pericarp

 Ovule Seed

 Placenta Stalk of the seed

 Outer integument Testa (seed coat)

 Inner integument Tegmen (seed coat)

 Secondary nucleus Endosperm

 Egg cell and synergids Embryo

 Antipodal cells Disorganised

 Tissues: Plant and Animal Tissues
 Cell: A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. Example: Nerve cell.

 Tissue: A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin, similar structure and function and held
together by a cementing substance. Example: Connective tissue.

 Organ: Different types of tissues working together and contributing to some specific function inside
the body constitute an organ. Example: Stomach.

 Organ system: Different organs coordinate to perform a specific life process and form an organ
system. Example: Digestive system.

 Organism: Various organ systems working simultaneously together constitute an organism.

Example: Plants.

 Classification of plant tissues

TYPE OF CHARACTERISTICS LOCATION FUNCTION

TISSUE
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE

Meristematic  Cells are thin-  Located at the  The cells of

tissue walled and made tips of the roots meristematic
up of cellulose. and stems, base tissue divide
of the node, actively, resulting
base of the in growth
internode or at (increase in
the base of the thickness and
leaf. length) of plants.
 TYPES OF MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
-
Apical  Located at the  Enables the root
meristem growing points and stem to grow
of the stem, by increasing the
roots, branches length of plants.
and in growing
young leaves
near the tips of
stems and
axillary buds.

-
Intercalary  Located at the  The cells are
meristem internodes or active and
stem regions continuously form
between the a number of new
places at which cells.
the leaves
attach, and at
leaf bases,
especially of
certain
monocotyledons
.

-
Lateral  Present laterally  The girth and
meristem/Ca (on the sides) width/diameter/thi
mbium on the roots and ckness of the
stem and is stem or root
situated parallel increases due to
to the the lateral
longitudinal axis meristem.
below the bark.

PERMANENT TISSUE
- -
Permanent  Formed by the
tissue division of the
meristematic tissue
cells that have lost
their ability to
multiply.
 TYPES OF PERMANENT TISSUE

Protective  Epidermis or  Found on the  Protects the

tissue surface tissue. surface of the underlying cells.
 Cells with thick roots, stems  Provides
walls. and leaves. protection against
mechanical injury
or invasion by
parasitic fungi.

- -
Supporting  Provides support to
tissue the plant.

Conducting  Also called vascular  Present in the  Provides a

tissue tissue. stem, roots and passage for water
leaves. and dissolved
materials to move
up and down in
the plant body.

TYPES OF SUPPORTING TISSUE

Parenchyma  Consist of relatively  Mainly present  Provides

non-specialised in the soft parts temporary support
large, thin-walled of the plant such and maintains the
living cells. as the central shape of the plant
pith-containing body.
region and outer
cortical region of
roots and
stems.

Collenchyma  Cells are living and  Located in the  Provides

elongated with cell non-woody mechanical
walls irregularly plants, leaf support and
thickened at the stalks, below elasticity to the
corners. the epidermis of young
the stems and dicotyledonous
veins of leaves. plants.

Sclerenchyma  Consists of  Located in the  Provides strength

elongated, narrow stems around and hardness to
and fibre-like cells. the vascular the parts of the
 Cells are dead, bundle, in the plant.
pointed at both the veins of leaves
ends and thickened and in the hard
because of the covering of the
deposition of lignin. seeds and nuts.
 TYPES OF CONDUCTING TISSUE

Xylem  Complex  Present in the  Provides upward

permanent tissue stem, roots and movement of
with thick-walled leaves. water and
cells. dissolved
 Most of the cells materials
are dead. absorbed by the
root from the soil
to other parts of
the plant.

 Complex  Lies just  Provides a

permanent tissue. beneath the passage for the
Phloem bark of the tree. downward
movement of food
manufactured in
the leaves to
various parts of
the plant.

COMPONENTS OF XYLEM
-
Tracheids  Made up of  Provide a network
elongated cells with of hollow and
flat, tapering ends. connected cells
for the transport
of water.

-
Xylem vessels  Consist of dead  Allow free flow of
cells. water and
 They are tubular minerals in the
structures and are vertical direction
much wider than from the roots to
tracheids. the leaves.

-
Xylem  Consists of living  Stores food in the
parenchyma parenchyma cells plant body.
associated with
xylem.

Xylem fibres  Separated by thin -

cross walls.  Mainly support
the plant.
 COMPONENTS OF PHLOEM
-
Sieve tubes  Tubular cells with  Translocation of
perforated walls organic
and arranged end substances
to end. through
perforated walls
from one adjacent
cell to another.

-
Companion  Cells are living and  Help to control the
cells keep their nuclei activity of sieve
and other tube elements.
organelles
throughout their life.

Phloem fibres  Elongated, tapering  Found  Provide

and dead cells. particularly in mechanical
 Cell walls are the stem. strength to the
thickened. plant.

Phloem  Cells are alive and  Transports food

parenchyma filled with - i.e. sugars and
cytoplasm. amino acids from
the leaves to
other non-green
parts of the
plants, such as
growing stems
and roots.
 Classification of animal tissues

TYPE OF CHARACTERISTICS LOCATION FUNCTION

TISSUE
EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Epithelial  Cells are flat,  Covers the  Protection

tissue cuboidal or whole body  Absorption
columnar in shape. surface.  Secretion
 Sensory perception

TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Simple  Cells are large,  Situated in the  Transportation of

squamous extremely thin and lining of blood substances through
epithelium flat. vessels, lung selectively
alveoli, permeable
oesophagus, membrane.
the lining of
the mouth and
the inner lining
of the cheek.

Stratified  Cells are arranged  Located as the  Provides protection

squamous in a pattern of outer to underlying
epithelium layers, resembling protective tissues which are
a brick wall. covering all subjected to
over the body continuous wear
surface. and tear.

Columnar  Cells are tall,  Found where  Secrete digestive

epithelium cylindrical and are absorption enzymes and
arranged like and secretion perform the function
pillars. occur, as in of absorption of
the inner lining nutrients from the
of the digested food.
stomach,
intestines and
gall bladder.

Ciliated  Cells possess fine  Found in the  In the respiratory

columnar hair-like cilia which inner lining of tract, the cilia move
epithelium are capable of the wind pipe and their movement
rapid, rhythmic, or trachea, pushes the mucus
wave-like beatings lungs, forward to clear it.
in a certain respiratory
direction on their system and
free surface. buccal
chambers.
Cuboidal  Cells are cube-  Found in the  Helps in the
epithelium shaped and are lining of the absorption of useful
placed on a kidney tubules material from the
basement as well as in urine before it is
membrane. the ducts of passed out.
the salivary
glands.

Glandular  It is a portion of the  Present in the  Capable of

epithelium epithelial tissue that secretory synthesising and
folds inwards to organs. such secreting certain
form a multicellular as stomach, substances such as
gland. intestine, enzymes,
pancreas etc. hormones, milk,
mucus, sweat, wax
and saliva at the
epithelial surface.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective  Consists of a matrix  Found in the  Connects various

tissue and the cells are deeper parts organs and keeps
embedded in it. of the body in them in proper
between the place.
skin and
muscles.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective  Made up of  Encompasses  Acts as a binding

tissue irregular cells all the internal and supporting
proper/loose scattered and organs and structure within the
connective embedded in a soft body cavities. body.
tissue matrix.

Supportive  Has fibres as its  Found in  Provides

connective main matrix bones and connection between
tissue/dense element. cartilage. different tissues.
connective
tissue

Fluid  Consist of  Present  Provides nutrition.

connective fluid/liquid as the throughout the  Helps in transport
tissue ground substance. body. of nutrients.
 Gets rid of waste
matter.
 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER

Areolar tissue  Made of gelatinous  Found  Fills the space

matrix containing between the inside the organs
cells and irregularly skin and and supports and
arranged fibres. muscles, strengthens the
around the internal organs.
blood vessels,
nerves and in
the bone
marrow.

Adipose  Cells are filled with  Found  Acts as an insulator

tissue fat globules, beneath the because of the
situated in a large skin, around storage of energy in
central vacuole of a the kidneys the form of fats. It
cell, pushing the and other insulates the body
cytoplasm and the internal and prevents the
nucleus to the organs such loss of heat.
periphery. as intestines.

Fibrous tissue  Mainly formed of  Found in the  Tendons help to

fibre-forming cells spaces attach muscles to
which form the between the the bones.
tendons and bones and  Ligaments serve to
ligaments. muscles. hold the structures
together and keep
them strong and
stable.

TYPES OF SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Cartilage  Non-porous, semi-  Present in the  Smoothens the

transparent and nose, external bone surface at
elastic tissue. ear, trachea, joints, allowing
larynx, ends of smooth movement
the long bones of these joints.
and between
the vertebrae.

Bone  Hard, strong and  Forms the  Forms the

non-flexible porous rigid part of supporting
tissue. the skeletal framework of the
 Consists of living system. body.
cells.  Gives shape and
rigidity to the body.
 TYPES OF FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Blood  Contains a straw-  Present  Connects different

coloured fluid throughout the body parts and
matrix called blood. body. establishes
It consists of continuity within the
plasma (55%) and body.
cellular part (45%)
which contains
cells, RBCs, WBCs
and platelets.

Lymph  Fluid surrounding  Present  Transportation of

the body cells. throughout the nutrients.
 Contains WBCs. body.  Provides protection
against diseases.

MUSCLE TISSUE

Muscle tissue  Consists of  Mostly  Helps in contraction

elongated, narrow, attached to and relaxation,
muscle cells called the bones. which facilitates
muscle fibres. movement of the
body.

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE

Striated/skelet  Muscle fibres are  Found  Help in voluntary

al/ long, cylindrical, attached to muscle movement
striped/volunt unbranched and the bones. and locomotion.
ary muscles multinucleate.

Non-striated/  Muscle fibres are  Found in  Carry out the

smooth/non- smooth and without ureters, movements which
striped/ striations. digestive tract, cannot be carried
involuntary urinary out by our
muscles bladder, iris of conscious will, such
the eye, as movement of
bronchi of the food in the
lungs and alimentary canal,
other internal blinking of eyes,
organs. breathing etc.
Cardiac/heart  Muscle cells are  Found only in  Rhythmic
muscles short, cylindrical the walls of contraction and
and have a single, the heart. relaxation of
centrally placed cardiac muscles
nucleus. help to pump and
distribute the blood
to various parts of
the body.

NERVOUS/NEURAL TISSUE

Nervous/neur  Made up of  Component of  Nerve cells mediate

al tissue elongated cells the nervous the transmission of
called neurons. system and messages from the
 Each neuron encompasses brain to different
consists of three the brain, parts of the body
parts—a cell body, spinal cord and vice versa.
an axon and and nerves.
dendrites.
 Health Organisations

 Health is one of the primary concerns of all the governments of the world.
 Governments strive to take steps individually, at the national level and globally to safeguard the health
interests of their citizens.

Common Health Problems in India

 India is a vast country with highly diverse geographical and climatic conditions.

A. Food and Water Borne Diseases  Contaminated food and water cause
several diseases.
 Examples: Diarrhoea, gastroenteritis,
typhoid and dysentery
B. Insect and Air Borne Diseases  Lack of cleanliness leads to breeding of
houseflies and mosquitoes which are
carriers of certain diseases.
 Example: Malaria
 Tuberculosis, whooping cough,
pneumonia and diarrhoea are air borne
diseases.

Categories of Health Organisations

Health
Organisations

National International
Local Bodies
Organisations Organisations
International Bodies

1. Red Cross It is a national as well as international agency.

It was formally founded in 1864.
Its emblem is a red-coloured cross painted on a white
background.
8 May is celebrated as Red Cross Day.
Major activities carried out by the Red cross are
 Extending relief and help to victims of flood, fire, famine or
earthquakes.
 Procuring and supplying blood to victims of war or other
calamities.
 Extending all possible first-aid in any accident.

2. World Health Organization WHO was established in 1948.

(WHO) It is a specialised agency of the United Nations Organization.
Its headquarters are located in Geneva.
Major activities of WHO include
 Collecting and supplying information about the
occurrence of diseases of an epidemic nature.
 Laying pharmaceutical standards for important drugs to
ensure purity and size of the dose.
 Organising campaigns for the control of epidemic
(widespread) and endemic (local) diseases.
 Nutrition
 Nutrients are constituents of our food which are essential for the body. They serve as fuel and are
oxidised to generate energy which is essential to carry out different life processes.

 Nutrition is the supply of essential organic and inorganic chemical compounds such as proteins,
carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins etc. to the body.

 Nutrition is needed for the growth, repair, energy, maintenance and protection of the body.

 Classes of nutrients

Nutrient Sources Function Nutritional disorder

Carbohydrates Cereals such as wheat, Mainly provide energy. Deficiency-Weakness
rice, maize potatoes, and retardation of
sugar, honey, banana, growth.
melon, papaya etc. Excess-Obesity.

Fats Butter, ghee, milk, Provides twice as much energy Deficiency-

cheese, oil, egg yolk, as that provided by the same Phrynoderma.
meat etc. amount of carbohydrates. Excess-
Atherosclerosis.

Proteins Milk, pulses, peas, Needed for growth and repair Deficiency-
beans, chicken, fish, of the body. Kwashiorkor and
eggs, cheese etc. marasmus.

Dietary Plant products, whole Essential as they add to the Difficulty in formation
fibres/Roughage grains, pulses, fresh bulk of the food and help to of stools.
fruits and vegetables. eliminate the undigested food.

Water Besides liquid water, Helps to absorb nutrients from Impairment in bodily
many food items food, transportation and functions.
contain water such as regulation within the body,
tomatoes, melons, throwing out wastes from body
cabbage lettuce, etc. as urine and sweat.
 Minerals are compounds found in nature which are required for various reactions taking place in the
body.

 Some important mineral elements

ELEMENT RICH SOURCES CHIEF FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY

DISEASES
Macronutrients (needed in large quantity)
Calcium Dairy foods, beans, Constituent of bone and enamel, Rickets, poor
cabbage required for muscle contraction, skeletal growth
clotting of blood
Sodium Table salt Regulates acid base equilibrium Muscular cramps

Potassium Banana, potato, Nerve and muscle activity, fluid Nerve impulses do
citrus fruits balance, secretion of not get transmitted
acetylcholine
Phosphorus Dairy products, Synthesis of nucleic acid, ATP, Soft bone
in cereals, beans, NADP, bones and enamel,
phosphate nuts, meat, egg muscle contraction, conduction
of nerve impulses
Magnesium Vegetables, whole Bone and tooth structure, Increased irritability
grain, nuts, sea synthesis of enzymes of nervous system
food, meat
Sulphur in Dairy products, Component of protein and co- Skin problems
sulphate onion, garlic, enzymes
radish, meat, egg
Chlorine Table salt Water balance, secretion of HCl Muscular cramps
in gastric juice
Micronutrients (needed in small quantity)
Iron Whole cereals, Synthesis of haemoglobin Anaemia
fish, nut, egg associated with oxidation-
yolk, liver, kidney reduction reactions
Cobalt Milk, cereals, Development of red blood cells, Pernicious anaemia
pulses, liver, red component of vitamin B12
meat
Copper Nuts, legumes, Production of melanin, cell Loss of body weight,
liver, kidney oxidation, synthesis of enzymes anaemia
Zinc Cereals, pulses, Needed for synthesis of Retarded growth,
nuts, meat, liver enzymes, carbon dioxide skin lesions, albinism
oil transport in blood
Iodine lodised salt, Component of thyroxin hormone Goitre, cretinism in
water, sea foods secreted by thyroid gland children
Fluorine Water, milk Component of tooth enamel and Dental decay
bone
Manganese Vegetables Bone development, nitrogen Poor bone
metabolism development
Molybdenum Pulses, cereals, Nitrate assimilation Slight retardation of
meat growth
 Vitamins are organic substances required by the body in small quantities to maintain good health.

 Some Important Vitamins

ELEMENT RICH SOURCES CHIEF FUNCTIONS DEFICIENCY

DISEASES
Fat-soluble vitamins
A (Retinol) Butter, egg yolk, liver, Promotes growth, Night blindness,
milk, carrots, leafy resists infection of the Xerophthalmia
green vegetables, skin and mucous
yellow fruit, fish liver oils membrane, component
of visual purple in the
retinal cells of the eye
for perception of image
D (Calciferol) Fish liver oils, milk, Helps the body to use Rickets in children,
eggs calcium and osteomalacia in
Produced in the skin by phosphorus to form the adults
exposure to sunlight bones and teeth
E (Tocopherol) Meat, milk, whole wheat Prevents oxidation of Sterility in rats
vitamin A
K (Phylloquinone) Green leafy vegetables, Needed in normal Haemorrhage
especially cabbage and clotting of the blood
spinach
Water-soluble vitamins
B1 (Thiamine) Whole grains, yeast, Increases growth and Beriberi
liver, eggs and lean appetite, helps in
meat digestion and
functioning of the
nervous system
B2 (Riboflavin) Eggs, liver, milk, yeast, Regulates oxidation of Irritation in eyes and
green vegetables food skin, intestinal
disorders,
inflammation
of the tongue
B3 (Niacin) Lean meat, liver, milk, Promotes health of the Pellagra, dermatitis,
eggs, groundnuts, skin and the nervous loss of memory,
whole grains system diarrhoea, skin
lesions, rashes
B5 (Pantothenic Mushrooms, sweet Breakdown of fats and Fatigue, loss of
acid) potato, lentils etc. carbohydrates, coordination
production of red blood
cells
B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, fish, eggs, cereal Inter-conversion of Skin problems,
bran amino acids nerve disorders
B11 (Folic acid) Liver, leafy vegetables Synthesis of Anaemia
haemoglobin
B12 (Cobalamine) Liver, meat, milk, Normal functioning of Pernicious anaemia
cereals, pulses red blood
cells
 C (Ascorbic acid) Fresh citrus fruit (lemon, Promotes functioning Increases
orange, grape fruit), of capillary walls susceptibility to
tomatoes, germinating infections, scurvy
seeds

 A diet which contains all the principal constituents of food in proper quantity is called a balanced diet.

 Malnutrition is the condition in which a person suffers due to the lack or deficiency of one or more
essential elements of food.
 Skin – ‘The Jack Of All Trades’
 The skin is the largest organ of the body.

 Functions of the Skin

a. Protection
b. Sensation
c. Temperature regulation
d. Synthesis of vitamin D
e. Excretion
 COMPONENT OF DESCRIPTION
SKIN
Epidermis Outermost layer of the skin, made up of epithelial cells.
Contains melanocytes which are responsible for imparting colour
to the skin.
Dermis Middle layer of the skin.
Made up of collagen and elastic fibres which provide strength and
elasticity to the skin.
Hypodermis Lowermost layer of the skin which contains adipose tissue.
Insulates the skin, acts as a shock absorber and anchors the skin
to the underlying bones and muscles.
Common route for administration of injections.
Hair Filamentous structure which grows from the hair follicles found in
the dermis.
Consists of three parts—hair shaft, hair root and hair bulb.
Provides protection, regulates body temperature and acts as a
sense organ.
Nails Hardened structures which grow as dead cells from the nail root.
Consist of three parts—nail plate, nail bed and matrix.
Protect the sensitive tips of the digits
Sebaceous glands Small sac-like glands situated in the dermis associated with the
hair follicle.
Secretes sebum which makes hair and outer surface of the skin
oily and waterproof, to prevent the loss of water due to
evaporation.
Sweat Small tubular structures on the skin which are made up of two
glands parts—secretory part and excretory part
Separates sweat from blood.
Mammary glands Modified sweat glands.
The activity of mammary glands is related to reproductive
hormones—prolactin, oestrogen and progesterone, which are
prominently secreted during pregnancy.

 Mammals and birds are warm-blooded or endothermic animals, which can maintain a more or less
constant body temperature, irrespective of the surrounding temperature.

 An optimum temperature of 35-40°C is necessary for the body to function properly. Low body
temperature slows down the activity of the enzymes, while high temperature destroys them completely.

 Sources of heat production

a. Chemical reactions take place in all body cells, especially the oxidation of glucose in liver.
b. Vigorous activity of muscles.
c. Ingestion of hot foods and beverages.
 Sources of heat loss
a. Skin: About 85% of body heat is lost through the skin by convection, conduction, radiation and
evaporation of sweat.
b. Lungs: Heat is lost from the body when we expire or give out air. Some heat is also lost
during vapourisation of water from the lungs.
c. Urine and faeces: Elimination of these substances takes place at body temperature.
d. Foods: Heat is also lost when cold food, water or cold beverages are consumed.

Temperature Regulation
 The hypothalamus, a portion of the forebrain, is the principal heat-regulating centre of the body.
 It acts like a thermostat. When the body tends to cool below the normal temperature, it switches on
or speeds up the heat-producing process. When the body tends to get overheated, it accelerates the
cooling process and switches off the heat-producing process.

Temperature regulation in cold weather

 At low temperatures, the blood vessels get narrowed or vasoconstricted. This reduces the blood
supply to the skin.
 There is less loss of heat by convection, conduction and radiation. There is less loss of heat
through vapourisation as reduced blood supply lowers the secretion of sweat by sweat glands.
 The person looks pale or bluish because of the reduced blood supply to the skin.
 The amount of heat produced is increased by increased metabolic rate and muscular activity, which
occurs in the form of shivering.

Temperature regulation in hot weather

 At high temperature, the blood supply to the skin is increased by vasodilation or dilation of blood
vessels in the skin.
 This results in greater loss of heat by convection, conduction and radiation. There is more loss of heat
through vapourisation as more sweat is secreted due to the rich supply of blood to the skin.
 A heatstroke or sunstroke is a condition in which the sweat production is unable to keep pace with its
evaporation in very hot winds. This results in an increase in the body temperature which may prove to
be fatal.
 Drinking a lot of water and consuming more salt in summer is a good precaution against sunstroke.
 Respiration in Plants
 Respiration is a catabolic process of releasing energy from a simple sugar—glucose—for carrying out
various life processes.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy

 Characteristics of Respiration
a. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water does not occur in a single step. It
involves a series of chemical reactions—glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport.
b. Each breakdown step is carried out by a specific enzyme.
c. A small amount of energy liberated in the breakdown of the glucose molecule is released as heat
energy. But a major part of it is converted into chemical energy in the form of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP).

 Kinds of Respiration
 Aerobic Respiration: The breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic
respiration. Most of the animals, human beings, several bacteria and fungi are aerobic in nature.

 Anaerobic Respiration: The breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic
respiration. Unicellular organisms such as yeast and some bacteria are examples of anaerobes.

 Fermentation: The breakdown of pyruvic acid to ethanol and carbon dioxide in the absence of
oxygen is called fermentation. Certain microorganisms or their enzymes carry out fermentation.
 Differences between Respiration and Combustion

RESPIRATION COMBUSTION
 It occurs in a series of chemical steps.  It occurs in a single step
 It is carried out by enzymes.  It is carried out by heat.
 It is a biochemical process.  It is a physicochemical process.
 Energy is liberated in the form of ATP  Energy is liberated in the form of heat
and some heat. and light.
 No light energy is produced.  Light energy is produced.
 It is a cellular process.  It is a non-cellular process.
 It occurs at body temperature.  It occurs at high temperature (at
ignition point).
 No supply of heat energy is required.  Supply of heat energy is required
 The organic compound is oxidised to  The organic compound initially chars
carbon dioxide and water. and later burns, producing a flame.
 The energy is released in a step-wise  The energy is released at once.
manner.
 It involves the formation of several  It does not involve the formation of any
intermediates. intermediates.
 It requires the presence of water.  It does not require the presence of
water.
 It requires the presence of catalysts.  It does not require any biological
catalysts.
 It is a slow process.  It is a fast process.
 It is a continuous process.  It is not a continuous process.

 Respiration in plants takes place through

a. Stomata in leaves
b. Lenticels in stem
c. General surface of roots

 Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration in plants

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. It is also called oxybiotic respiration. 1. It is also called anoxybiotic respiration.
2. It proceeds in the presence of oxygen. 2. It proceeds in the absence of oxygen.
3. It occurs in mitochondria. 3. It occurs in cytoplasm.
4. There is complete breakdown of glucose. 4. There is incomplete breakdown of
glucose.
5. The end-products are carbon dioxide and 5. The end-products are ethyl alcohol and
water. carbon dioxide.
6. A large quantity of energy is liberated (38 6. A small quantity of energy is liberated
ATP) from one mole of glucose. (2 ATP) from one mole of glucose.
7. It normally occurs throughout life. 7. It occurs temporarily for short periods.
 Characteristics of Respiration in plants
a. Oxygen is used up during respiration.
b. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration in germinating seeds.
c. Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration in green plants.
d. Heat is evolved during respiration in plants.

 Differences between Respiration and Photosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESPIRATION
 It occurs in chloroplast.  It occurs in cytoplasm/mitochondria.
 It occurs only in the presence of  It occurs in all living cells.
chlorophyll.
 It occurs only in the presence of light.  It occurs continuously at all times.
 It utilises carbon dioxide and water.  It utilises oxygen and glucose.
 Oxygen is released as an end-product.  Carbon dioxide is released as an end-
product.
 Light energy is converted into chemical  Chemical energy is partly converted
energy and stored. into heat and partly into useful energy
for various activities.
 It results in gain of weight.  It results in loss of weight.
 Food (glucose manufactured);  Food (glucose broken down/oxidised);
constructive anabolic process. destructive catabolic process.
 It occurs only in plants and few bacteria.  It occurs in all living organisms.
 It produces ATP by the use of light  It produces AP by the oxidation of
energy. glucose.
 NADP is reduced to NADPH2, using  NAD is reduced to NADH, using
hydrogen from the water molecule. hydrogen from carbohydrates or food
material.
 ATP and NADPH2 are mainly used for  NADH and ATP are used for cellular
the synthesis of organic compounds. functions.
 Differences between Respiration in Plants and Animals

RESPIRATION IN PLANTS RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS

 It does not exhibit external ventilation or  It exhibits external ventilation or
breathing movements. breathing movements.
 No gaseous transport is involved; the  The tissue fluid blood is responsible for
respiratory gases simply diffuse in and the transport of gases.
out of the cell.
 Oxygen released during the process of  Air is the only source of oxygen.
photosynthesis acts as an additional
source of oxygen for respiration.
 The end-product of anaerobic  The end-product of anaerobic
respiration is ethanol. respiration is lactic acid.
 Produces a small amount of heat.  A larger quantity of heat is released.
 The rate of respiration is slow.  The rate of respiration is comparatively
faster.
 Hygiene – A Key to Healthy Life
 The science and practice of maintaining good health is known as hygiene.

 The main factors which contribute to personal hygiene and good health are personal cleanliness,
physical exercise, rest and sleep and healthy habits.

1. Personal Cleanliness
a. Hands and Skin
 We must wash our hands with soap after handling things such as books, coins, furniture, tools and
machinery in workshops, seats and supporting rods in buses and even pets and other domestic
animals as many of them carry germs.
 Bathing regularly keeps the skin free from germs and body odour. Undergarments and
handkerchiefs must be washed daily.

b. Hair
 We should keep our hair clean by regularly washing it with a good shampoo.
 We should brush and comb our hair regularly so that we look smart and tidy.

c. Teeth
 We should brush our teeth twice a day, once when we get up in the morning and
before going to bed at night.

d. Nose
 We should cover our nose and mouth with a handkerchief while sneezing or coughing to prevent
the spread of germs.
 Always blow your nose into a handkerchief.
 Make sure that you always breathe through your nose and not through your mouth.

e. Eyes
 We must wash and clean our eyes twice or thrice a day.
 Avoid watching television for long hours as it causes eye strain. Do not sit close to the television as
it is harmful for your eyes.
 Avoid bright light which shines directly into your eyes.

f. Ears
 Remember to dry your ears after bath and shake out the water which enters your ears after you
return from a swim.
 We should also protect our ears from extreme cold or heat.
 If at any time, a small insect enters your ear, it can be removed by filling the external ear with
saltwater.

2. Physical Exercise
 Exercise helps maintain efficiency, size and strength of the muscles. It keeps the muscles, bones
and joints in good condition.
 We should include a minimum of 15 minutes of regular exercise in our daily routine.
3. Rest and Sleep
 Our body gets sufficient rest when we sleep. We need sufficient sleep to wake up refreshed and
recharged for the next day.

4. Healthy Habits
 We must try to go to bed early and not go to sleep immediately after eating dinner.
 We must ensure that our bowels are cleared every day, if possible in the morning.
 We should eat a balanced diet which contains sufficient amounts of fibrous vegetables, fruits and
buttermilk.
 We must drink plenty of water throughout the day. We should try to avoid drinking water with our
meals.

Social Hygiene and Sanitation

 It is important to keep our surroundings clean to stay healthy.
 Eatables should be kept covered at all times.
 Public drains and garbage should be covered and sprinkled with disinfectants such as bleaching
powder and lime.

Control of Disease Carriers (Vectors)

 Some creatures act as carriers, vectors or reservoirs of pathogens and are responsible for
the spread of diseases from one person to another. Such intermediate carriers of
pathogens are called vectors.

Housefly and its Control

 The most common Indian housefly is Musca nebulo.

 Dysentery, cholera and typhoid are some diseases spread by houseflies.

 The housefly feeds on all kinds of organic food. It gets attracted to particularly sweet
foodstuffs and rotting meat.
 A housefly transmits diseases through its hairy body and legs, by pouring out saliva, through
excreta or by direct transmission of germs.
 Houseflies can be controlled by removal of dirty material from the house. The waste should be
disposed of so as to prevent breeding of flies. The refuse should be covered with a layer of soil to allow
decomposition.
 Food should be covered properly to prevent flies from sitting on it. Babies should be well-protected with
baby umbrellas when sleeping.
Mosquito and its Control
 Three kinds of mosquitoes commonly found in India are the malaria mosquito Anopheles, the filaria
mosquito Culex and the dengue mosquito Aedes.

 The female Anopheles mosquito is responsible for spreading malaria in humans, monkeys and birds.
 Elephantiasis or filariasis is spread by the Culex mosquito.
 The Aedes mosquito is involved in spreading yellow fever and dengue, which are caused by two
types of viruses.
 Mosquitoes act as carriers of disease-causing pathogens and spread diseases through the bite of an
infected person.
 The population of mosquitoes can be controlled by eliminating adult mosquitoes by spraying
insecticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) on breeding grounds. Breeding places of
mosquitoes must be destroyed. The population of mosquitoes can be controlled by the elimination of
mosquito larvae. Mosquito larvae are biologically controlled by releasing Gambusia fish in stagnant
water.

Cockroach and its Control

 Cockroaches are commonly occurring household insects and are usually found breeding in manholes
and sewers.
 They may act as carriers of viruses, especially those which cause cancer.
 They can be controlled by destroying their breeding places, removing dirty material from the house and
preventing their contact with food and water.

Rat and its Control

 Rats are considered serious domestic pests.
 A parasite named rat flea lives on the skin of rat. It possibly carries the germs of plague.
 To prevent the spread of diseases through rats, rat poisons or raticides should be used to
trap, kill or dispose of rats.

Contamination of Water
 Contamination of water is the addition of undesirable substances such as foreign matter, organic and
inorganic matter, and biological or radioactive substances which deteriorate the quality of water and
make it harmful for consumption.
 Sewage, defecation, tannery wastes and pesticides are some sources of water pollution.
 Common Water-borne Diseases

DISEASE INCUBATION SYMPTOMS PREVENTION

PERIOD
Cholera (Vibrio Few hours to 6  Severe stomach ache,  Control of
cholera) days diarrhoea with white, houseflies by
watery and foul smelling destroying their
faecal waste and breeding grounds
vomiting
 Personal hygiene,
 Dryness of tongue, cleanliness of the
sunken eyes and surroundings
muscular pains
 Anti-cholera
injection

Bacillary  Continuous loose  Consumption of

dysentery motions or diarrhoea fresh, clean and
(Shigella nutritious food
dysenteriae)  Slight fever and severe
intestinal pain  Consumption of
pure and fresh
drinking water

 Population of flies
should be reduced

Amoebic About 1 week  Diarrhoea or watery  Food should be

dysentery or motions kept covered
Amoebiasis properly to avoid
(Entamoeba  Intestinal lining is contamination by
histolytica) destroyed flies and dust
carrying cysts
 Constipation alternating
with diarrhoea  Clean, boiled and
cooled water
 Stomach convulsions
should be used for
drinking

 Raw vegetables
and fruits bought
from the market
should be cleaned
and washed
properly before
storing and eating
 The Flower
 A flower is a specialised shoot in which the leaves are modified to form floral structures.

 A flower which has all the four whorls, calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium, is called a
complete flower. Examples: Hibiscus, rose, sunflower etc.

 A flower in which one or more sets of floral whorls are absent is called an incomplete flower.
Examples: Rue anemone, american elm, black walnut etc.

 The essential whorls of a flower are the whorls that are directly associated with the process of
reproduction. Examples: Stamen and carpel.

 The non-essential whorls of a flower are the helping parts which either protect the reproductive parts
of the flower or make them attractive for pollination. Examples: Calyx and corolla.

 In plants, such as wheat and grasses, the petals and sepals are undifferentiated and together
compose the perianth.

 In some plants, the sepals are not green but appear brightly coloured like the petals. These sepals are
called petaloid sepals, and the perianth is called a petaloid perianth. Example: Orchid etc.

 In some plants, the petals appear green in colour and are called sepaloid petals. The perianth is
called a sepaloid perianth. Examples: Viscum, Mistletoe etc.

 Bracts are modified leaves arising from the axil of a small leaf-like structure. They may be green
coloured like the leaves or different coloured like the petals. Examples: Hibiscus, Bougainvillea etc.

 The nectar in the flowers is secreted by a group of cells, present either at the base of the pistil or
on the petals. These groups of cells are called nectaries. Example: Nasturtium etc.

 A flower that contains both male and female reproductive structures is called a bisexual flower.
Example: Hibiscus etc.

 A flower that has only one reproductive structure, either the male or female, is called a unisexual
flower. Examples: Papaya, palm etc.
 A unisexual flower which contains only the androecium is called a male or staminate flower.
Example: Eastern cottonwood etc.

 A unisexual flower which contains only the gynoecium is called a female or pistillate flower.
Example: Date palm etc.

 A flower in which both male and female reproductive organs are absent is called a neuter flower.
Example: Ray florets of sunflower etc.

 If the male and female flowers grow on the same plant, then the plant is said to be a
monoecious plant. Examples: Pumpkin, maize, cucumber etc.

 If the male and female flowers grow on separate plants, then the plant is said to be a dioecious plant.
Examples: Palm, papaya etc.

 The calyx is the outermost whorl of a flower. It is made of small, green leaf-like structures called
sepals.

 The sepals completely cover the flower at the bud stage and provide protection to the inner whorls of
the flower. The sepals, if green in colour, perform photosynthesis, thereby contributing to the
production of food in the plant. The non-green sepals sometimes perform the function of attracting
pollinators.

 If sepals are joint or fused together, then the calyx is said to be gamosepalous. Example: Hibiscus
etc.

 If sepals are free and not joined together, then the calyx is said to be polysepalous. Examples: Rose,
mustard etc.

 In Hibiscus, the bracts form a whorl called epicalyx, just below the calyx.

 The corolla is the second whorl from the outside of a flower. It consists of units called petals.

 If the petals of a flower are fused or united, forming a tube-like structure, then they are called
gamopetalous. Examples: Nerium, Ipomea etc.

 If the petals of a flower are not fused and are free from each other, then they are called polypetalous.
Examples: Rose, mustard etc.

 Petals are generally arranged in a single whorl, but in some plants, they are arranged in double
whorls. Example: Poppy etc.

 In some plants, the petals are spirally arranged. Example: Water lily etc.

 In some flowers, the number of petals is equal to the number of sepals. Example: Buttercup flower etc.

 In some flowers, the number of petals is not equal to the number of sepals. Example: Rose etc.

 The corolla of a flower performs two main functions—pollination and protection.

 The androecium is the third whorl from the outside and represents the male reproductive part of the
flower. Stamens together constitute the androecium.
 When the stamens of a flower are free, the condition is called polyandrous. Example: Petunia etc.

 When the stamens of a flower are fused, the condition is called adelphous. Example: Hibiscus etc.

 When the filaments of the anthers in a flower are fused into one group, the condition is called
monadelphous. Example: Hibiscus etc.

 When the filaments of the anthers in a flower are fused into two groups, the condition is called
diadelphous. Example: Pea etc.

 When the filaments of the anthers in a flower are fused into more than two groups, the condition is
called polyadelphous. Example: Bombax etc.

 The gynoecium or pistil is the female reproductive part of the plant. The pistil is made of units called
carpels. The pistil consists of either a single carpel or many carpels.

 If the carpels of a flower are free, then the gynoecium is said to be apocarpous. Example:
Buttercup flower etc.

 If the carpels of a flower are fused, then the gynoecium is said to be syncarpous. Example: Orchid
etc.

 A bicarpellary ovary has two carpels.

 A tricarpellary ovary has three carpels.

 A superior ovary is an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other floral parts
such as the thalamus and the calyx. Example: Onion etc.

 An inferior ovary lies below the attachment of other floral parts such as the thalamus and the calyx.
Example: Rose etc.

 An inflorescence is a cluster or a group of flowers arranged on the plant stem.

 The arrangement of ovules inside the ovary is called placentation.

 In flowers showing marginal placentation, the ovary is monocarpellary and single chambered. The
placenta, along with the ovules, develops along the margins of the carpel. Example: Pea etc.

 In flowers showing axile placentation, the ovary is two chambered or many chambered, in which the
margins of the carpels fuse together. The fused margin grows inwards to meet in the centre of the
ovary, forming a central axis. The placenta, along with the ovules, develops from this axis. Examples:
China rose, lemon, orange etc.

 In flowers with parietal placentation, the ovules are attached to the walls of a unilocular ovary. The
ovules are borne on the inner surface of the ovary wall. Examples: Mustard, Argemone etc.
 Cell: The Unit of Life
 The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It is the smallest part of the
body of an organism, capable of independent existence and able to perform all the essential
functions of life.

 The history of cell science began in 1665, with the observation of a thin section of a bottle cork by the
English scientist Robert Hooke.

 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann proposed a basic cell theory.

 The postulates of the modern cell theory are

1. The cell is the smallest unit of structure of all living things.
2. The cell is the unit of function of all living things.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

 Cells vary in number (singlecelled: Amoeba; few-celled: Spirogyra, multi-celled: Man), size (smallest:
Bacteria, longest: Nerve cell, largest: Ostrich egg) and shape (columnar: Epithelial cells).

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL

NATURE AND MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MAIN FUNCTIONS
OCCURRENCE
Plasma membrane/Cell membrane
1. Forms the 1. Very thin, flexible and 1. Acts as an effective barrier and
outermost covering in delicate living membrane. regulates the entry of certain
animal cells. 2. Semi-permeable. solutes and ions.
Cell wall (in plant cells only)
1. Non-living rigid 1. Mainly composed of 1. Gives rigidity and shape to the
protective covering cellulose. plant cells.
situated just outside 2. Freely permeable. 2. Provides protection.
the plasma membrane.
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL
NATURE AND MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MAIN FUNCTIONS
OCCURRENCE
Cytoplasm
1. Content inside the 1. Contains a mixture of 1. Centre of all metabolic activities.
plasma membrane, water and soluble organic 2. Seat of occurrence of glycolysis
excluding the nucleus. and inorganic compounds (production of pyruvic acid).
and various cell organelles.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
1. Irregular network of 1. May be smooth (SER) or 1. Supportive framework of the cell.
tubular double rough (RER). 2. RER synthesises proteins, while
membrane. SER secretes lipids.
Mitochondria
1. Have varied 1. Double-walled, inner wall 1. Seat of aerobic respiration.
shapes, but usually thrown into folds, called 2. Synthesis of respiratory enzymes
are sausage-like. cristae. and energy-rich compounds.
2. Contain their own
ribosomes and DNA, with
several genes.
Golgi Apparatus (In animal cells)
Dictyosomes (In plant cells)
1. Stacks of flattened 1. Consists of a set of 1. Synthesis and secretion of
membrane sacs. membrane-bounded, fluid- enzymes, hormones etc.
filled vesicles and vacuoles. 2. Involved in the synthesis of
plasma membrane, cell wall etc.
Ribosomes
1. Dense, spherical, 1. Single-walled, dense, 1. Synthesis of proteins.
small granules, either spherical bodies composed
scattered in the mainly of RNA and proteins.
cytoplasm or attached 2. Not bounded by a
to the outside of ER. membrane.
3. Two types: 70S and 80S
Lysosomes
1. Simple, tiny, single 1. Contains 40 different 1. Intracellular digestion.
membrane bound types of enzymes. 2. Destroy foreign substances.
sacs.
Centrosome (In animal cells only)
1. Region surrounding 1. Contains one or two 1. Initiates and regulates cell
the centrioles, located centrioles that are division.
near nucleus. surrounded by radiating
microtubules to form an
aster shape.
 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION OF A CELL
NATURE AND MAIN CHARACTERISTICS MAIN FUNCTIONS
OCCURRENCE
Plastids (In plant cells only)
1. Have their own 1. Double membrane, 1. Chromoplasts: Impart colour to
genome. proteinaceous matrix flowers and fruits.
2. Self-replicating containing DNA. 2. Chloroplasts: Trap solar energy
organelles. 2. Possess disc-like for photosynthesis.
structures called thylakoids, 3. Leucoplasts: Store starch.
containing chlorophyll.
Nucleus
1. Centrally located 1. Mostly spherical and 1. Regulates cell functions.
spherical cellular dense. 2. Regulates cell cycle.
component. 2. Surrounded by nuclear
membrane with pores.
Nucleolus
1. Embedded within 1. One or more in number. 1. Produces ribosomes.
the nucleus of the cell. 2. Round-shaped. 2. Participates in proteins synthesis
by forming and storing RNA.
Chromatin fibres
1. Embedded within 1. Network of thread-like 1. Chromosomes carry hereditary
the nucleus of the cell. structures, made up of DNA. information or genes.
Vacuoles
1. Fluid-filled or solid- 1. Non-living structures. 1. Storage of water and other
filled and membrane- 2. Larger in plant cells and substances, food, pigments and
bounded spaces. fewer and smaller in animal waste products.
cells. 2. Gives turgidity to the cells.
3. Helps to maintain an osmotic
pressure in a cell.
Granules
1. Non-living 1. Small particles, crystals or 1. Starch (in plant cells), glycogen
structures. droplets. (in animal cells) and fat-containing
granules serve as food for the cell.
 Differences between plant and animal cell

FEATURE PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

Structural differences
Cell wall Presence of a definite cell Absence of a cell wall
wall, made up of cellulose
Cell membrane Present internal to the cell Forms the boundary of the
wall cell
Centrosome Absence of centrosome Presence of centrosome
Centriole Absence of centriole Presence of centriole
Vacuole Presence of one or more Presence of small and
prominent vacuoles temporary vacuoles
Plastid Presence of plastids Absence of plastids
Functional differences
Size Usually larger with distinct Usually smaller with less
outlines distinct boundaries
Cytoplasm Not so dense Denser and more granular
Arrangement of Only a thin lining of Cytoplasm fills up almost
cytoplasm cytoplasm which is mostly the entire cell
pushed to the periphery
Other differences
Shape Rectangular Spherical
Storage material Starch Glycogen
 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

FEATURE PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

Nucleus Absence of a well-defined Presence of a well-defined
nucleus nucleus with a nuclear
membrane
Nucleolus Absent Present
Genetic material Presence of a single length of Presence of several lengths
only DNA of DNA, wound around
certain proteins
Ribosomes Presence of smaller Presence of larger
ribosomes ribosomes
Cell organelles Absence of other cell Presence of several other
organelles cell organelles such as
mitochondria, ER,
chloroplasts etc.
Cell division Cell division takes place by Cell division takes place by
fission or budding, but not by mitosis or meiosis
mitosis
Examples Bacteria, blue green algae Euglena, Amoeba, plants,
animals

 All organisms grow due to the growth in size and increase in the number of cells. This growth is
because of the production of more body substance and cell substance.

 Repair of an injury or regeneration of a lost part is because of cell division.

 Movement of the body is because of contractility of the cells or cellular parts.

 Feeding and nutrition have many steps, and each step is a result of cellular activities.

 Circulation of blood as well as the movement of other fluids in the body takes place through
various forces that are set up due to the contraction of muscle cells of the heart and other parts of
the body.

 Respiratory gases are transported from the lungs to different parts of the body by blood cells such as
RBCs.

 Protection of the body from different germs and diseases occurs through cells called white blood cells
(WBCs). These cells either devour the germs or give out antibodies or antitoxins, which destroy the
germs and neutralise their effect.

 The sensation of touch, pain, heat, cold etc. occurs due to sensory cells. The brain orders the muscles
to contract or glands to secrete through their cells.

 Thermoregulation or maintenance of our body heat also takes place through cellular activity.

 All living organisms reproduce through cellular activity.

 In plants, transportation takes place due to cellular activity.

 In plants, food is produced due to cellular activity.

 In plants, pollination takes place due to cellular activity.

 Inheritance in an organism depends on the type of its germ cells.

 Aids to Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease and infirmity.

Immunity

 It can be defined as the ability of an organism to resist the attack of antigens or pathogens.
 Various harmful substances, such as pollutants and pathogens, may enter our body through different
ways.
The defence system of our body works at two levels:
A. Local Defence System: This system prevents the entry of germs.
B. Immune System: This system deals with the germs after they have entered the body tissues.

Local Defence System

1. Protective Mechanical Barriers

Skin  Skin is made of the protein keratin which is almost impermeable to
germs.
 Any scratch or cut in the skin provides an entry for germs.
 The clotting of blood plugs the cut and prevents the entry of germs.
Hair  Hair inside the nostrils traps dust which carries germs.
Mucus  It is a slimy secretion of the epithelial lining of various organs.
 Mucus secreted by the epithelial lining traps bacteria and prevents their
entry into the body.
2. Thrown out, if entered
Coughing,  These are three direct methods to throw out germs or foreign particles
Sneezing, which have entered the body.
Vomiting
3. Germ-killing Secretions
Saliva, These secretions help in killing germs.
Sweat, Tear,
Nasal
Secretions
Hydrochloric  It is secreted by the stomach.
acid  It kills the germs which have entered the body along with food.
4. Germ-fighting White Blood Cells (WBCs)
WBCs  WBCs engulf germs and destroy them by the process of phagocytosis.

Merits of the Local Defence System

 Work instantaneously.
 Effective against a wide range of potentially infectious agents.
Immune System

Immunity can be classified into two main categories:

Immunity

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

Non- specific Active Immunity Passive Immunity

Specific

Naturally Acquired
Artificially Acquired
Naturally Acquired
Artificially Acquired

1. Innate Immunity: It is inherited from the parents.

I. Non-specific Innate Immunity: General natural resistance to all infections.
II. Specific Innate Immunity: Natural resistance to a particular kind of germ.

2. Acquired Immunity: Resistance to a disease is acquired during the lifetime of an organism.

I. Actively Acquired Immunity: Resistance is developed due to a previous infection.
II. Passively Acquired Immunity: Immunity is provided from an outside source in the form of antibodies.
a. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Mother’s antibodies reach the foetus through the placenta.
b. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Antiserum injections are given to stimulate the production
of antibodies.

Differences between Active Immunity and Passive Immunity

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

 Produced by one’s own body.  Received from an outside source.
 Induced by infections or by contact  Readymade antibodies are provided.
with immunogens.
 Provides effective and long-lasting  Protection is less effective and does
protection. not ensure protection against
subsequent infections.

Antigen: It is a chemical found on the surface membranes of germ cells.

Toxin and Antitoxin/Antibodies

Any poisonous substance produced by an animal, plant or bacterium is known as a toxin.

Examples: Snake venom, sting poisons of insects

An antibody is a blood serum protein produced in response to injected antigens.

Example: Antivenins for snake venoms

Characteristics of Antibodies

 They belong to a class of proteins called immunoglobulins.

They are produced by lymphocytes.
 Our body can produce a variety of antibodies.
Antigen-specific, i.e. they can act only on a particular antigen.

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

 AIDS is caused by the infection of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

 This virus attacks the immune system.

 HIV infects T-cells.

 When T-cells die, they release newly formed viruses which infect more cells.
 HIV is transmitted by
 Sexual intercourse
 Sharing contaminated needles
 Blood transfusion
 From infected mother to the unborn foetus
 World AIDS Day is on 1 December. It is a day to create awareness about the severity of AIDS and the
protective measures available.
Vaccination and Immunisation

Vaccination: It is the introduction of any kind of dead or weakened germs into the body of a living being
to develop immunity against the respective disease.

Killed Germs
(TAB
Vaccine)

Living
Weakened
Kinds of Germs
Toxoids
Vaccines
(BCG
Vaccine)

Living, Fully
Poisonous
Germs
(Cowpox
Vaccine)

Immunisation: It is developing resistance to disease-producing germs or their toxins by introducing killed

germs or germ substances to induce the production of specific antibodies.

Antiseptics and Disinfectants

Antiseptics Disinfectants
 They are mild chemical substances  Strong chemical substances which are
which kill germs when applied on the applied on spots and places where
body. germs thrive and multiply.
 Examples: Lysol (dilute), carbolic acid,  Examples: Cresol, phenol, Lysol, 40%
iodine, benzoic acid, mercurochrome, formalin, lime, Bordeaux mixture, DDT
boric acid
Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by some microorganisms and can kill or inhibit the growth
of other microorganisms.
Alexander Fleming (1881–1995) discovered the first antibiotic—penicillin.

Alexander Fleming

Sources of Antibiotics
 Penicillin has been commercially produced from the species Penicillium chrysogenum.
 Streptomycin is a widely used antibiotic. It is obtained from the bacterium Streptomyces.

Uses of Antibiotics

To fight infections

To control plant pathogens

Antibiotics are usedAs food preservatives

To treat animal feed

 In 1930, a group of chemicals known as sulphonamides was discovered which proved to be effective
in many types of bacterial diseases. Examples: Sulphadiazine and sulphanilamide.
 Diseases: Cause and Control
 Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.

 A condition of the body in which the vital functions are disturbed physiologically or psychologically is
called a disease.

 Categories of Diseases

 When the occurrence of the disease is restricted to a particular area and affects a small number of
people, it is known as an endemic disease. Examples: Yellow fever, goitre

 When the disease spreads from place to place, followed by its outbreak and attacks a large population
at the same time, it is known as an epidemic disease. Example: Plague

 When the occurrence of the disease is worldwide, it is known as a pandemic disease. Example: AIDS

 The disease occurring in single, scattered cases is known as a sporadic disease. Examples: Malaria,
cholera

 Diseases caused by infectious agents or pathogens are called communicable or infectious diseases.
Examples: Tuberculosis, chickenpox, measles

 Diseases which do not spread from one person to another are called non-communicable or non-
infectious diseases. Examples: Beriberi, scurvy, arthritis

 Diseases caused by bacteria are called bacterial diseases. Examples: Cholera, tetanus, syphilis

 Diseases caused by viruses are called viral diseases. Examples: Poliomyelitis, mumps, rabies

 Diseases caused by protozoa are called protozoal diseases. Examples: Malaria, amoebic dysentery

 Diseases caused by parasitic worms are called parasitic diseases. Examples: Ascariasis, taeniasis
 Diseases caused by consumption of food contaminated with chemical toxins or pathogens are called
food-borne diseases. Examples: Taeniasis, trichinosis

 Diseases caused by consumption of contaminated water are called water-borne diseases. Examples:
Typhoid fever, cholera, hepatitis A

 Diseases which spread through air when droplets of pathogens are expelled into the air due to
coughing, sneezing or talking are called air-borne diseases. Examples: Influenza, meningitis

 Diseases caused by pathogens transmitted by insects and ticks are called insect-borne diseases.
Examples: Malaria, elephantiasis

 Diseases Caused by Bacteria

DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE

PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Tuberculosis 2–10 weeks Air, dust or the 1. Wasting of the 1. The patient
(Mycobacterium sputum of an body occurs, should be kept in
tuberculosis) infected person resulting in loss of isolation
resistance and 2. BCG (Bacillus
weakness Calmette Guerin)
2. Loss of appetite vaccine should
and weight be administered
Cholera (Vibrio Few hours to Contaminated Severe stomach 1. Control of
cholerae) 6 days water, food and ache, diarrhoea houseflies
drinks; spread by with white, watery 2. Personal
flies and foul smelling hygiene,
faecal waste and cleanliness of
vomiting the surroundings
and
consumption of
well-cooked,
nutritious food
3. Anti-cholera
injection
Tetanus 4–20 days Cuts or 1. Painful 1. Wounds and
(Clostridium wounds in the contractions or cuts should be
tetani) skin; spasms of muscles cleaned
enters through of neck and jaw immediately
the blood 2. Body becomes 2. Anti-tetanus
into the spinal rigid and may even vaccine should
cord bend like a bow be given

Syphilis 1–12 weeks Sexually 1. Skin rash; ulcers 1. Avoid sexual

(Treponema transmitted or on the penis, contact with an
pallidum) close contact rectum, lips, infected person
tongue and nipples 2. Treatment of
2. Fever antibiotics,
especially that of
penicillin
DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE
PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Diphtheria 2–10 days Droplet infection Patient 1. DPT vaccine
(Corynebacteriu while coughing experiences pain 2. Isolation of
m diphtheriae) and sneezing, in the throat, fever the patient
contact and difficulty in
breathing

Typhoid 7–21 days Contaminated 1. Fever is usually 1. Personal

(Salmonella water, milk, high, especially in hygiene and
typhi) through flies the afternoon, cleanliness of
accompanied by the surroundings
cold 2. Typhoid
2. Diarrhoea, vaccine should
nausea, vomiting, be given
loss of appetite
and constipation
3. Rose-coloured
rashes or
eruptions appear
on the chest and
abdomen
Whooping 10–15 days Contact, droplet 1. Fever, cold with DPT vaccine or
cough infection of the running nose and triple antigen is
(Haemophilus throat irritating cough commonly given
pertussis) 2. Whoop is
developed at the
end of cough as a
sudden bout of
noisy breath
3. Vomiting after
injection of food
Pneumonia 1–3 days Contact or by air 1. Difficulty in Avoid fatigue,
(Diplococcus breathing malnutrition and
pneumoniae) 2. Water contact
accumulates in the
lungs

Leprosy Several years Contact, highly Nervous loss of 1. Vaccination

(Mycobacterium contagious sensation, 2. Good nutrition
leprae) paralysis and and sanitation
deformity

Gonorrhoea 3–10 days Sexual contact 1. Pain during Avoid sexual

(Neisseria urination contact with an
gonorrhoea) 2. Pus-like infected person
discharge in
genital tubes
 Diseases Caused by Protozoa

DISEASE INCUBATIO MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE

N PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Malaria About 3 Female 1. Cold stage 1. Population of
(Plasmodium weeks Anopheles characterised by mosquitoes
falciparum) mosquito acts as sudden onset of should be
a carrier fever reduced or
2. During the hot eliminated
stage, the body 2. Mosquito
temperature may bites should be
rise to 41°C or prevented by
106°F using mosquito
3. Sweating stage nets, applying
characterised by mosquito
profuse sweating repellents to the
and lowering of body
body temperature 3. Water boiled
with leaves and
inflorescence of
neem should be
used for drinking
Amoebic About 1 Food and water 1. Diarrhoea or 1. Food should
dysentery or week contaminated by watery motions, be kept covered
Amoebiasis flies, faeces of an containing mucus properly to avoid
(Entamoeba infected person or blood and pain contamination
histolytica) in the abdomen by flies and dust
2. Intestinal lining carrying cysts
is destructed 2. Avoid eating
completely spicy and fried
3. Constipation food
alternating with 3. Population of
diarrhoea flies should be
4. Stomach controlled or
convulsions eliminated
4. Clean, boiled
and cooled
water should be
used for drinking
Sleeping From 3 days Bite of Tsetse fly 1. Swollen, red, 1. Insect control
sickness to 3 weeks painful nodule at measures can
(Trypanosoma the site of the fly help prevent the
brucei bite spread of
gambiense and 2. Fever, sleeping
Trypanosoma headache, sickness
brucei itchiness and joint 2. Administration
rhodesiense) pain in the first of drugs such as
phase melarsoprol,
3. Mood changes pentamidine,
and anxiety suramin
4. Insomnia at night
 Diseases Caused by Parasitic Worms

DISEASE INCUBATIO MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE

N PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Ascariasis About 4–8 Soil, food and 1. Bleeding in liver, 1. Maintenance
(Ascaris weeks water heart, lungs of personal
lumbricoides) contaminated 2. Sudden hygiene
with eggs of contraction of 2. Boiled, cooled
female worm; muscles, fever and and fresh water
flies act as anaemia should be used
carriers for drinking

Taeniasis About 8–14 Consumption of Extreme weakness 1. Avoid raw

(Taenia solium) weeks infected pork and meat
beef 2. Cook meat at
a temperature
greater than
140°F for about
5 minutes
3. Freeze meat
Filariasis/Eleph 4 weeks to 1 Bite of the Culex 1. Characteristic 1. Avoid
antiasis (Filarial year mosquito swelling in the mosquito bites
worm arms, legs and 2. Eradication of
Wuchereria chest the vector
bancrofti) 2. Swollen legs 3. Use of
resembling those of antibiotics and
an elephant anti-
3. Inflammation of inflammatory
lymph glands and analgesics
lymph vessels
4. Enlargement of
limbs/ankle
5. Fever with chills

 Viruses are small substances made of nucleic acids and proteins.

 Viruses cannot live freely in nature. They can exist only inside other cells.

 They can take over the metabolism of the host cell, produce more viruses and ultimately kill the host
cell.
 Differences between Viruses and Bacteria

VIRUSES BACTERIA
 Very small  Larger
 Visible only under an electron  Visible under a light microscope
microscope
 Non-cellular  Single-celled
 Have no metabolism  Have metabolism
 Do not take in any food  Take in food by absorption
 Do not grow and divide  Grow and divide to produce more bacteria
 Can be crystallised  Cannot be crystallised
 Command the host cell to produce virus  Self-reproducing
 All produce diseases in man, animals or  Some harmless, some useful and some
plants disease-producing

 Common Viral Diseases

DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE

PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Poliomyelitis 7–14 days Excreta or 1. Muscle Vaccination, polio
(Polio virus) secretion of the paralysis of legs vaccine
nose; incubates in 2. Common cold,
the intestine, sore throat, fever,
passes to the fatigue, headache,
brain through the vomiting and
blood vessels reddening of the
throat
Mumps 12–26 days Contact, 1. Characteristic 1. Avoid sexual
(Myxovirus contaminated painful swelling of contact
parotitis) food or milk and salivary glands 2. Vaccination of
air 2. Pain while gamma globulin
opening the 3. Complete
mouth, earache, isolation
headache and
fever
Rabies 30 days or Mad dog bite 1. Hydrophobia Immunisation of
(Rhabdovirus) more (canine disease) 2. Attacks the the dog
central nervous
system
DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE
PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
AIDS (HIV) 15 months– Infected blood, 1. Deficiency of 1. Avoid sexual
10/12 years shared the immune contact with HIV-
injection system infected people
needles, 2. Loss of weight 2. Avoid using
sexual syringes and
contact needles used by
AIDS patients

3. Blood should
be tested
properly for HIV
before blood
donation

4. Breastfeeding
should be
avoided by HIV-
infected mother

5. Addiction to
narcotic drugs
should be
avoided

Chicken pox About 14–16 Close contact with 1. Highly irritating 1. Complete bed
(Herpes virus days an infected person rashes or small rest
Varicella boils on the skin 2. Rashes must be
2. Rashes appear kept clean and dry
zoster)
as pink spots and 3. Blisters should
may subsequently not be pricked
change into 4. Calamine lotion
watery or neem leaves
pustules/blisters can be applied to
3. Blisters shrivel reduce itching
and soon dry up 5. Active
forming scabs immunisation by
after 3–4 days administering live
attenuated
vaccine containing
Varicella
DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE
PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Hepatitis About 14–45 Contaminated 1. Yellowing of the 1. Maintaining
(Hepatitis A days food and water skin and eyes good hygienic
virus) 2. Abdominal pain conditions to
3. Loss of appetite prevent
4. Nausea and contamination of
vomiting food and water
5. Diarrhoea 2. Washing hands
6. Fever after handling
patient’s bed and
clothes
3. Intake of high
calorific diet with
limited or no
protein and fat
Hepatitis About 6−26 Exposure to 1. Yellowing of the 1. Use of
(Hepatitis B weeks infected blood by skin and eyes disposable
virus) contaminated 2. Abdominal pain needles and
syringes and 3. Loss of appetite syringes
transfusion 4. Nausea and 2. Multiple and
equipment vomiting unsafe sexual
5. Diarrhoea contact should be
6. Fever avoided
7. Cirrhosis of the
liver and cancer in
extreme cases
Hepatitis About 2 Exposure to 1. High 1. Use of
(Hepatitis C weeks to 6 infected blood by temperature disposable
virus) months contaminated 2. Headache needles and
syringes and 3. Joint pain syringes
transfusion 4. Loss of appetite 2. In case of
equipment 5. Nausea and infection, complete
vomiting bed rest until fever
6. Deep yellow has settled
urine and light- 3. Intake of high
coloured stools calorific diet with
limited or no
protein and fat
DISEASE INCUBATION MODE OF SYMPTOMS PREVENTIVE
PERIOD TRANSMISSION MEASURES
Hepatitis About 2−6 Exposure to 1. High 1. Use of
(Hepatitis D months infected blood by temperature disposable
virus) contaminated 2. Headache needles and
syringes and 3. Joint pain syringes
transfusion 4. Loss of appetite 2. Washing hands
equipment 5. Nausea and after handling
vomiting patient’s bed and
6. Deep yellow clothes
urine and light- 3. Complete bed
coloured stools rest until fever has
settled
4. Intake of high
calorific diet with
limited or no
protein and fat
Hepatitis About 21−42 Contaminated 1. Feeling of 1. Drink plenty of
(Hepatitis E days food and water tiredness water to
virus) 2. Sudden loss of avoid dehydration
weight 2. Eat a healthy
3. Nausea and mix of foods
loss of appetite 3. Avoid alcohol
4. Yellowing consumption or
of skin, dark urine use of illegal/
and clay-coloured narcotic drugs
stools
 Movement and Locomotion
 The body of living organisms is made up of an important framework of bones called the skeletal
system or the skeleton.

 The skeleton consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons and fascia.

 The bone is a strong, hollow and non-flexible connective tissue. It is a hard, greyish-white tissue,
rd
composed of 2/3 of inorganic substances or minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, carbonates etc.
rd
and 1/3 of organic substances.

 Types of bones
a. Long bones
b. Short bones
c. Flat bones
d. Irregular bones

 Cartilages are found between two or more bones. They smoothen the bone surface, act like cushions
and prevent the rubbing of bones against each other. They also function as shock-absorbing pads.

 Ligaments hold two or more bones together at joints. They control the motion of a joint, and in some
cases, restrict the motion of a joint.

 Tendons are tough parallel fibres of connective tissue or cords or straps strongly attached to the
bones. They play an important role in locomotion.

 The fascia is a strong connective tissue that surrounds the muscles, groups of muscles, blood vessels
and nerves in the form of membranous sheets. Fasciae connect muscles to other muscles of the body.

 Functions of skeleton include providing support and shape, protection, leverage, storage of minerals
and allowing movement and formation of blood cells.
 COMPONENT OF DESCRIPTION
THE SKELETON
Skull Divided into head bones and facial bones.
Head bones-8, Facial bones-14
Vertebral column Composed of 26 ring-like bones called vertebrae.
Has a characteristic S-shaped curve which helps in balancing the
body.
Cervical vertebrae-7 bones, Thoracic vertebrae-12 bones,
Lumbar vertebrae-5 bones, Sacrum-5 bones, Coccyx-4 bones
Ribs Each rib articulates with a thoracic vertebra.
True ribs-7 pairs, False ribs-3 pairs, Floating ribs-2 pairs
Sternum Long, flat and strong bone in the centre of the chest.
Holds the ribs in place.
Bones of the Upper arm bone-Humerus, Forearm bones-Radius and Ulna
limbs Hand-8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 14 phalanges
Leg bone-Femur, Bones of lower limb-inner Tibia and outer Fibula,
Knee bone-Patella
Foot-8 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 14 phalanges
Bones of the girdles Each pectoral girdle consists of a collar bone or clavicle and the
shoulder blade or scapula.
Pelvic girdle-Ilium, Ischium and Pubis

 The point at which two separate bones meet is called a joint.

 Joints permit different types of movements. They allow varying degrees of movement. Some joints
permit no movement at all, while other joints allow slight movement. Certain joints afford considerable
movement.
 Immovable/Fibrous joints do not allow any movement of the bones they connect. Fibrous joints are
found in the skull as well as in the pelvic girdle. They are also found between the calf bone and tibia.

 Partially movable or cartilaginous joints permit only a limited degree of movement. Cartilaginous
joints are seen in the ear lobe, at the tip of the nose and in the sternum.

 Synovial joints permit free movement in all directions. Examples: Joint in the knee, joint between the
atlas and axis, joints in tarsal bones, hip joint, shoulder joint and wrist joint.

 Types of synovial Joints

a. Ball and socket joint: Hip joint and shoulder joint.
b. Hinge joint: Bones of fingers and toes and in the ankle and knee.
c. Pivot joint: Atlas and axis of the backbone.
d. Gliding joint: Wrist and the ankle.

 Muscles are long bundles of contractile tissues. A muscle has two ends; a fixed end where the muscle
originates and a movable end which pulls some other part.

 Actions such as walking, running, playing etc. require the combined action of several muscles.

 Muscles that cause opposing movements are known as antagonistic muscles. Example: Biceps and
triceps.

 Functions of muscles
a. Muscles in the body provide the means of all movements.
b. They cover the skeletal framework and provide shape or contour to the body.
c. Muscles help to maintain the body posture while sitting, standing and walking.

 Kinds of muscles

Skeletal muscles Smooth muscles

•They are under the control of one’s will or volition.

•They are not under the control of one’s will o
•Muscles of our forelimbs, hindlimbs, fingers, neck •They
and eyes
are found
are skeletal
in the walls
muscles.
of blood vessels
 Economic Importance of Bacteria and Fungi
 Bacteria are the most primitive unicellular prokaryotic organisms which do not have a well-defined
nucleus and are not enclosed within a nuclear membrane.

CHARACTERISTICS DESCRIPTION
Discovery Anton von Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, first observed bacteria in
1675. He named them animalcules.

Occurrence Ubiquitous in nature, commonly found in air, soil, water, deserts, plants,
animals and in man.

Size Ranges from 0.2 to 1.5 µm in diameter and 3 to 5 µm in length.

Shape
Coccus: Spherical
Micrococcus: Diplococcus: Streptococcus: Staphylococcu
Solitary cell of Occur in Occur in s: Occur in
coccus. pairs. chains clusters.

Bacilli: Spirilla: Spiral or Vibrio: Comma-

Rod- twisted shaped
Structure

Movement  Possess whip-like flagella, which pierce through the cell wall and
capsule.

Nutrition  Photoautotrophs: Contain chlorophyll and use light energy for the
synthesis of food.
 Chemoautotrophs: Obtain energy by oxidising inorganic
compounds.
 Saprophytes: Grow on dead and decaying organic matter.
 Parasites: Obtain their food from a living host on which they grow.

Respiration  Aerobic respiration: Absorb atmospheric oxygen.

 Anaerobic respiration: Do not require free oxygen.
Reproduction  Asexual reproduction: Binary fission/cell division
 Sexual reproduction: Conjugation
 Spore formation  Under adverse conditions, several bacteria survive by the formation
of spores.

Examples Penicillium notatum, Streptomyces griseus, Penicillium chrysogenum

etc.

Useful Role of Bacteria

1. Production of antibiotics
 The chemical substances produced by a living organism that kill or stop the growth of disease-
causing microorganisms such as fungi and bacteria are called antibiotics.
 Antibiotics are used to cure several life-threatening infections in humans, plants and
animals.

 Some Important Antibiotics

ANTIBIOTIC SOURCE ORGANISM DISEASE TREATED

Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Tuberculosis
Chloromycetin Streptomyces venezuelae Fever, skin rash, typhoid, meningitis
Chlorotetracycline Streptomyces Typhoid
aureofaciens
Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis Localised eye and skin infections, wound
infections
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythraeus Rickettsial fever
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum Tetanus, diphtheria

2. Production of serums
 Serum is blood plasma from which fibrinogen has been removed.
 It is used as a means of prevention against bacterial invasion.

3. Production of vaccines
 A vaccine is any germ or germ substance introduced into the body to develop resistance to a
particular disease.
 Vaccines confer immunity against specific diseases. They act as antigens and stimulate the body to
produce antibodies.

Some Important Vaccines

VACCINE DISEASE TREATED

TAB vaccine (killed bacteria) Typhoid
BCG vaccine (living, weakened Tuberculosis
bacteria)
Triple vaccine Diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus
Polio vaccine Poliomyelitis virus
4. Production of Toxoids
 Toxoids are the inactivated toxins of particular bacteria which can stimulate the production of
respective antibodies.
 Toxoids are mostly useful in providing immunity against diphtheria and tetanus.

5. Nitrogen fixation
 The process of circulation of nitrogen between the atmosphere, soil, plants and animals is called the
nitrogen cycle.
 The process of conversion of free nitrogen from the atmosphere into soluble nitrates by
microorganisms is known as biological nitrogen fixation.
 The microbes which carry out biological nitrogen fixation are commonly called biological nitrogen
fixers. Examples: Rhizobium and Azotobacter.

6. Biogas production
 Gobar gas, biogas or methane production is carried out with the help of bacteria using animal
faeces. Examples: Cowdung and urine.
 Biogas is used as a fuel and for street lighting.

Harmful Role of Bacteria

1. Spoilage of food
 Bacteria carry out the process of decay or fermentation, resulting in the spoilage of food materials,
such as milk, fruits, vegetables etc., especially during summer. This spoilage can be so severe that
it can also lead to food poisoning.

2. Diseases in Living Beings

Plant Diseases

DISEASE PLANT AFFECTED CAUSATIVE BACTERIAL AGENT

Angular leaf spot Cotton Xanthomonas malvacearum

Blight canker Paddy Xanthomonas oryzae

Animal Diseases

DISEASE ANIMAL AFFECTED CAUSATIVE BACTERIAL AGENT

Anthrax Cattle, sheep, elephant Bacillus anthracis
Diphtheria Guinea pigs, kittens, Corynebacterium diphtheriae
rabbits

Human Diseases

DISEASE CAUSATIVE BACTERIAL AGENT

Bronchitis Staphylococcus sp., Haemophilus influenzae
Cholera Vibrio cholerae
3. Bioweapons
 When pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or biological toxins are used
deliberately as means to kill or disable plants, animals and humans, they are known as
bioweapons. Examples: Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens
etc.

 Fungi are eukaryotic and have a true nucleus enclosed within the nuclear envelope.

CHARACTERISTICS MOULD YEAST

Occurrence Commonly found on paper, Grow profusely in sugar-rich organic
wood, cloth, animal dung etc. substances such as palm juice,
sugarcane juice etc.

Size Ranges from 2-10 µm to Vary in size from 5 to 10 µm.

about a few cm.

Shape Match stick-shaped. Usually oval or spherical in shape.

Structure

Nutrition The hyphae derive their Has a saprophytic mode of nutrition

nourishment from the bread and is dependent on various sugars
piece by the secretion of such as sucrose, fructose, glucose
various enzymes which etc.
digest the complex materials
into simple molecules
through the process of
extracellular digestion.
Respiration Aerobic respiration: Presence of oxygen
Anaerobic respiration: Absence of oxygen
Reproduction Asexual reproduction: By Asexual reproduction: By means of
means of sporangiophores. budding.
Sexual reproduction: By Sexual reproduction: By means of
means of conjugation. conjugation.

Examples Mucor, Rhizopus Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Useful Role of Fungi

1. Preparation of fermented foods and bakery products

 Yeast is useful in the preparation of fermented foods such as idli, dosa and bakery products such
as breads and cakes.

2. Preparation of alcoholic beverages

 Alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine are prepared using yeast.

3. Preparation of organic acids

 Fungi are used in the production of organic acids such as citric acid and gluconic acid.

4. Production of enzymes
 Some fungi are commercially very important because they produce several useful enzymes such as
proteases, amylases and cellulases.

5. Production of antibiotics
 The first antibiotic was produced using fungus Penicillium notatum as discovered by Alexander
Fleming.
 Other fungal antibiotics include cephalosporin, fumagillin etc. which are used to cure wounds,
infections of the throat, brain, eyes etc.

6. Decomposition and recycling

 Some fungi grow on dead and decaying materials of plants and animals and help in the
decomposition and recycling of nutrients to the soil, which in turn are used by plants and animals.

7. Production of alcohol
 On a commercial basis, yeast is grown on natural sugars present in grains such as barley, wheat,
rice, molasses, corn starch, toddy and crushed fruit juices to produce alcohol.
 Several industries use alcohol as a solvent and in the manufacture of some drugs.
 The alcohol can be converted into vinegar with the help of acetic acid bacteria.

8. Cheese making
 Cheese is a milk product and is considered as a valuable food.

 Steps in Cheese Production

a. Curdling of milk
b. Processing of curd
c. Salting of curd
d. Ripening or curing of cheese
e. Packing and distribution of cheese

9. Mushroom cultivation
 Mushroom cultivation can be carried out indoors, in a small space. Mushrooms are able to grow on
any particular substrate or simply compost of a variety of agricultural wastes.
 They are very rich in vitamins and minerals, which are retained even after cooking, canning and
dehydration. They also have sufficient amounts of niacin, pantothenic acid and biotin.
Harmful Role of Fungi

1. Destruction of goods
 Fungi are responsible for the destruction of textiles, wooden articles and leather goods.

2. Spoilage of food
 Fungi such as Penicillium and Aspergillus cause spoilage of food materials such as fruits,
vegetables, meat, bread, dairy products etc.

3. Diseases in living beings

Plant Diseases

DISEASE PLANT AFFECTED CAUSATIVE FUNGAL AGENT

Rust Wheat Wheat rust
Smut Barley, wheat, oats, sugarcane, Smut
forage grasses
Ergot Corn, rye, wheat, bajra, barley Claviceps purpurea

Animal Diseases

DISEASE CAUSATIVE FUNGAL AGENT

Lung necrosis Aspergillus spp.

Human Diseases

DISEASE CAUSATIVE FUNGAL AGENT SYMPTOMS

Athlete's foot Trichophyton rubrum, Itchy, peeling skin on the feet
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
and Epidermophyton floccosum
Ringworm Trichophyton and Microsporum Scalp, nails and feet get affected
Candidiasis Candida albicans Superficial infections of skin and mucosal
membranes
 Seeds – Structure and Germination
 The fruit is an enlarged, matured or ripened ovary. It protects the seed and helps in seed
dispersal. Examples: Mango, pea pod etc.

 The seed is a mature and ripened ovule of a flower which is formed after fertilisation. It stores food
material for the nourishment of the embryo during germination. The seed coat protects the embryo
from mechanical damage. Examples: Bean, pea etc.

 Grain is actually a fruit in which the fruit wall and the seed coat are fused together to form a protective
layer. Examples: Maize, wheat etc.

 Monocotyledonous seeds: Consist of only one cotyledon. Examples: Maize, grass etc.

 Dicotyledonous seeds: Consist of two cotyledons. Examples: Pea, gram, bean etc.

 Small seeds: Very tiny and not visible to the naked eye. Examples: Poppy, orchid etc.

 Large seeds: Bigger and easily visible to the naked eye. Examples: Watermelon, pumpkin, mango
etc.

 Largest seeds: Biggest and double the size of large seeds. Examples: Coconut, double coconut etc.

 Albuminous/endospermic seeds: The endosperm is large, thick and fleshy. It serves as the food
source for the developing embryo.
Dicot albuminous seeds: Poppy, custard apple, muskmelon, fenugreek etc.
Monocot albuminous seeds: Cereals, millets, palm, onion etc.

 Exalbuminous/non-endospermic seeds: The cotyledons store food and become thick and fleshy.
Dicot exalbuminous seeds: Gram, pea, mango, mustard, soya bean etc.
Monocot exalbuminous seeds: Orchid, Amorphophallus, Vallisneria etc.
Differences between Bean seed and Maize grain

PARTS BEAN SEED MAIZE GRAIN

 Cotyledons Two One
 Endosperm Absent Large
 Embryo Large Small
 Plumule leaves Folded Rolled
 Plumule Large Very small
 Hilum Visible Not visible
 Micropyle Visible Not visible
 Seed arrangement Separate, contained in fruit called No separate seed. Seed wall and
pod fruit wall are fused to form a
single grain.

 The process in which the embryo emerges out of the seed by rupturing the seed coat, leading to the
formation of a seedling is called germination.

 Conditions necessary for Germination:

1. Water: When water enters the seed, it activates the enzymes present in the seed. These enzymes
mobilise the reserve food and break it into simpler forms. This food is utilised by the embryo, and
the embryo begins to grow.
2. Temperature: A moderate temperature, ranging from 25°C to 35°C is favourable for the seeds to
germinate. Such a temperature is known as optimum temperature.
3. Oxygen: Oxygen provides energy through respiration for rapid cell division and cell growth.
4. Light: Seeds of plants do not germinate unless they are exposed to a certain duration of light.

 Types of Germination

TYPE CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Hypogeal germination  The epicotyl elongates and the cotyledons Pea, gram, maize,
remain underground. wheat etc.

Epigeal germination  The hypocotyl elongates and the cotyledons are Bean, castor,
pushed above the ground. sunflower, gourd
etc.
Viviparous  The seed germinates while it is still inside the Rhizophora,
germination fruit, attached to the mother plant. Sonneratia

 The seedling is a stage in plant growth where the plant is still dependent on the reserve food of
the seed or the food manufactured by the cotyledons.

 The seedling consists of five parts—the radicle or embryonic root, hypocotyl, epicotyl, plumule and
cotyledons.
 Waste Generation and Management
 Waste is any substance which is discarded after its primary use, or it is worthless, defective and of no
further use. Examples: Spoilt food, vegetable peels, leaves, wood, grass, paper, leather, cotton, cattle
dung etc.

 Categories of Wastes

 Waste that is generated from domestic activities such as washing, bathing, cooking etc. is called
domestic waste. Examples: Fruit and vegetable peels, leftover food, waste paper etc.

 Sources of domestic waste include kitchen waste, plastics etc.

 Waste which is generated by industries is called industrial waste. Examples: Chemicals, paint
residues, oil, ash, sludge, heavy metals etc.

 Sources of industrial waste include mining operations, cement industries and oil refineries.

 Waste such as animal manure, plant leaves, bark, flowers etc. which is generated from plants and
animals is called agricultural waste, farm waste or garden waste. Examples: Residues of
fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides and other chemicals.

 Sources of agricultural waste include agricultural residue, pesticides and fertilisers.

 Waste generated from domestic, industrial and commercial activities is called municipal solid waste
or urban waste. Examples: Garbage and plastic bags, glasses, metals, fibre, paper, rubber,
discharge from hospitals, hotels etc. are all included under municipal wastes.

 Sources of municipal waste include the household discharge of excreta, discharge from public toilets,
degradable wastes and non-degradable wastes.

 Discarded electrical appliances, such as old television sets, computers, radios, mobile phones,
fluorescent tubes, medical instruments, toys and lead acid batteries all fall into the category of e-
wastes or electronic waste.

 Broken or discarded glass equipment, waste chemicals, condemned machines and plant and animal
wastes from biology laboratories and culture rooms are some of the wastes generated at science
laboratory and research centres.
Methods of safe disposal of wastes
A. Segregation
 One should separate the degradable waste from the non-degradable waste.
 Proper segregation of waste helps the municipal authorities to decompose and dispose off the
organic part of the wastes easily.
 Segregation involves separating the refuse into three main categories—reusable, degradable and
non-degradable wastes.

B. Dumping
 Non-degradable wastes such as plastic, pesticides, fibres etc. can be dumped or buried in specially
dug up pits at far off places away from the human habitation.

C. Composting
 The rotting and conversion of organic waste into manure is known as composting. The product
formed after composting is called compost.
 The household garbage as well as farmland wastes can all be converted into useful compost.
 The use of compost improves the fertility of the soil as it provides nutrients to the soil.
 Dry composting toilets are a hygienic and cost-effective solution to dispose off the human wastes.
 A major drawback of composting is that, due to a lack of adequate knowledge most of the people
do not segregate the wastes in their homes, which hampers the process of composting.

D. Drainage/Sewer system
 A sewer system is a channel of pipelines which carries sewage from the houses, offices, hospitals
etc. through drainage pipes to the sewer mains of the city.
 The sewer mains flow into progressively larger pipes until they reach the waste water treatment
plant.

E. Effluent treatment plants

 Municipal and industrial waste water is treated in waste water treatment plants or effluent treatment
plants before they are released into the water bodies.
 In primary treatment, the waste water is first passed through bar screens, where large objects such
as sticks, plastic packets and cans are removed.
 The secondary treatment is a biological process used to remove dissolved and suspended organic
matter.
 The tertiary treatment is a chemical process in which the dissolved chemicals, metals and
even pathogens are removed from the waste water. It varies with the composition of waste
water.

F. Incineration
 Incineration is a method in which the waste is burnt at very high temperatures.
 The hazardous bio-medical wastes, such as discarded medicines, toxic drugs, human anatomical
wastes, blood, pus, microbiological and biotechnological wastes etc. are usually disposed of by
incineration.
 Incineration helps to reduce the weight and volume of waste and converts the toxic wastes into
less toxic or even non-toxic substances. Electricity can be generated from the heat released during
burning.
 This method releases fumes and harmful substances.
 Incineration should be carried out at very high temperatures.
 Incinerators should be equipped with pollution control devices.
G. Scrubbers
 Scrubbers are devices used to remove both, gaseous and particulate matter.
 Wet scrubbers are used in chemical, metallurgical and mining industries to trap the sulphur dioxide
(SO2), ammonia (NH3), metal fumes etc.

H. Electrostatic precipitator
 In an electrostatic precipitator, gas or an air stream containing dust, smoke soot and other
particulate matter is passed through a chamber containing electrically charged plates.
 Up to 90% of the particulate matter in the thermal plants can be removed by electrostatic
precipitators.

I. Disposal of e-waste
 The rag pickers and waste dealers collect the discarded electronic gadgets. They remove the
usable components and extract the secondary raw materials. This recycling process however
can cause various health problems and can even lead to cancer.
 Most electronic goods contain a variety of materials and metals which can be recycled for future
use.
 If recycling has to be carried out, then it must be done carefully under skilled supervision.
 The Respiratory System
Need for energy
a. Synthesis of proteins from amino acids
b. Production of enzymes
c. Contraction of muscles for movement

 The need for energy production is greater in animals as compared to plants because animals have to
move from one place to another, either to obtain food or to escape from their enemies.

 Respiration is the catabolic process of releasing energy from simple sugar, glucose, for carrying out
various life processes.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy

Characteristics of Respiration
a. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water does not occur in a single step. It
involves a series of chemical reactions—glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport.
b. Each breakdown step is carried out by a specific enzyme.
c. A small amount of energy liberated in the breakdown of the glucose molecule is released as heat
energy. But a major part of it is converted into chemical energy in the form of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP).

Kinds of Respiration
 Aerobic Respiration: The breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic
respiration. Most of the animals such as human beings, several bacteria and fungi are aerobic in
nature.

 Anaerobic Respiration: The breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen is called anaerobic
respiration. The unicellular organisms such as yeast and some bacteria are examples of anaerobes.

 Fermentation: The breakdown of pyruvic acid to ethanol and carbon dioxide in the absence of
oxygen is called fermentation. Certain microorganisms or their enzymes carry out fermentation.
  Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration in Plants

AEROBIC RESPIRATION ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

1. Also called oxybiotic respiration. 1. Also called anoxybiotic respiration.
2. Proceeds in the presence of oxygen. 2. Proceeds in the absence of oxygen.
3. Occurs in mitochondria. 3. Occurs in cytoplasm.
4. Complete breakdown of glucose. 4. Incomplete breakdown of glucose.
5. End products are carbon dioxide and 5. End products are ethyl alcohol and
water. carbon dioxide.
6. Large quantity of energy is liberated (38 6. Small quantity of energy is liberated (2
ATP) from one mole of glucose. ATP) from one mole of glucose.
7. Normally occurs throughout life. 7. Occurs temporarily for short periods.

Parts of Respiration
a. Breathing: It is a physical process in which the atmospheric air is taken in and forced out of the
oxygen-absorbing organs, the lungs.
b. Gaseous transport: Oxygen absorbed by the blood in the lungs is transported by the red blood
cells (RBCs) as oxyhaemoglobin throughout the body by the means of arteries. Carbon dioxide
from the tissues is transported to the lungs by the blood via veins in two ways.
o As bicarbonates dissolved in plasma.
o In combination with haemoglobin of RBCs as carbamino-haemoglobin.
c. Tissue respiration: The terminal blood vessels or the capillaries transport the oxygen to the body
cells or tissues, where the oxygen diffuses through their thin walls. Likewise, the capillaries pick up
the carbon dioxide released by them.
d. Cellular respiration: The complex chemical changes which occurs inside the cells to release the
energy from glucose.

 Cellular respiration consists of three main stages: glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport.

 The respiratory system in human beings consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
lungs.
 COMPONENT OF DESCRIPTION
THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Nose Consists of nostrils which open into the nasal cavity.
Nasal hair prevents the entry of large particles inside the nose.
Pharynx Muscular chamber is connected to the larynx through glottis.
Air from the pharynx enters the larynx when the food enters the
oesophagus.
Larynx Hollow, cartilaginous structure that connects the pharynx to the
trachea.
Contains vocal cords. Air is expelled forcibly through the vocal
cords vibrates them to produce sound.
Trachea Begins from the larynx, situated below the neck, and enters the
thoracic cavity.
Walls of the trachea are strengthened by several C-shaped rings of
cartilage that provide flexibility.
Moves the air into the lungs through the bronchi.
Bronchi Branches of trachea.
Bronchi→Secondary bronchi→Tertiary
bronchi→Bronchioles→Alveoli
Helps in gaseous exchange.
Lungs Pair of spongy and elastic respiratory organs.
Enable rapid exchange of gases between air and blood.
Separate the CO2 from the blood and also excrete water vapour.
Diaphragm Curved, musculo-fibrous sheath.
Plays a major role during respiration.

Blood supply to the Lungs

 The deoxygenated blood is brought from the heart into the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The
pulmonary artery divides into fine capillaries, which surround the alveoli.

 The concentration of oxygen in the alveolar air is more than the concentration of oxygen in the blood
capillaries surrounding the alveoli. Hence, oxygen from the alveolar air moves into the blood capillaries
by the process of diffusion.

 The exchange of gases between the air and the blood is called external respiration.

 The blood contains RBCs which contain the pigment haemoglobin. Haemoglobin has an affinity for
oxygen and hence acts as an oxygen carrier. The oxygen combines with the haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin.

 Whenever oxyhaemoglobin is exposed to an environment deficient of oxygen, it dissociates and

releases oxygen. In tissues, the concentration of oxygen is low. Hence, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates
and releases oxygen. The oxygen diffuses inside the tissues. The haemoglobin is re-formed in the
process. In this way, the oxygen is supplied to all the tissues of the body which are deficient in oxygen.

 Exchange of gases between the cells and blood is called internal respiration.
 A large fraction of carbon dioxide produced inside the tissue is converted into bicarbonate, which gets
dissolved in the blood plasma. A small fraction of carbon dioxide diffuses into the RBCs and combines
with the haemoglobin, forming carbamino-haemoglobin.

 The blood rich in carbon dioxide is then transported back to the heart through the veins. From the
heart, the blood is supplied to the lungs through fine branches of the pulmonary artery.

 The concentration of carbon dioxide is more in the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli as
compared to the alveolar air. Hence, the carbon dioxide from the blood moves into the alveolar air by
the process of diffusion. The carbon dioxide is released from the body by the process of expiration.

 Differences between Breathing and Respiration

BREATHING RESPIRATION
 Physical process.  Chemical process.
 Process of taking oxygen into the lungs.  Process of taking oxygen from the
lungs into the bloodstream or inside
the cells.
 Occurs outside the cells.  Occurs inside the cells.
 No energy is released.  Energy is released.

 The respiratory cycle consists of inspiration and expiration, with a short respiratory pause.

 The inspiration or inhalation is the movement of air from the outside environment to the inside of the
body. The oxygen from the air enters inside the body.

 The expiration or exhalation is the movement of air from the inside of the body to the outside
environment. The carbon dioxide from the body is released into the outside environment.

 A breath consists of one inhalation and one exhalation.

 The number of times a person breathes in a minute is called the breathing rate or respiratory rate.
 Differences between Inspiration and Expiration

PART OF THE INSPIRATION EXPIRATION

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
 Diaphragm  Contracts and flattens  Relaxes and moves upwards
downwards. to form a dome shape.
 External intercostal  Muscles contract.  Muscles relax.
muscles
 Internal intercostal  Relaxed/stretched.  Contracted for forced
muscles expiration.
 Rib cage and  Moves upwards and  Moves downwards and
sternum outwards. inwards.
 Thoracic cavity  Increases.  Decreases.
 Air pressure  Decreases inside the  Increases inside the thorax
thorax and lungs. and lungs.
 Air movement  External air pressure drives  Air is forced out of the lungs
air into the lungs at low by thoracic compression and
pressure. elastic recoil of the lungs.

 Breathing movements are largely controlled by a respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata of
the brain.

 They are normally not under the control of our will. They are involuntary. However, one can consciously
increase or decrease the rate of breathing.

 Air at higher altitudes contains a lesser amount of oxygen. Therefore, one may suffer from air sickness
due to a lack of oxygen. Air sickness results in dizziness, unsteady vision, loss of hearing, lack of
muscular coordination and even complete blackouts at times.

 Hypoxia is a condition in which the tissue is deprived of adequate supply of oxygen. It may occur due to
sitting for long hours in a crowded room with poor ventilation. It may also occur at higher altitudes,
where the oxygen concentration is low.

 Asphyxiation is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. It may occur due to
several causes such as strangulation, drowning, choking or any other obstruction in the respiratory
tract.
 Comparison of Respiration in Plants and Animals

SIMILARITIES
 The process of cellular respiration releases energy. This energy released in the form
of ATP is stored in the mitochondria.
 The end products of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide and water.
DIFFERENCES
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
 Do not exhibit external ventilation or  Higher animals such as human show
breathing movements. external ventilation or breathing
movements.
 No gaseous transport involved during  The tissue fluid—blood—is
respiration. The respiratory gases simply responsible for the transport of gases.
diffuse in and out of the cell.
 Oxygen released during the process of  Air is the only source of oxygen.
photosynthesis acts as an additional
source of oxygen.
 End product of anaerobic respiration is  End product of anaerobic respiration
ethanol. is lactic acid.
 Produces a small amount of heat.  Produces a large amount of heat.
 Rate of respiration is comparatively  Rate of respiration is comparatively
lower. higher.
 System
 Digestion is the process of breakdown of naturally occurring foodstuffs into a diffusible form. It is a
process which makes the foods soluble and of such a chemical nature that they can be absorbed
through living membranes.

 The enzymes which help in the process of digestion are called digestive enzymes.

Mouth

 The space where the food is chewed and mixed with the saliva is called the mouth or mouth cavity.
 The mouth opens into the buccal cavity which has teeth, a tongue and three pairs of salivary glands.

Functions of the Mouth

 During ingestion, food is taken in through the mouth.
Tongue

 The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached to the floor of the buccal cavity at the back region of
the mouth.

Functions of the Tongue

 The tongue helps in mixing of saliva with the food while chewing.
 It also helps in mastication and swallowing of food.
 The tongue has several taste buds at its tip which detects different tastes of food.

Teeth

 The upper and lower jaws are embedded with teeth.

 Teeth of different shapes are called heterodont. Example: Human teeth.
 Teeth which are similar to each other are called homodont. Examples: Teeth of lizard and frog.

Functions of Teeth
 Teeth help to cut food into small pieces, to chew and to grind it.
 They prepare food for digestion by mastication.
 They help in speaking and add to facial beauty.
Structure of a Tooth

Salivary Glands

 There are three pairs of salivary glands in the wall of the buccal cavity which opens into the mouth.
They are the parotid glands, submaxillary glands and sublingual glands.
 Salivary glands secrete a watery fluid called saliva, which initiates digestion in the buccal cavity.

Functions of Saliva
 Salivary amylase present in the saliva converts the starch into maltose and dextrose sugars.
 The mucus present in the saliva lubricates the food and thus helps in the swallowing of food.
 Saliva moistens and lubricates the inner lining of the mouth cavity and the surface of the tongue,
and helps us in speaking.

Pharynx

 The pharynx is the common passage for food and air leading to the oesophagus and the larynx,
respectively.

Functions of the Pharynx

 Food passes through the pharynx to the oesophagus.
Oesophagus

 The oesophagus, also known as the food pipe, is a narrow tube that connects the pharynx to the
stomach.

Functions of the Oesophagus

 The oesophagus pushes the chewed food down to the stomach.
 The oesophagus has a sphincter at the front end of the stomach to prevent the backflow of food from
the stomach.
 Swallowing is the process which involves the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach through
the oesophagus.
 Swallowing involves three phases—buccal phase, pharyngeal phase and oesophageal phase.
 Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles of the oesophagus.

Stomach

 The stomach is a J-shaped muscular, bag-like organ with walls made of thick and elastic muscles.
 The gastric glands release three gastric juices—hydrochloric acid, enzyme pepsin and mucus.
Liver

 The liver is a reddish-brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the right side.
 It secretes bile which is temporarily stored in a sac called the gall bladder.

Functions of Bile
 Bile juice helps in the digestion of fats.

Functions of Liver
 Production of bile, fibrinogen and heparin.
 Control of blood sugar levels and amino acid levels.
 Synthesis of foetal red blood cells.
 Regulation of blood volume.

Pancreas

 The pancreas is a long, leaf-like transparent gland, about 15-20 cm long.

 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. It has digestive enzymes trypsin, enterokinase, steapsin and
pancreatic amylase, which partly digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

 The pancreatic alpha cells secrete hormone glucagon and the pancreatic beta cells secrete the
hormone insulin.
Small Intestine

 The small intestine is a very long tube found in the abdomen. It is about 6-7 metres in length and about
2.5-3 cm wide.
 The small intestine is divisible into three regions—duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Functions of Small Intestine

 The small intestine serves both, for digestion and absorption.
 The intestinal glands are present in the walls of the ileum, which secrete the intestinal juice. The
intestinal juice contains peptidase, maltase, sucrase, lactase and lipase which complete the process of
converting the proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates to glucose and fats to fatty acids.

 The digested food is absorbed by the blood vessels in the small intestine.

Large Intestine

 The large intestine extends from the ileum to the anus and is about 1.5 metres in length. It is divided
into the caecum, colon and rectum.

Functions of large Intestine

 It is the place for temporary storage of undigested food. It helps in absorbing water and salts from the
undigested food.
 The absorbed food is carried to each and every cell of the body through blood. This process is called
assimilation.
 The food digested and absorbed by the gut is transported in two ways, through the hepatic portal
system and the lymphatic system.
Food Tests

TEST PROCEDURE OBSERVATION

Test for  Add glucose to blue-green Fehling’s The colour of the solution
glucose solution in a test tube. changes from blue-green to
 Heat the test tube over a flame, until brick-red along with the
bubbles begin to appear. formation of a precipitate.
 Do not overboil the solution.
Test for starch  Take a small quantity of starch The colour of the solution
powder. Put it into a test-tube changes to blue-black.
containing water and boil to make a
solution.
 Cool the solution and add 2-3 drops of
dilute iodine solution to it.
Test for  Take a piece of hard-boiled egg white The colour of the solution
proteins in a test tube. changes, first from colourless
 Add few drops of dilute nitric acid to it. to yellow and then from
 Heat the test tube gently. yellow to orange red.
 Rinse off the acid with water and add
few drops of ammonium hydroxide to
it.
Test for fats  Rub a piece of groundnut, castor or An oily patch can be seen.
and oils walnut on a piece of paper. When you hold the paper
 Make sure that the paper does not tear against light, you will see the
in the process. light faintly through this
 Next, open up the paper, straighten it patch.
and observe it carefully against light.
Test for water  Take a piece of cobalt chloride paper. The blue paper turns pink in
 Touch the paper with the cut surface of colour.
a potato or a banana.
Test for  Place a piece of banana or a potato in Some ash is left behind
minerals a crucible. which does not burn even on
 Heat it till it burns completely. further heating.
 Five Kingdom Classification
 A species is an organism of a particular kind whose members can interbreed among themselves to
produce fertile young ones.

 Species which are structurally similar or related constitute the next higher category called the genus.

 A group of genera with certain common characteristics form a family.

 A group of related families constitutes an order.

 Orders which share some common characteristics together constitute a class.

 A phylum is the largest division in the classification of plants and animals. The classes which share
features constitute a phylum.

 Related phyla which share some common features form a kingdom.

 One of the earliest systems of classification, called the Two Kingdom Classification, was proposed
by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758.

 According to the two kingdom classification, living organisms were classified into two broad
kingdoms—plants and animals.

 Five Kingdom Classification

 KINGDOM CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES
Monera  Organisms have a prokaryotic cell Bacteria, Cyanobacteria,
structure. Mycoplasma
 Cell lacks a distinct nucleus.

Protista  Contain a well-defined nucleus. Chlamydomonas,

 Nuclear material organised in the form of a Euglena, Amoeba,
linear, double-stranded and helical DNA Paramoecium, Pandorina
along with proteins.

Fungi  Possess a true nucleus and a definite cell Mucor, Rhizopus,

wall, made of chitin. Puccinia, Ustilago,
Albugo, Penicillium,
Aspergillus

Plantae  Cell is bound by a cell wall which is made Algae, moss, fern, pine,
of cellulose. Hibiscus
 Contains a true nucleus and membrane-
bound cell organelles.

Animalia  Lack cell wall and plastid. Earthworm, Sycon,

beetle, toad

 Classification of Kingdom Plantae

DIVISION CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Thallophyta/Algae  Plants have an irregularly shaped, Nostoc,
undifferentiated body called thallus. Oscillatoria,
 Predominantly aquatic. Chlamydomonas
Bryophyta  Plant body is either in the form of an Riccia, Funaria,
undifferentiated thallus or in the form of leafy Anthoceros
erect structures.
 No specialised tissue for the conduction of
water and other substances from one part of
the plant body to another.
Pteridophyta  Plant body is differentiated into stem, leaves Psilotum,
and roots. Nephrolepis,
 Have specialised tissue for the conduction of Equisetum
water and other substances from one part of
the plant body to another.
Gymnospermae  Bear naked seeds. Gingko, Pinus,
 Usually perennial, evergreen and woody. Gnetum
Angiospermae  Plant body produces seeds which are Maize, bean,
enclosed within the fruits. wheat
 Based on the number of cotyledons,
angiosperms are divided into two classes—
monocots and dicots.
 Classification of Kingdom Animalia

 Differences between Vertebrates and Invertebrates

FEATURES VERTEBRATES INVERTEBRATES

Internal skeleton Have an internal skeleton. No internal skeleton.
Backbone Backbone present. Backbone absent.
Tail Tail usually present. Tail absent (anus at the tip of
the back end of the body).
Heart Heart on the ventral side of the body. If present, heart on the dorsal
side of the body.
Spinal cord Nerve (spinal) cord dorsal and Nerve cord ventral and solid.
hollow.
Limbs Have two pairs of limbs. Have three or more pairs of
limbs, if present.
Haemoglobin Haemoglobin in red blood cells. Haemoglobin, if present, is
dissolved.

Examples Fish, frog, lizard, bird Leech, earthworm, Sycon

 Division of Phylum Invertebrate

PHYLUM CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Porifera  Simplest multicellular animals with perforated Sycon, bath
bodies. sponge
 The body consists of a hollow tube.

Coelenterata/  Have a two-layered body wall, which encloses a Hydra, jellyfish,

Cnidaria single cavity in which digestion takes place. sea anemone,
 There are finger-like projections called tentacles corals
present near the mouth for catching food.

Platyhelminthes  Small, soft, flattened, unsegmented worms. Liver fluke,

 Do not have a body cavity or coelom. tapeworm,
Planaria
Annelida  The body is cylindrical and divided into ring-like Earthworm,
segments. leech, Nereis
 Have a true body cavity called coelom, present
between the body wall and the digestive tube,
which is filled with coelomic fluid.
Nematoda/  The body is long, cylindrical and unsegmented Hookworm,
Nemathelminths without a body cavity. Ascaris
 The nervous system is well-developed and
consists of simple nerves.
Arthropoda  Have jointed limbs, one pair each on some or on Crayfish, crab,
all body segments. millipede,
 Have an exoskeleton made of chitin. centipede,
 Lack cilia. insects,
scorpion, spider
Mollusca  Have a soft, unsegmented body without Snail, slug,
appendages, with a hard, calcareous shell to oyster, mussel,
protect the soft body. clam, squid,
octopus
Echinodermata  The body may be spherical, cylindrical or star- Starfish, brittle
shaped, hard, unsegmented or non-metameric. star, sea urchin,
 Possess a spiny exoskeleton. sea cucumber
  Division of Phylum Vertebrata

PHYLUM CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

Pisces  Organisms belonging to Class Pisces are fish. Cartilaginous fish:
 They are cold-blooded or poikilothermic animals. Shark, dogfish, skate
Bony fish: Carp,
roach, herring, trout

Amphibia  The body is divisible into head and trunk. Neck is Frog, toad,
absent. salamander, newt
 Have a three-chambered heart with two auricles
and one ventricle.
 Cold-blooded vertebrate animals.
Reptilia  The body is divisible into head, neck, abdomen Lizard, snake,
and tail. tortoise, turtle,
 Most of them have a three-chambered heart. crocodile, alligator
Ventricle of the heart is partially divided.
Aves  All birds belong to Class Aves. Pigeon, sparrow,
 Warm-blooded or homeothermic animals. crow, duck, owl,
 Heart is four-chambered. penguin, ostrich, emu

Mammalia  Warm-blooded animals. Cat, dog, cow,

 Have a four-chambered heart with two auricles and sheep, rat, bat, seal,
two ventricles. monkey, apes, man

 The binomial nomenclature system was suggested by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus.

 According to the binomial nomenclature, every organism is given a scientific name for individual
identity. The scientific name includes two terms. The first term is the name of the genus and the
second term is the name of the species.