C-5 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fuels like Uranium and Plutonium to produce
energy by nuclear reaction. In such fuels when the nuclei of the atoms are split by fast
moving neutrons, the binding energy is released as heat energy. The heat energy released is so
enormous that one kg of uranium can release energy equivalent to that of 4500 tonnes of high
grade coal. This heat energy is used to raise steam, which in turn is used to run a steam
turbine connected to a generator as in conventional steam power plant.
5.1.1 Why We Prefer Nuclear Energy?
Though it is easier to make use of fossil fuels like coal and petroleum products to
produce energy, these sources are all depleting in nature and after some years the availability
of fossil fuels may come to an end. Hence, mankind has been looking for new sources of
energy and finally discovered nuclear energy as the possible alternative for the fossil fuels.
Even though nuclear fuels are available in small quantities, it is sufficient for many years
since the energy released per unit quantity is much larger as compared to fossil fuels.
It has been experienced that releasing energy from nuclear fuels is a skillful and costly
process, and also it is hazardous if much care is not taken in operation. Even then in many
countries nuclear energy is preferred over other sources of energy because of the following
reasons:
1) Conventional power plants using coal and petroleum products cannot be operated tor
longer duration as these sources are depleting in nature.
2 ) The conventional hydroelectric power plants are completely dependent on natural rains, If
the monsoon is upset, regular power generation is not possible.
3) The generation of power from nuclear fuels is independent of geographical and climatic
factors.
4) Very small quantity of nuclear fuel is sufficient to produce large amount of energy. 5)
Water is the only major supply required in large quantities for nuclear plant operations, which
is available in plenty.

5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants Advantages

1) They require lesser space as compared to other conventional power plant of same power
output.
2) They need small quantity of fuel, hence there is no problem of fuel handling and storage.
3) There are no problems of smoke and ash. Hence it is free from atmospheric pollution.
4) They are independent of weather conditions. Hence they can operate at full load
throughout the year irrespective of the season.
5) Construction expenditures are much less as compared to coal and hydel plants.
6) They are most suitable for very large power outputs.
Disadvantages
1) Initial cost of the plant is high due to high sophistication and costly reactor materials.
2) They are not suitable for varying load conditions.
3) Handling and disposal of radioactive wastes is a hazardous and very complex process.
4) If operation is not controlled carefully possibilities of explosion exists.
5) Careful maintenance is essential.
6) More number of trained and expert persons are required to handle the plant.

5.2 NUCLEAR ENERGY

5.2.1 Structure of An Atom An atom is the smallest particle of an element, which is
indivisible and takes part in a chemical reaction. An atom has an open structure, as shown in
Fig. 5-1. An atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. The neutrons and protons
are bounded at the centre of the atom and form the Nucleus. The electrons revolve round the
nucleus at a definite distance from the nucleus. This path of the electrons around the nucleus
is termed the orbit. The weight of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The neutrons and
the protons combined together are termed nucleons. The total number of nucleons in a given
atom is called the Atomic Mass Number A. In an atom, the number of protons will be equal
to the number of electrons and this number is called the Atomic Number Z. The electrons
revolve around the nucleus in groups and this is called the Energy Levels. The electrons in
the outermost shell take part is chemical reaction and are called the Valence Electrons. The
maximum number of electrons an orbit can accommodate is given by 2n2, where n is the orbit
number.
 Fig. 5-1. Structure of an atom
Some elements have the same atomic number (number of protons), but have different number
of neutrons, hence different mass. Such elements termed isotopes, are useful as - nuclear
fuels.
5.2.2 Mass Defect and Binding Energy
In an atom the neutrons and protons combined together constitute the central part of
the atom termed the nucleus and the total number of neutrons and, protons (also called
nucleons) is termed the Atomic mass number A. This mass of an atomic nucleus is less than
the total mass of the individual particles of nucleons that compose it. This mass difference is
termed the Mass Defect.
The mass defect holds the nucleons together and prevents the Coulomb force of the
positive charges (proton) in the nucleus from tearing it apart. This energy required to hold the
protons and neutrons is termed the binding energy and is obtained at the expense of the
nucleonic mass, i.e., Mass Defect.
Binding Energy is given by Einstein's mass-energy equation,
E = mc2, joules where,
E = energy released due to annihilation, J
m = mass, kg
c = velocity of light = 3x108 m/sec.

5.2.3 Nuclear Reactions

In a nuclear reaction, the excess binding energy is released as heat. There are two types of
nuclear reactions by which nuclear energy can be released in the form of heat, viz., fusion and
fission. Fusion is the combination of light nuclei of elements like hydrogen and helium
resulting the release of heat energy. This type of reaction is taking place in sun, which is the
source of light and heat to earth.
In fission, heavy nuclei of atoms like those of U-235 are split there by releasing the
excess binding energy as heat energy.
Initiation of Nuclear Reactions
To initiate the nuclear reactions sufficient energy should be supplied to the nuclei of
the isotope. When the energy supplied is more than that of the electrostatic force of repulsion,
then the reaction release of binding energy starts. There are three methods to initiate nuclear
reactions.
1) Nuclei acceleration
In this, the nuclei of a suitable element such as hydrogen or helium, are accelerated and
bombarded on the target nuclei. Such an attempt to initiate nuclear fission reactions have not
been very successful, as all the energy of the bombarding nuclei was utilised in just joining
the target nuclei.
2) Thermo-nuclear Reaction
In this method, the nuclear material is heated to a very high temperature of the order of few
millions of degree centigrade. The high thermal energy causes the vibrations of the atomic
particles, which is large enough to overcome the electrostatic force of repulsion. Since, high
temperature is used for the initiation of the reaction, this method is also termed as
thermo-nuclear reaction. Such method is feasible for fusion reactions only (which is taking
place in the sun to release fusion energy).
3) Neutron bombardment
This is the most common and practical method of initiation of reaction in fission materials. In
this, neutron particles are used to bombard the nucleus of the target atoms. Since neutrons are
neutral in charge, they can easily penetrate through the electron shells, and hit the nucleus.
This is also termed as the neutron-induced uranium fission reaction and widely used in all the
nuclear fission reactors.
5.2.4 Fission 8 Self Sustained Chain Reaction
Uranium U-235 is the most unstable isotope. When the heavy nucleus of an U-235 is
bombarded with a high energy neutron, the nucleus splits up into two fragments of nearly
equal mass, and releases about 2.5 fast neutrons with enormous amount of heat energy. This
is termed the fission process. The neutrons released in a fission reaction have a very high
velocity, of about 1.5 '107 m/sec. The neutrons produced by the first split of the nucleus are
stowed down by the moderator and are bombarded with the other nucleus of the U-235,
which further release 2.5 fast neutrons with release of heat energy. This process of neutron
bombardment and release of neutrons continues in multiples. This is accompanied with the
release of large amount of binding energy in the form of heat. This continuous reaction of
neutron bombardment and release of heat energy is termed Self Sustained Chain Reaction.
The nuclear fission process and chain reaction is schematically shown in Fig. 5-2.
 Fig. 5-2. Self-sustained chain reaction
Conditions to be Fulfilled to Attain Chain Reaction
The fission chain reaction is a highly unstable process. There are a number conditions
that are to be fulfilled to sustain a continuous chain reaction. The main conditions are:
1) The bombarded neutrons must be slowed down by the moderator to a suitable speed that is
enough to cause further fission.
2) The neutrons after bombardment must have sufficient energy to cause fission of the target
nucleus.
3) The liberated neutrons must be sufficient enough to balance the losses like absorption by
moderator, coolant and any leakage/escape.
4) The process must release energy at a controlled rate.

5.2.5 Thermal Utilization Factor ft Multiplication Factor

i) Thermal Utilization Factor
In a fission reaction, of the 2.5 neutrons released in each reaction, one neutron is used
to sustain chain reaction (fast fission), about 0.9 neutron is captured by U-238 to form Pu-239
a fissionable material (in a fast breeder reactor), and about 0.6 neutron is partly absorbed by
control rods, coolant, moderator and partly escape from the reactor. Finally' the fraction of
2.5 neutrons that remains for absorption by the fuel nuclei to cause further chain reaction, is
termed thermal utilization factor (f). A four-factor formula is used in nuclear engineering to
determine the multiplication of a nuclear chain reaction in an infinite medium. The formula is
given the relation,

where, η= the reproduction factor

f = the thermal utilization factor
 p = the resonance escape probability
ε= the fast fission factor
k∞ = infinite multiplication factor (no leak out of the neutrons)

ii) Multiplication Factor

In a nuclear fission process, whether the reaction continues or not, can be determined
by a number termed the Multiplication Factor. Multiplication Factor is defined as the ratio of
the number of neutrons produced by one reaction to the number of neutrons produced in an
immediately preceding reaction. It is expressed by the relation,

where,
k = Effective multiplication factor
P = Rate of neutron production
A = Rate of neutron absorption
E = Rate of neutron leakage
The multiplication factor k is useful in determining whether a fission reaction will be
sustained, slowed down or increasing, based on the following:
1) Critical Reaction: When, k = 1, the chain reaction will continue at a steady rate,
i.e., reaction is critical. This is the desirable condition in power plants as this releases energy
at a steady rate and is easily controllable (whenever a nuclear reactor is reported to have gone
critical meaning that it has successfully operating with sustainable chain reaction).
2) Sub-critical Reaction: When, k < 1, the chain reaction will stop, i.e., reaction is
sub-critical, which is not desirable. With this state, the chain reaction dies down, and
indicates that the conditions to maintain a chain reaction are not fulfilled.
3) Super-critical Reaction: When, k > 1, chain reaction will be building up, i.e., it
goes super-critical, which is the most undesirable and dangerous condition as it is
uncontrollable. This condition is applied in nuclear bombs. If this condition is reached in a
nuclear reactor, it becomes catastrophic as the reactor melts down and explodes leading to
fire and radiation hazards.

5.2.6 Nuclear Fuels

Mainly there are two kinds of nuclear fuels viz. fission fuels and fusion fuels. Among
fission fuels there are two groups -Primary fuels, which occur in nature and secondary fuels
which are manufactured artificially using the natural fuels.
 The major primary fuels are the uranium isotopes. Of these, U-234, U-235 and U-238
are available in nature in large quantities. Uranium ores are found in various regions
throughout the world. Major resources are available in USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia
and Namibia. In India, major sources of uranium are located at some places in the states of
Bihar, Rajastan and Tamilnadu.
The isotopes of U-235 and U-238 are available in nature in the form of uranium oxide
(0302) in pitch blend. The natural uranium found in the earth's crust in the form of pitch
blend consists of the following three isotopes, with average percentage of uranium as follows:
U-238 - 99.3%
U-235 - 00.71%
U-234 - Traces
Among these isotopes, U-235 is most unstable and is capable of sustaining chain
reaction and is the major source of primary fuel. A good quality uranium of 1 kg is capable of
releasing energy equal to that of 4500 tonnes of high grade coal. Hence, using nuclear fuels it
is possible to generate power at very economical rates.
Since natural uranium contains only 0.71% of U-235, it may not be sufficient to
maintain the chain reaction. Thus it is necessary to use uranium with higher percentage of
U-235. This is achieved by a process termed uranium concentration or uranium enrichment.
Various methods are available for uranium enrichment.
Pu-239 and U-233 are artificially produced from U-238 and Th-232 respectively, and
are termed secondary fuels. Pu239 is produced using U-238 in fast breeder reactors.
Deuterium is another nuclear fuel that can be used for generation of energy by fusion
process. Lithium is also a nuclear fusion fuel. Fusion process is not used in power plants,
since it is very difficult to control the reaction rate.

5.2.7 Uranium Enrichment

Natural uranium contains only about 0.71% of U-235, which is not sufficient to sustain the
chain reaction. This necessitates the need to increase the percentage of uranium U-235 in the
fuel and this process is termed Uranium Enrichment. By this process, the percentage of
uranium can be increased up to 15%. The enriched uranium is highly unstable and capable of
sustaining chain reaction. There are four basic methods of uranium enrichment process.
These are briefly discussed here.
1. Gaseous Diffusion Method
This method works on the principle that the diffusion of molecules of a lighter gas given
molecular weight through a porous barrier is faster than the molecules of a heavier gas
 Fig- 5-3 shows the principle of gaseous diffusion method. In this non-saturated
uranium, hexaflouride (UF-6) is used for gaseous diffusion. Initially a mixture of U235.F6
(having molecular weight of 349) and U238F6 (having a molecular weight of 352) is fed into
the gap the porous barrier as shown in the figure. When the gas passes through the porous
barrier, the lighter U235F6 gets diffused , and comes out as enriched uranium. Rest of the
mixture come: out as depleted product.

2. Thermal Diffusion Method

Fig. 5-4 shows the schematic of a thermal diffusion process of uranium enrichment. In
this method a column with two concentric tubes is filled with liquid UF6. The temperature of
the inner pipe is kept high, while that of the outer pipe is kept low. Due to the temperature
difference liquid circulation starts and thermal diffusion takes place. Light U235F6 molecules
are concentrated at the hot wall, while heavier U235F6 molecules are in the colder region.
These heavy molecules concentrate as the enriched uranium and is taken out periodically.
Usually, the enrichment in a single column is not very high, hence a series of columns are
used for obtaining the enriched uranium to the required concentration.

3. Electromagnetic Method
This method is based on the principle of different masses. In this, the ions moving at equal
velocities in one line in the same direction are passed through a magnetic field. The ions are
acted upon by forces perpendicular to the direction of ion movement and the field. Due to this
force, different masses move along circumference of different radii (see Fig. 5-5).
In this a gaseous uranium compound is ionized by ion bombardment, and formed as a
beam. The beam is then passed through an accelerating chamber to which a magnetic field is
Due to this the ions of different masses move along circumference of different radii and the
lighter one is separated and collected as the enriched uranium.
4. Centrifugation Method
In this method a gaseous mixture of U235F6 is rotated at a high speed in a centrifuge.
The heavier gas U238F6 moves to the outer periphery, while the lighter U235F6 remains at the
centre and gets enriched (Fig. 5-6).

5.3 LAYOUT OF A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Fig. 5-7 shows the line diagram of a nuclear power plant.

It is consists the following major components:

1) Nuclear Reactor
2) Steam Boiler
3) Turbine-Generator
4) Cooling System
1) Nuclear Reactor
It is the most expensive and important component of a nuclear power plant. In a
reactor vessel heat energy is released by the nuclear reaction. It is constructed within a metal
vessel with fuel rods, moderator and reflector. The whole vessel is surrounded with a very
thick concrete wall to avoid radiation hazards. The heat released in the reactor core is picked
up by the primary coolant as shown in the figure. The reactor is equivalent to the furnace of a
coal fired steam power plant.
2) Steam Boiler
The primary coolant cycle picks up heat energy from the reactor core and transfers it
to water to form steam in the boiler.
3) Turbine-Generator
The steam generated is expanded in turbines and the mechanical energy is in turn used
to generate electrical energy.
4) Cooling System
This is a very important system of a nuclear power plant. Usually, the primary cooling cycle
picks up the heat energy from the reactor core and transfers it to the water in the boiler to
raise steam. Some plants make use of a secondary cooling cycle to transfer heat energy from
the primary circuit to raise steam.
Another cooling system is that of condenser, where the steam expanded from the
turbines is condensed and recirculated to generate steam. The cooling water to the condenser
is generally taken from the pond or sea after proper treatment.

5.4 COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR

Nuclear reactor is the heart of a nuclear power plant. It must be given utmost
importance in design, operation and maintenance. In a nuclear reactor nuclear fission
(sustained chain reaction) takes place and heat is released continuously. The portion of the
reactor where reaction takes place with the release of heat energy is termed the Core of the
Reactor. The released heat energy from the core is continuously transferred to a coolant and
the heat energy is supplied to a boiler to raise steam. The heat released at the core is so
enormous that even if there is no need to raise steam (for example, in a low demand
conditions), the heat must be removed from the core, otherwise it will melt the reactor itself.
However, the rate of reaction can be controlled by the control rods.
 Fig. 5-8 shows the schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor with the various parts. The
important components of a nuclear reactor are:
1. Fuel Rods '.
2.Control Rods
3. Moderator
4. Reflector
5. Reactor Vessel
6. Biological Shielding
7. Coolant
1. Fuel Rods
Either Uranium U-235 (primary fuel) or Plutonium Pu-239/U-233 (secondary fuel) is
used as the fuel in the nuclear reactors. These are fissionable materials whose nuclei will be
made to undergo nuclear fission to produce chain reaction with the release of enormous
amount of heat energy. Fuel rods are encased in metal cladding made of stainless steel or
aluminium material to protect the fuel from corrosion in contact with the coolant.
The important properties required for the metal cladding used for the fuel rods are:
a) It should withstand high temperatures.
b) It should have high corrosion resistance.
c) It should have good thermal conductivity.
d) It should not absorb neutrons.
e) It should withstand radiation effects.
2. Moderator
The neutrons released in a fission reaction are fast moving in nature and less effective at
higher velocities to cause further fission. With fast moving neutrons chain reaction cannot be
sustained. Thus it is necessary to reduce the velocity of the fast moving neutrons. This is
achieved by a material termed moderator. The fast neutrons are collided with the moderator,
so as to bring down their velocity. Moderator is kept surrounding the nuclear fuel rods, so that
the fast neutrons hit it first and then proceed for further bombardment of the other nuclei,
Generally used moderators in a nuclear reactor are graphite, beryllium, water and heavy
water.
The advantage of moderator is that it slows down the fast neutrons and helps in
sustaining the chain reaction. The disadvantage of moderator is that it causes the slow down
of the fast neutrons, which results in loss of energy.
The important properties of a good moderator are as follows:
a) It should have high corrosion resistance.
b) It should have good thermal conductivity.
c) It should be stable under high temperature and pressure conditions.
d) It should successfully reduce the velocity of the fast moving neutrons.
e) A solid moderator should have good machinability.
3. Control Rods
These are cylindrical shaped cadmium or boron rods located centrally in the fuel rods,
which have the property of absorbing neutrons. These rods can be moved up and down in the
reactor vessel. When they are moved down they absorb the released neutrons and damp the
nuclear reaction. Their withdrawal absorbs less number of neutrons and increases the rate of
nuclear reaction. Thus the rate of nuclear reaction can be controlled with the help of control
rods.
A good control rod should have the following properties:
a) Good capacity to transfer heat.
b) Stability at high temperature.
c) Good corrosion resistance.
d) Good strength and capacity to absorb neutrons at faster rate
4. Reflector
The neutrons in a fission reaction are partly absorbed by the fuel, moderator and coolant
materials. The remaining neutrons fry to escape from the reactor core. Such losses are to be
minimized to sustain chain reaction. This is achieved by a reflector that surrounds the reactor
core. Graphite and beryllium are generally used as reflectors.
The important properties of a good reflector material are: properties
a) It should have good thermal conductivity.
b) It should have good corrosion resistance.
c) It should have high stability under high temp
d) It should not absorb neutrons,
e) It should have good reflectivity.
5. Reactor Vessel
It is a strong steel container in which the fuel rods, moderator, control rods and the
reflector are arranged properly. Its function is to form a strong structural support for the
reactor core
6. Biological Shielding
This is a thick concrete or lead wall which surrounds the whole reactor system. The
main purpose of shielding is to avoid radiation hazards that may be caused by the escape of
various radio active radiation from the reactor core due to the nuclear reaction. The radiation
particles released are neutrons, gamma, alpha and beta rays. Of these the neutrons and
gamma rays are deadly particles.
A good biological shielding should possess the following properties:
a) It should have a high strength.
b) It should not allow radio active rays to pass through.
c) It should be stable under high temperature and pressure.
7. Coolant
The function of the coolant in a reactor is to transfer heat energy from the reactor core
to the boiler for steam generation. Coolants are used both in the primary and secondary cycles
in nuclear reactors. The commonly used coolants are water, heavy water, inert gases (such as
helium, carbon dioxide), and liquid metal such as sodium.
The important properties of a coolant are as follows:
a) It should be non-corrosive, non-toxic and chemically stabile.
b) It should riot absorb neutrons.
c) It should have a high boiling point.

5.5 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

Nuclear reactors can be classified as follows:
1. Based on Neutron Energy
a) Fast reactors: In these fission is caused by fast Neutrons, without any moderator.
b) Slow reactors: In these the fast Neutrons are slowed down by the moderator. The slowed
Neutrons cause the fission effect.
2. Based on the Fuel Used
a) Natural Fuel: These use natural uranium as fuel, generally with heavy water or graphite as
moderator.
b) Enriched Uranium: These use enriched uranium (540% U235) as fuel, with ordinary water
as moderator.
3. Based on the Moderator Used
a) Water (ordinary or heavy) b) Graphite c) Beryllium
4. Based on the Coolant Used
a) Water cooled Reactor (BWR, PWR)
b) Gas cooled reactor
c) Liquid Metal (Na or NaK) Cooled reactor
d) Organic Liquid Reactor
5. Based on the Coolant Cycle
a) Direct Cycle Reactor
b) Single Cycle Reactor
c) Double Cycle Reactor
The different types of reactors commonly used in power generation are briefly discussed
here.
5.5.1 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
Fig. 5-9 shows the schematic arrangement of a Boiling Water Reactor. Control Rods

This reactor uses enriched uranium as the fuel and water as the moderator. This
reactor in the category of direct cooling cycle reactor. In this reactor the coolant itself acts as
the working medium. The coolant i.e., water enters the reactor from the bottom to the core
and is evaporated due to the heat released by the nuclear reaction. The coolant that is
converted into steam leaves the reactor from the side. This steam is directly expanded in a
turbine. The turbine is coupled to a generator to produce electrical power. In this reactor, the
coolant itself acts as the moderator in the reactor core.
 A special feature of this reactor is that it is a self controlling type. When ever there is
a rise in the temperature of the core due to excessive reaction, the water gets fully vaporized
by the high temperature core. Since the vapour is not dense enough to moderate the neutrons,
the reactor goes sub-critical and stops the chain reaction. Therefore a BWR is also termed as
the Self Controlled Reactor.
Advantages
The main advantages of a BWR are as follows:
1) Pressure in the reactor vessel is lower than the pressure in the pressurized water reactor
(PWR), since the water boils inside and serves the purpose of both coolant and working
medium.
2) This is a direct coolant cycle type, and doesn't involve separate steam generator, pumps
and pipes.
3) The temperature in the core is less as compared to PWR.
4) This type of reactor is safer and economical to operate than other types of reactors.
5) The reactor is more stable as there is no danger of temperature rise due to the self
controlling action of the reactor.
6) This reactor has a higher thermal efficiency (about 30%).
Disadvantages
1) A BWR cannot meet sudden increase in power demand.
2) Since the steam leaving the reactor is radioactive, shielding of turbine and pipes is
necessary,
3) The reactor vessel size is considerably larger.
4) The fuel consumption is more in this type of reactor.

5.5.2 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Fig. 5.10 shows the schematic arrangement of a PWR. This reactor falls under the
ztegory of single circuit coolant cycle type of reactors. This uses enriched uranium as fuel,
and water as the moderator like in BWR. The only difference is that the coolant itself is not
the working medium, but transfers heat to water in the steam cycle as shown in figure.
 In operation, the coolant enters the reactor from the bottom, picks up heat and comes
out from the side. In the same circuit a pressurizer is provided, the function of which is to
maintain a constant high pressure in the-coolant circuit (80-100 bar). This is achieved by
heating water in the pressurizer by an external heating element, which generates steam and
collected at the dome. The steam generated then maintains its pressure on the water in the
coolant cycle. Due-to this the water in the reactor doesn't boil but carries more heat and
transfers to the water in the steam cycle through the heat exchanger (boiler). The steam raised
is used to generate power.

Advantages
1) The reactor vessel is more compact than BWR.
2) Since steam is generated in a separate cycle, it is free from radio active effects.
3) Heat transfer rate is high due to the pressurized coolant cycle.
4) The reactor can respond faster to sudden power demands.
5) Operation is cheaper as it uses water as the coolant and moderator.

Disadvantages
1) Requires shielding of the coolant cycle systems as it is radio active.
2) It has a low thermal efficiency.
3) The core temperature and pressure are very high.
4) Corrosion problems are more due to the above reasons.
5) The construction is complex and expensive.
Distinction between BWR and PWR The difference between BWR and PWR are listed
below:
Boiling water reactor Pressurised water reactor
1) It is a direct cycle system, in which the 1) It is an indirect cycle, single circuit system,
coolant itself acts as the working medium and in which the coolant transfers heat to the
directly boils at the reactor core. working medium.
2) pressure in the reactor vessel is lower since 2) Pressure in the reactor vessel arid the
the water boils inside and serves the purpose coolant circuit is increased by a pressuriser.
of both coolant and working medium. This helps in not to boil the water, but carry
3) The core temperature is low. more heat.
4) Steam is generated in a direct cycle, gets 3) The core temperature is high.
contaminated with radio-active effects. Also, 4) Steam is generated in a separate cycle, and
the turbine and pumps are to be shielded. hence it is free from radio-active effects. The
5) This reactor has a higher thermal efficiency turbine and pumps are not shielded.
(about 30%). 5) This reactor has a lower thermal efficiency.
6) This reactor cannot meet sudden increase 6) This reactor can respond faster to sudden
in power demand. power demands.

5.53 Liquid Metal Reactor (LMR) or Sodium Graphite Reactor

Fig. 5-11 illustrates the schematic arrangement of a liquid metal reactor. This reactor
falls under the category of double circuit coolant type of reactor. This reactor uses enriched
uranium as the fuel, liquid metal and alloys such as sodium and NaK as coolant, and graphite
as the moderator. This is also popularly known as Sodium Graphite Reactor, since it uses
sodium as the coolant and graphite as the moderator. However, it requires two coolant cycles,
whose primary circuit uses sodium (Na) as the coolant, whereas the secondary circuit uses an
alloy of sodium-potassium (NaK) as the coolant.
 In operation Na picks up heat energy from the core and transfers it to NaK in the
secondary coolant circuit through an intermediate heat exchanger. In turn, NaK transfers the
heat to water in the boiler to raise steam, which is used to run the turbines and generate
power,
Sodium melts at 98°C, boils at 885°C and has very high thermal conductivity, which
more than 100 times that of water. This helps to achieve high coolant temperature at the
reactor outlet at moderate pressures, which is useful to raise high temperature steam. This
increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.
Advantages
1) High temperature steam is produced at low reactor pressure because of the use of sodium
as the coolant.
2) Higher power output is possible.
3) The pressure in the primary and the secondary coolant circuits is low, hence, needs low •
cost piping.
4) The life of moderator (graphite) is more.
5) Thermal efficiency of the plant is very high (30-40%).
Disadvantages
1) The plant size is more due to more number of circuits.
2) Plant cost is more due to costly coolants and moderator.
3) Primary and secondary circuits need shielding.
4) Sodium leakage, if any, is very dangerous.
5) Sodium if comes in contact with water at high temperature forms highly reactive caustic
soda, and leads to corrosion.
5.5.4 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
Fig. 5-12 shows the schematic arrangement of a FBR. The principle of operation of a
FBR is same as that of a sodium graphite reactor except for the moderator used. This reactor
doesn't use a moderator but the reactor core is surrounded by a blanket/layer of fertile
material like U-238 or Th-232. These materials absorb the fast neutrons thus acting as the
moderator, but also become fissionable materials. The blanket material after absorbing
neutrons becomes a fissionable material (U-238 becomes Pu-239 and Th-232 becomes
U-233), which can be further used as nuclear fuel. The blanket converted into a fissionable
material is called as secondary fuel. Since, in this reactor a secondary fuel is produced by fast
neutrons of primary fuel, Vs termed Fast Breeder Reactor.
Advantages of FBR
1) There is no need for moderator.
2) It has high power density, hence it used a small reactor core.
3) It produces fissionable material, that can be used as fuel.
4) As the neutrons are absorbed by the breeder blanket, radiation hazards are minimal.
5) It is more economical, as it generates nuclear fuel. Control Rods

Fig. 5-12. Fast Breeder Reactor

Disadvantages of FBR
1) It requires a high quality enriched fuel.
2) The reactor control is difficult, as the neutron flux is high.
3) Primary and secondary circuits need shielding.
4) Sodium is highly reactive and its leakage and handling is very dangerous.
5) Because of dual circuit, piping, etc., operation and maintenance costs are high.
5.5.5 Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR)
Fig. 5-13 shows the simple line diagram of a gas cooled reactor. In this reactor, the
coolant picks up heat from the core and transfers to a working medium as in a single circuit
reactor. A gas cooled reactor can also be a direct cycle type of reactor like BWR, in which the
hot coolant itself acts as the working medium, and used to run a gas turbine. This type of
reactors use secondary nuclear fuels like Pu-239 or U-233 as the fuel, gases like carbon
dioxide, hydrogen or helium as the coolants, with graphite as the moderator.
In operation, the CO2 gas enters the core from the bottom, absorbs heat from the core
and leaves the vessel from the top or side. The hot gas enters a heat exchanger where it gives
out its heat content to evaporator in the steam circuit to raise steam. In the same heat
exchanger, there is an additional circuits of economizer to preheat the boiler feed water, and
super heater to superheat the saturated steam are provided. The steam raised is used to run a
steam turbine coupled to an alternator.

Fig. 5-13. Gas cooled reactor

Advantages
1) It makes use of secondary processed fuel which is economical.
2) No danger of corrosion of fuel rods.
3) Reactor can operate at higher temperature without the danger of explosion.
Disadvantages
1) Low power density due to low heat transfer coefficient.
2) Coolant circulation requires more power.
3) Fuel handling is somewhat complicated.
5.5.6 CANDU Reactor (Heavy water cooled and moderated)
CANDU stands for CANadian Deuterium Uranium. This is a heavy water (D20)
cooled and moderated reactor, using natural uranium as the fuel. That means there is no need
for enriched uranium. This type of reactor was first developed in Canada. Fig. 5-14 shows the
schematic diagram of a CANDU type of reactor. The working principle of a CANDU reactor
is similar to a PWR except for the moderator and coolant used. Heavy water in the coolant
circuit transfers heat from the reactor core to water in the steam cycle and steam is raised.
The heavy water acts as the coolant as well as the moderator to control the nuclear reaction
without the need for control rod. The heavy water level in the vessel controls the reaction.
Advantages
1) It uses natural uranium as the fuel, hence economy in fuel cost.
2) Operating vessel pressures are very low.
3) No need for control rods as the reaction is controlled by the moderator itself.
4) Heavy water results in higher multiplication factor and low fuel consumption.
5) The reactor is simpler in construction compared to other types, hence economical.

Fig. 5-14. CANDU reactor

Disadvantages
1) Heavy water is expensive.
2) Leakage problems are more in heavy water reactors.
3) The reactor size is very large, since power density is low.
5.6 DISPOSAL OF NUCLEAR WASTES
In a nuclear power plant operation, the reactor produces α,β,γ and neutron radiations.
Of all these, γ radiation is the most dangerous which is capable of destroying all the
biological matter and living beings with which it contacts. In fact, the operation of a reactor is
very safe and it fully protects the operators from any radiation hazards (or at least keeps the
radiation exposure of humans within the permissible limits as prescribed by the International
Standards). However, the nuclear operation waste are more dangerous which emit a high
intensity nuclear radiation.
Thus, disposal of nuclear wastes in a proper manner is most essential. Radio active
emission from the nuclear wastes cause atmospheric pollution which is hazardous to health.
The radio activity has got very harmful effects on the living beings. These wastes are toxic
and remain active on man, animals and plants as long as 1000 years. This affects the
reproductively in all living beings. This leads to impaired bone formation, improper growth
of fetus and improper development of the brain. The wastes may be in solid, liquid and/or in
gaseous forms and the disposal has to be done in a careful manner.
Nuclear wastes are produced in a nuclear power at various points. Three main source of
wastes in a nuclear power plant are:
1) Fission products: These are products of fission process of the nuclei of the solid nuclear
fuels.
2) Neutron activation products: These are produced when fast neutrons are absorbed by the
materials. These affect the primary coolant, fuel cladding and the structures around the core
of the reactor.
3) Actinides: These products are produced in the reactor due to neutron absorption by
uranium. Most actinides like neptunium, americium, and curium are all nuclear wastes that
are produced during fission reaction (except plutonium, which is a useful fission fuel).
There are three categories of nuclear wastes:
1) High level waste: Materials that have radioactivity above 11000 curie.
2) Medium level waste: Materials that have radioactivity in the range of 100 and 1000 curie.
3) Low level waste: Materials that have radioactivity below 100 curie.
Some of the important methods of disposal of nuclear wastes are as follows:
1) Disposal of Solid wastes The solid wastes are usually dumped under deep ground or sea.
The wastes are to be protected from the external environment so that the radiation does not
spread. For this some sealing methods are used. There are two common methods adopted for
sealing the solid wastes.
a) Cement casting: The wastes are cast in cement in a steel drum. The main
advantage of sealing with cement is that cement once sets it is quite strong, non-combustible,
resists leaching by ground water, and completely protects the waste from the environment
interaction. The steel drum provides additional safety against handling damages and exposure
of the cast wastes.
b) Borosilicate glass capsules: In this, the wastes are sealed in a borosilicate glass
capsule and stored in leak tight steel capsules. The borosilicate glass capsules are corrosion
resistant, they avoid any physical contact and contamination with the external environment.
The steel covers protect against handling damages and keep the glass capsule safe in storage.
i) Underground disposal
The sealed cement casts or the glass capsules are then buried in deep salt mines or in
deep seas. Salt deposits are selected because there will be no under ground water in such
vicinity for thousands of years. One method of storing the sealed wastes under ground salt
deposits id shown in Fig. 5-15.

Fig. 5-15. Underground disposal

 In this system of disposal, a deep cavity is excavated under the ground below 500
meters in salt mines. The sealed steel containers with the solid wastes are stored safely using
suitable remote handling and storage mechanism. For this a TV camera, lift, crane and other
handling devices are used. The safe positioning of the sealed wastes are controlled remotely
through the TV camera monitor. The openings in the excavation are properly sealed with lead
plates after the storage area is completely filled. This method of nuclear waste disposal in
under ground salt mines is most suitable and safe for both very high and medium level
wastes..
ii) Rock Salt (over the ground) disposal
Another method of disposal is to use the rock salt mines above the ground. This disposal
method is schematically illustrated in Fig. 5-16. For this purpose a suitable rock salt mine is
selected. A cavity is drilled and dug under the rock salt. The sealed drums with the wastes are
dumped in the cavity, and the filled cavity is sealed with salt and the site is barred for any
human contacts. However, this method of nuclear waste disposal in rock salt mines above the
ground level is suitable only for low level wastes and not safe for high level wastes.
The advantages of disposal of nuclear wastes in salt mines are:
a) It is easy to dug large cavities in salt mines, as the salt is in layer forms and peels of easily
under load.
b) Salt is a strong absorber of radioactive emission, and provides a safe protection.
c) It acts as an efficient barrier between the waste storage area and the biosphere.

Fig. 5-16. Rock salt mine disposal

d) Generally, the vicinity of salt mines are free from ground water sources, hence there is no
danger of ground water contamination.

iii). Sea disposal

Solid and liquid wastes can also be disposed safely into deep seas. However, enough
care should be taken to see that the disposed wastes do not pollute the sea and harm the sea
life around. The main advantage of nuclear waste disposal into the sea is that certain sea
sediments are capable of absorbing transuranic isotopes from the nuclear wastes, so that the
waste becomes less harmful after some time. Also, if the sealed containers can be buried deep
below the sea bed, so that the radioactivity will ever remain under the sea and never reaches
the water level.
The important factors to be considered for the disposal of nuclear wastes into the sea are as
follows:
a) The containers should be strong and corrosion resistant, so that the wastes remain in sealed
condition for a prolonged period.
b)The sea location should have very low water flow current, so that the disposed wastes are
not moved away from-their original location.
c) Chemical and thermal nature of the sediments in the sea location so as to analyse the
radiation absorption characteristics from the wastes.
The low and medium level wastes can be directly disposed into the sea using suitable
sealed containers. The high level wastes cannot be straight away disposed into the sea. Before
they are disposed into the sea, the high level wastes are be stored in the intermediate storage
until they decay to a sufficiently low level. The containers used for sea disposal must be able
to survive the sea corrosion at least for about 300 years, so that fission products decay below
he dangerous level of living beings.
2) Disposal of Liquid wastes
The liquid wastes are diluted with larger quantities of water and released into the
ground. But this may contaminate the under ground water if dilution factor is not adequate.
Also, the liquid wastes can be concentrated, stored in leak proof capsules and buried in deep
salt mines like solid wastes.
3) Gaseous wastes
These wastes easily and quickly cause atmospheric pollution. These are disposed by
diluting them with air, passing through filters and discharging to the atmosphere through high
level chimneys.