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Metrology and Measurement

Lecture 3
Contents:-
Standards, Standardization, Standardizing Organizations
Standards of Measurement  Classification of Standards
Traceability and Hierarchy of Standards
Level of Standardization
Formulation and Implementation of Standards
ISO 9000
National and International Organizations
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Standards of Measurement
 In order to make measurements a meaningful exercise, some sort of
comparison with a known quantity is very essential.
 It is necessary to define a unit value of any physical quantity under
consideration such that it will be accepted internationally.
 It is not sufficient to only define these unit values of physical quantities;
these should also be measurable.
 A standard is defined as the fundamental value of any known physical
quantity, as established by national and international organizations of
authority, which can be reproduced.
 A standard is defined as something that is setup and established by
authority as a rule for measurement of quantity, weight, extent, value or
quality etc.
 Fundamental units of physical quantities such as length, mass, time, and
temperature form the basis for establishing a measurement system.
 In the present world of globalization, it is impossible to perform trade in
national and international arenas without standards.
 In fact, a good system of standards is essential for fair international trade
and commerce; it also helps accomplish complete interchangeability of
manufacture.
 Standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the world in achieving
consistency, accuracy, precision, and repeatability in measurement and in
supporting the system that enables the manufacturer to make such
measurements.
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 The role of standards is to support the system which makes uniform

measurement throughout the world and helps to maintain
interchangeability in mass production.
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Systems of Measurement
Measuring System Element
A measuring system is made of five basic elements. These are:
 Standard
 Work piece
 Instrument
 Person
 Environment.
The most basic element of measurement is a standard without which no
measurement is possible. Once the standard is chosen a measuring instrument
incorporations this standard is should be obtained. This instrument is then used
to measure the job parameters, in terms of units of standard contained in it. The
measurement should be performed under standard environment. There must be
some person or mechanism (if automatic) to carry out the measurement.
A measuring system is based on few fundamental units; e.g., length, mass, time,
temperature, etc. All other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of these
fundamental units. Throughout the world generally these standards are followed
for linear measurement:
a) British/English/F.P.S System (Yard)
Unit of length is yard, unit of mass, weight or force is pound, unit of time is
seconds and unit of temperature is degree Fahrenheit.
b) Metric/Meter System
Unit of length is meter, unit of mass kilogram, unit of weight of force kilogram
force (kgf), unit of temperature is degree centigrade, followed by most of the
countries due to convenience.
c) S.I. System
It is refined metric system. It is comprehensive, as its seven basic units cover
all disciplines. Seven Basic Units: Length – meter, time – second, mass –
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kilogram, temperature – kelvin, Electric current – ampere, luminous

intensity – candela, quantity of substance – mole.
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Development of Standard

 Scientists across the world have always been in the pursuit of a suitable
unit for length, and consistent efforts have been made to keep the unit of
length constant irrespective of the environmental conditions.
 The problem with the material standards used earlier was that the
materials used for defining the standards could change their size with
temperature and other conditions.
 In order to keep the fundamental unit unchanged, great care and attention
had to be exercised to maintain the same conditions.
 The natural and invariable unit of length was finalized as the primary
standard when they found that wavelength of monochromatic light was not
affectedby environmental conditions.
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Material Standard
Use of material to define length standard.
Imperial Standard Yard
The imperial standard yard is made of 1 inch square cross-section bronze bar
(82% copper, 13% tin , 5% zinc) 38 inches long. The bar has two ½ inch diameter x
½ inch deep holes. Each hole is fitted with 1/10th inch diameter gold plug. The top
surface of these plugs lie on the neutral axis of the bronze bar.
The purpose of keeping the gold plug lines at neutral axis has the following
advantages.
Due to bending of beam the neutral axis remains unaffected
The plug remains protected from accidental damage.
The top surface of the gold plugs is highly polished and contains three lines
engraved transversely and two lines longitudinally.
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The yard is defined as the distance between two central transverse lines on
the plugs when,
The temperature of the bar is constant at 62°F and,
The bar is supported on rollers in a specified manner to prevent flexure.
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International Standard Meter (Prototype)

This standard is also known as international prototype meter, which was

established by International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1875.
It is defined as the distance between the center positions of the two lines
engraved on the highly polished surface of a 102 cm bar of pure platinum-iridium
alloy (90% platinum and 10% iridium) maintained at 0°C under normal
atmospheric pressure and having the cross-section of a web, as shown in figure
below.
The top surface of the web contains graduations coinciding with the neutral axis
of the section. The web-shaped section offers two major advantages. Since the
section is uniform and has graduations on the neutral axis, it allows the whole
surface to be graduated.
This type of cross-section provides greater rigidity for the amount of metal
involved and is economical even though an expensive metal is used for its
construction.
It is supported by two rollers having at least 1 cm diameter, which are 58.9 cm
apart as calculated from Airy’s formula, according to which the best distance
between the supporting points is given by

Disadvantages of Material Standard

1. Material standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variations in length.
2. Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must have appropriate
security to prevent their damage or destruction.
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3. Replicas of material standards are not available for use at other places.
4. They cannot be easily reproduced (If accidently damaged or destroyed, then
exact copy could not be made).
5. Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose considerable difficulty.
6. While changing to the metric system, a conversion factor is necessary.

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Wavelength Standard
These disadvantage prompted scientists to look for a standard that remains
unaffected by the variations in environmental conditions.
The 11th General Conference of Weights and Measures, which was held in Paris in
1960, recommended a new standard of length, known as wavelength standard,
measured in terms of wavelengths of the red-orange radiation of krypton 86
isotope gas.
It decided that krypton 86 is the most suitable element if used in a hot-cathode
discharge lamp maintained at a temperature of 68K.
According to this standard, meter is defined as 1,650,763.73 x λ
Where, λ=wavelength of the red-orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom in
vacuum. This standard can be reproduced with an accuracy of about 1 part in 109
and can be accessible to any laboratory.
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Advantages of Wavelength Standard

1. It is not influenced by effects of variation of environmental conditions like
temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing.
2. It need not be preserved or stored under security and thus there is no fear of
being destroyed as in case of meter and yard.
3. It is not subjected to destruction by wear and tear.
4. It gives a unit of length which can be produced consistently at all the times in all
the circumstances, at all the places. In other words it is easily reproducible and
thus identical standards are available with all.
5. This standard is easily available to all standardizing laboratories and industries.
6. There is no problem of transferring this standard to other standards meter and
yard.
7. It can be used for making comparative measurements of very high accuracy.
The error of reproduction is only of the order of 3 parts in 1011.
8. It will give a unit of length which could be produced consistently at any time in
all countries.
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Meter of Today
A definition based on speed of light would be technically feasible and practically
advantageous.
The modern meter was defined in the 17th General Conference of Weights and
Measures held on 20 October 1983.
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299,792,458 of second.
This standard is technically more accurate and feasible when compared to the
red-orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom.
This can be realized in practice through the use of an iodine-stabilized
heliumneon laser.
The reproducibility of the modern meter is found to be 3 parts in 1011, which
could be compared to measuring the earth’s mean circumference to an accuracy
of about 1 mm.

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Classifications / Subdivisions of Standards
Classifications: Material and Wavelength Standards
Subdivisions: The imperial standard yard and international prototype meter are
master standards that cannot be used for daily measurement purposes.
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For practical measurement there is a hierarchy of working standards. Thus,

depending upon their importance of accuracy required for the work, standards
are subdivided into four grades;
i. Primary Standard ii. Secondary Standard
iii. Tertiary Standard iv. Working Standard

i.Primary Standards: For defining the unit precisely, there shall be one and only
one material standard, which is to be preserved carefully and maintained under
standard atmospheric conditions so that they do not change their values. It is
called as primary standard.
International yard and International meter are the examples of primary standards
of length.
Primary standard is used at rare intervals (say after 10 to 20 years) solely for
comparison with secondarystandards.
This has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered in
engineering.

ii.Secondary Standards: These are made as nearly as possible exactly similar to

primary standards and resemble them very closely with respect to design material
and length.
They are compared with primary standards after long intervals and the records of
deviation are noted.
These standards are kept at number of places under strict supervision and are
used for comparison with tertiary standards whenever required.

iii.Tertiary Standards: Primary and secondary standards are the ultimate controls
for standards; these are used for reference purposes. Tertiary standards are the
first standard to be used for reference purposes in laboratories and workshops.
These standards are replicas of secondary standards and are usually used as
references for working standards.

iv.Working Standards: These are used more frequently in workshops and

laboratories. When compared to primary, secondary and tertiary standards, the
materials used to make these standards are of a lower grade and cost. They are
derived from fundamental standards and suffer from loss of instrumental
accuracy due to subsequent comparison at each level in the hierarchical chain.
Working standards include both line and end standards.
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Sometime the standards are also classified based on purpose as:

a. Reference standards – used for reference purpose
b. Calibration standards – used for calibration of inspection and working standard
c. Inspection standards – used by inspectors
d. Working standards – used by operators during working
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Traceability and Hierarchical Classifications of Standards Traceability:

It is the concept of establishing a valid calibration of a measuring instrument or
measurement standard by step-by-step comparison with better standards up to
an accepted orspecified standard.
The concept of traceability implies eventual reference to an appropriate national
and international standard.
Measurement Traceability: refers to the unbroken chain of calibration linking an
instrument orstandard toprimary standards.
Calibration: is the comparison of a measuring instrument against a more
accurate standard.
The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary for the sake of accruing
of measurement process.
It is the process of framing the scale ofthe instrument by applying some standard
(known) signals. Calibration is a pre-measurement process generally carried out
by manufactures.
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Accuracy is one of the most important factors to

be maintained and should always be traceable to a
single source, usually the national standards of the
country. This is essential because ultimately all
these measurements are compared with the
standards developed and maintained by the
bureaus of standards throughout the world. The
national standards must also be linked with
international standard to maintain accuracy and
interchangeability in the items manufactured by
the various countries.

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Traceability of Standards
In order that items manufactured by various industries and manufacturing units in
a country and also those manufactured in various countries be identical and
interchangeable, it is essential that it will follow standards of units and
measurements traceable to same international standard.
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Line and End Measurements

A length may be measured as the distance between two lines or as the distance
between two parallel faces.

Line Measurement When the distance between two engraved lines is used to
measure the length, it is called line measurement or line standard. The most
common examples are yard and meter, the rule with divisions marked with lines
is widely used.

Characteristics of line measurements:

 Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines themselves

possess thickness and it is not possible to make measurement with high
accuracy.
 A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.
 The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However the leading ends
are subjected to wear and this may lead to undersize measurement.
 A scale doesn’t posses a built in datum. Therefore it is not possible to align
the scale with the axis of measurement.
 Scales are subjected to parallax error.
 Also the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if
sufficient accuracy is to be achieved.

End Measurement
When the distance between two flat parallel surfaces is considered a measure of
length, it is known as end standard or end.
The end faces of the end standards are hardened to reduce wear and lapped flat
and parallel to a very high degree of accuracy.
The end standards are extensively used for precision measurement in workshops
and laboratories.
The most common examples are measurements using slip gauges, end bars, ends
of micrometer anvils, Vernier calipers, etc.
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Characteristics of End Measurement

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Standardization and Standardizing Organizations

In Nepal, Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology works for

standards.


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Standardization and Standardizing Organizations

The mission of the international organization is to enable economies to put in

place effective legal metrology infrastructures that are mutually compatible and
internationally recognized, for all areas for which governments take responsibility
such as those which facilitate trade, established mutual confidence and
harmonize the level of customer protection worldwide.
Its other objectives are as follows;
1. To develop in cooperation with stakeholders, standards and related
documents for use by legal metrology authorities and industry
2. To provide mutual recognition systems which reduce trade barriers and
costs in a global market.
3. To represent the interests of the legal metrology community within
international organizations and forums concerned with metrology,
standardization, testing, certification and accreditation.
4. To promote and facilitate the exchange of knowledge and competencies
within the legal metrology community worldwide.
5. In co-operation with other metrology bodies, to raise awareness of the
contribution that a sound legal metrology infrastructure can make to a
modern economy.
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ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
9000 ISO 9000 system of quality management is designed to
help organizations ensure that they meet the needs of customers and other
stakeholders while meeting statutory and regulatory requirements related to
the products.
ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of quality management system. It deals
with the requirements that organization wishing to meet the standard must
fulfill.
Third party certification bodies provide independent confirmation that
organization meet the requirements of ISO 9000.
Over one million organizations worldwide are independently certified, making
ISO 9000 one of the most widely used management tools in the world today.
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Some Popular ISO Standards

ISO 9000: Quality management
ISO 14000:Environmental management
ISO 3166: County codes
ISO 26000: Social responsibility
ISO 50001:Energy management
ISO 31000: Risk management
ISO 22000: Food Safety management
ISO 27000:Information Security management
ISO 45001: Occupational health and safety
ISO 37001:Anty bribery management systems
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ISO 9000
Steps to be taken for certification ISO

1. Documentation: This process is based on preparing and following as per

documentation, preparing policy and procedure manuals.
2. Implementation: It is basically an instructions manual for the business.
Implementing means putting into practice within the organization. It typically
takes between three to nine months and is the second phase of the process.
3. Inspection Audit: When all documents are ready and these are being
implemented throughout the organization, call the auditing organization. They
will inspect the documents, do an on-site inspection to verify that these being
implemented properly, and makes a report to the register for registration after
interviewing entire team and satisfying themselves fully.
4. Registration: When audit is cleared, the company is registered as an
ISOCertified organization and published in the Registered Company Directory
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National and International Organizations concerning Metrology

National:
Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology
Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology (NBSM) is the National Standard Body
in Nepal. It is the Government organization under the ministry of Industry.
Vision:
- To provide efficient and timely service
- To satisfy the customer's need for quality goods and services.
- To raise awareness in the field of standardization & metrology.
Objectives: - Harmonious development of standardization, marking and quality
certification.
- Harmonious development of scientific and legal metrology.
- To facilitate development of production and exports.

The main activities of NBSM are to:

1. formulate national standards;
2. operate the product certification mark;
3. provide testing facilities and technical services in the fields of SMQC;
4. work as the third party guaranteeing agency;
5. provide service for lot certification and pre-shipment inspection, as well as
laboratory recognition
6. launching of consumer awareness programmes on quality.
7. Provide laboratory services for testing of various commodities.
8. Involve in environment protection.
Additional activities include:
- legal metrology and calibration services for weighing and measuring devices.
- industrial and scientific metrology.
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Status of Nepal Standards(NS):

• About 900 nos. • Initiated since BS 2035
• First Standard: NS1: 2035:Brick
• Includes : Nepal origin, adoption of Foreign and International Stds.(BS,IS,
ISO/IEC,ASTM)
• Types: Products, Test Methods, Process, System
• Earthquake Resilience Building Codes
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International Standardization
International Organization for Standardization(ISO):
• NBSM is a Full Member(2014)) of ISO
• Has to pay about CHF 26000 per annum
• Access to All ISO Stds
. • Nepal can Participate in any TC (250+):TC 207, 285, 296 PC 305,CASCO-
WG44
• More than 20000 nr. Of ISO Stds. available
• Mostly Test Methods and System focused such as QM, EM, Less nr for
Products

National and International Organizations concerning Metrology

International:
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1. Explain the roles and the purposes of formation of Nepal Bureau

of Standards and Metrology.
2. Explain about the formulation and implementation of standards.
3. Explain briefly about ISO 9000. What are the requirements for any
organization to be ISO 9000 certified?
4. List the international organizations working on standards,
metrology and measurement. Explain briefly about them and their
roles.