Lecture Notes 2

General Chemistry
(CHM111)
First Semester 2021/2022
2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds

Topics
Atomic Ions
Polyatomic Ions
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds
Oxoanions
Hydrates

2
 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (1)

Atomic Ions
An atomic ion or monatomic ion is one that consists of
just one atom with a positive or negative charge.

The loss of one or more electrons from an atom yields a

cation, an ion with a net positive charge.

Na Atom Na+ Ion

11 protons 11 protons
11 electrons 10 electrons

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (2)

Atomic Ions
An anion is an ion whose net charge is negative
due to an increase in the number of electrons.

Cl Atom Cl- Ion

17 protons 17 protons
17 electrons 18 electrons
Sodium chloride NaCl , ordinary table salt, is called
an ionic compound because it consists of cations
Na+ and anions Cl− .

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (3)

Atomic Ions
An atom can lose or gain more than one electron.

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (4)

Atomic Ions
Designate different cations with Roman numerals,
using the Stock system.

Mn2+ : manganese II ion

Mn3+ : manganese III ion
Mn4+ : manganese IV ion

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (5)
Atomic Ions
An older nomenclature system – for cations with two
possible charges - assigns the ending –ous to the cation
with the smaller positive charge and the ending –ic to the
cation with the greater positive charge:

Fe2+ : ferrous ion

Fe3+ : ferric ion

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (6)

Atomic Ions
A monatomic anion is named by changing the ending of
the element’s name to –ide, and adding the word ion.

Thus, the anion of chlorine Cl− , is called chloride ion.

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (7)
Polyatomic Ions
Ions that consist of a combination of two or more
atoms are called polyatomic ions.

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (10)

Formulas of Ionic Compounds

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (11)

Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Aluminum Oxide Calcium Phosphate

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 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (12)

Naming Ionic Compounds

12
 SAMPLE PROBLEM - 1
Name the following ionic compounds:
(a) MgO
(b) Al(OH)3
(c) Fe2(SO4)3

Setup
(a) Mg2+ O2–
(b) Al3+ OH–
(c) Since the charge on SO2−
4 is –2, the
charge on Fe must be +3: Fe3

Solution
(a) magnesium oxide
(b) aluminum hydroxide
(c) iron (III) sulfate
13
SAMPLE PROBLEM - 2
Deduce the formulas of the following ionic compounds:
(a) mercury(I) chloride

(b) lead(II) chromate

(c) potassium hydrogen phosphate

Setup
(a) Hg 2+
2 Cl−
(b) Pb 2+ CrO2−
4
(c) K + HPO2−4

Solution
(a) Hg 2 Cl2
(b) PbCrO4
(c) K 2 HPO4
14
 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (13)

Oxoanions
Oxoanions are polyatomic anions that contain one or
more oxygen atoms and one atom (the “central atom”)
of another element.

Examples include the chlorate ClO−

3 , nitrate NO 3 ,
−

and sulfate SO2−

4 ions.

15
 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (14)

Oxoanions
Starting with the oxoanions whose names end in –ate,
we can name these ions as follows:

1. The ion with one more O atom than the –ate ion is
called the per . . . ate ion. Thus, ClO−
3 is the
chlorate ion, so ClO− 4 is the perchlorate ion.

2. The ion with one less O atom than the –ate anion
is called the –ite ion. Thus,ClO−
2 is the chlorite ion.

16
 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (15)

Oxoanions

Starting with the oxoanions whose names end in –ate,

we can name these ions as follows:

3. The ion with two fewer O atoms than the –ate ion
is called the hypo . . . ite ion. Thus, ClO− is the
hypochlorite ion.

17
SAMPLE PROBLEM - 3

Name the following species:

(a) BrO−4
(b) HCO− 3
(c) SO2−
3

Setup
(a) BrO−3 is the bromate ion.
(b) CO−
3 is the carbonate ion.
4 is the sulfate ion.
(c) SO2−

Solution
(a) perbromate ion
(b) hydrogen carbonate ion (or bicarbonate ion)
(c) sulfite ion
18
 2.6 Ions and Ionic Compounds (16)

Hydrates
Hydrates are compounds that
have a specific number of
water
molecules within their solid
structure.
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BaCl2 ∙ 2H2 O barium chloride dihydrate

LiCl ∙ H2 O lithium chloride monohydrate

MgSO4 ∙ 7H2 O magnesium sulphate heptahydrate

Sr NO3 2 ∙ 4H2 O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate

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2.7 Molecules and Molecular Compounds

Topics

Molecular Formulas
Naming Molecular Compounds
Simple Acids
Oxoacids
Empirical Formulas of Molecular Substances

20
Molecules and Molecular Compounds (1)
Molecules

A molecule is a combination of at least two atoms in

a specific arrangement held together by electrostatic
forces known as covalent chemical bonds.

The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H 2, is called a

diatomic molecule because it contains two atoms.

Other elements that normally exist as diatomic

molecules are nitrogen N2 , oxygen O2 , and the
Group 7A elements—fluorine F2 , chlorine Cl2 ,
bromine Br2 , and iodine I2 .
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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (2)
Molecules
In homonuclear diatomic molecules, both atoms in
each molecule are of the same element.

A diatomic molecule can also contain atoms of

different elements (heteronuclear diatomic
molecules).

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (3)
Molecular Formulas
A chemical formula denotes the composition of the
substance.
A molecular formula shows the exact number of
atoms of each element in a molecule.
An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of
an element. Two of the allotropic forms of the element
carbon—diamond and graphite—have dramatically
different properties.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (4)
Molecular Formulas
The structural formula shows not
only the elemental composition, but
also the general arrangement of atoms
within the molecule.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM - 4

Write the molecular formula of ethanol

based on its ball-and-stick model, shown
here.

Solution C2 H6 O

25
Molecules and Molecular Compounds (5)
Naming Molecular Compounds
Binary molecular compounds consist of just two
different elements.

To name such a compound, we first name the element

that appears first in the formula.

We then name the second element, changing the

ending of its name to –ide.

HCl hydrogen chloride

SiC silicon carbide
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 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (6)
Naming Molecular Compounds
Use Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of
each element present.
TABLE 2.4 Greek Prefixes
Prefix Meaning Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1 Hexa- 6

Di- 2 Hepta- 7

Tri- 3 Octa- 8

Tetra- 4 Nona- 9

Penta- 5 Deca- 10

27
 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (7)

Naming Molecular Compounds

TABLE 2.5 Some Compounds Named Using

Greek Prefixes
Compound Name Compoun Name
d
CO Carbon SO3 Sulfur
monoxid trioxide
e
CO2 Carbon NO2 Nitrogen
dioxide dioxide
SO2 Sulfur N2 O5 Dinitrogen
dioxide pentoxide
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 2.7 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (8)

Naming Molecular Compounds

The prefix mono– is generally omitted for the first
element.

SO2 , for example, is named sulfur dioxide, not monosulfur

dioxide.

For ease of pronunciation, we usually eliminate the last

letter of a prefix that ends in “o” or “a” when naming an
oxide.

Thus, N2 O5 is dinitrogen pentoxide, rather than

dinitrogen pentaoxide.

29
SAMPLE PROBLEM - 5

Name the following binary molecular compounds:

(a) NF3 and (b) N2 O4 .

Solution
(a) nitrogen trifluoride and (b) dinitrogen tetroxide

30
SAMPLE PROBLEM - 6
Write the chemical formulas for the following binary
molecular compounds:

(a) sulfur tetrafluoride

(b) tetraphosphorus decasulfide.

Solution
(a)SF4 and
(b)(b) P4 S10
31
 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (9)

Naming Molecular Compounds

The names of molecular compounds containing

hydrogen do not usually conform to the systematic
nomenclature guidelines.

B 2 H6 Diborane PH3 Phosphine

SiH4 Silane H2 O Water
NH3 Ammonia H2 S Hydrogen sulfide

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (10)
Simple Acids
Acids make up another important class of molecular
compounds.

One definition of an acid is a substance that produces

hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.

Several binary molecular compounds produce hydrogen

ions when dissolved in water and are, therefore, acids.

In these cases, two different names can be assigned to

the same chemical formula.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (11)
Simple Acids
For example, HCl, hydrogen chloride, is a gaseous
compound.

When it is dissolved in water, however, we call it

hydrochloric acid.

The rules for naming simple acids of this type are as

follows: remove the –gen ending from hydrogen (leaving
hydro–), change the –ide ending on the second element to
–ic, combine the two words, and add the word acid.
hydrogen chloride + −𝑖𝑐 acid → hydrochloric acid

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (12)

Simple Acids

TABLE 2.6 Some Simple Acids

Formula Binary Compound Name Acid Name
HF Hydrogen fluoride Hydrofluoric acid
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
HBr Hydrogen bromide Hydrobromic acid
HI Hydrogen iodide Hydroiodic acid
HCN ∗ Hydrogen cyanide Hydrocyanic acid
^Although HCN is not a binary compound, it is included in this table because it is similar chemically to HF, HC1,
HBr, and HI.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (13)
Oxoacids
An important class of acids known as oxoacids,
which ionize to produce hydrogen ions and the
corresponding oxoanions.
The formula of an oxoacid can be determined by
adding enough H+ ions to the corresponding oxoanion
to yield a formula with no net charge.
For example, the formulas of oxoacids based on the
nitrate NO− 3 and sulfate SO 2−
4 ions are HNO3 and
H2 SO4 , respectively.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (14)
Oxoacids
The names of oxoacids are derived from the names of
the corresponding oxoanions using the following
guidelines:
1. An acid based on an –ate ion is called . . . ic acid.
Thus, HClO3 is called chloric acid.
2. An acid based on an –ite ion is called . . . ous acid.
Thus, HClO2 is called chlorous acid.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (15)
Oxoacids
The names of oxoacids are derived from the names of
the corresponding oxoanions using the following
guidelines:

3. Prefixes in oxoanion names are retained in the

names of the corresponding oxoacids. Thus, HClO 4
and HClO are called perchloric acid and
hypochlorous acid, respectively.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (16)
Oxoacids
Many oxoacids, such as H2 SO4 and H3 PO4 , are
polyprotic—meaning that they have more than one
ionizable hydrogen atom.

In these cases, the names of anions in which one or more

(but not all) of the hydrogen ions have been removed must
indicate the number of H ions that remain.

H3 PO4 phosphoric acid HPO2−

4 hydrogen phosphate ion
3−
H2 PO−
4 dihydrogen phosphate ion PO4 phosphate ion

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 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (17)

Oxoacids
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen,
sometimes in combination with other elements such
as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and the halogens.

The simplest organic compounds are those that

contain only carbon and hydrogen and are known as
hydrocarbons.
Among hydrocarbons, the simplest examples are
compounds known as alkanes.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (18)
TABLE 2.7 Formulas, Names, and Models of Some Simple Alkanes

Formula Name Model

CH4 Methane

C2 H6 Ethane

C3 H8 Propane

C4 H10 Butane

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (19)

C5 H12 Pentane

C6 H14 Hexane

C7 H16 Heptane

C8 H18 Octane

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (20)

C9 H20 Nonane

C10 H22 Decane

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (21)
Oxoacids
Many organic compounds are derivatives of alkanes
in which one of the H atoms has been replaced by a
group of atoms known as a functional group.

The functional group determines many of

the chemical properties of a compound
because it typically is where a chemical
reaction occurs.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (22)
TABLE 2.8 Organic Functional Groups
Name Functional Group Model

Alcohol −OH

Aldehyde −CHO

Carboxylic acid −COOH

Amine −NH2

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 Molecules and Molecular Compounds (23)

Empirical Formulas of Molecular Substances

Molecular substances can also be represented using
empirical formulas.

The word empirical means “from experience” or, in

the context of chemical formulas, “from experiment.”

The empirical formula tells what elements are

present in a molecule and in what whole-number
ratio they are combined.

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Molecules and Molecular Compounds (24)

TABLE 2.9 Molecular and Empirical Formula

Molecular Empirical
Compound Model Model
Formula Formula
Water H2 O H2 O

Hydrogen
H2 O2 HO
peroxide

Ethane C2 H6 CH3

Propane C3 H8 C3 H8

Acetylene C2 H2 CH

Benzene C6 H6 CH

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SAMPLE PROBLEM - 7

Write the empirical formulas for the following

molecules:
(a) glucose C6 H12 O6
(b) adenine C5 H5 N5
(c) nitrous oxide N2 O

Solution
(a) CH2 O
(b) CHN
(c) N2 O

48