C-7 TIDAL POWER,OTEC AND GTEC

7.1 TIDAL POWER

Tide is a periodic rise and fall of the water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the attraction of
sea water by the moon and the sun. These tides can be used to produce electrical power, and it is
termed as Tidal Power. When the water is above the mean sea level it is termed flood tide or high
tide, and when the level is below the mean sea level it is termed ebb tide or low tide.

7.1.1 Principle of Generation of Tides

As mentioned, tides are produced by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun on sea
water. The gravitational force of the moon is a major cause of the tides (about three-fourth of the
tides) while that of the sun is minor (about one-fourth). Hence, moon contributes to a major
portion of the tidal energy. In the tide formation, the sea water at the surface is pulled out from
the earth (due to attraction from the moon), while the solid earth below the waters is pulled away
from the water on the bottom side (due to attraction from the sun). This leads to the formation of
high tides in the two opposite directions, and at the same time forming low tides at the
intermediate points, perpendicular to the direction of gravitational pull. Due to the earth's
rotation, the relative. positions of earth and moon change, and hence the position of the tides also
change periodically. This causes the formation of two tidal cycles (2 high tides and 2 low tides)
during a lunar day. Each lunar day is equal to 24 hrs and 50 minutes, which is the apparent time
of revolution of the moon about the earth. Thus, the time between a high tide and a low tide is
about 6 hrs. 12 minutes. A high tide will be experienced at that time when earth is directly under
the moon. At the same time, a diametrically opposite point on the earth's surface will also
undergo a high tide due to dynamic balancing. The rise and fall of the water level follows a
sinusoidal Curve, as shown in Fig. 7-1.

Fig. 7-1. High and low tide curve

In the figure, point A indicates the high tide and point B indicates the low tide. The average time
for each tide to rise to its peak and fall back to the mean sea level (from point 1 to A and back to
point 2) is about 6 hrs. 12.5 minutes. Similarly, for the tide to reach its lowest point is
approximately takes the same time. From rise and fall of the tide from point 1 to A to 2 to B and
to 3, completes one cycle of the tide, which takes about half a lunar day.

Fig. 7-2. Tides due to sun and moon positions

The rise and fall of the tide from its peak to its lowest point is termed the tidal range (TR
in figure). During full moon and new moon days the sun, moon and the earth fall approximately
in a straight line. This increases the gravitational forces of sun and moon on the earth, and thus
increasing the tidal range. In these periods, the tidal range is very large with high tides and low
tides on their extremes. These high tides are termed spring tides (Fig. 7-2a). During the first and
third quarters of the moon, when the sun and moon are at right angles with respect to the earth
the low tide occurs and this is termed neap tide (Fig.-7-2b). Hence, the tidal range varies from
the new moon day to full moon day. The typical mean range is about one-third of the spring
range.

7.1.2 Power from Tidal Waves

The basic principle of harnessing tidal energy involves the construction of a dam in such a way
that.a basin is separated from the sea and a difference in the water level is obtained between the
basin and sea. The constructed basin is filled during high tide and emptied during low tide
passing through slices and turbine respectively. The potential energy of the water stored in the
basin is used to drive the turbine which in turn generates electricity as it is coupled directly to an
alternator. The main components of a tidal plant are:

a) The power house

b) The barrage (dam) to form the basin

c) Sluice-ways

d) Turbine-generator

The construction and working of a tidal power plant is shown in Fig. 7-3. The barrage (or small
dam) is the basic component of a tidal plant. It is essential to form a barrier between the sea and
the basin, so that water can be collected in the basin from the sea during high tides.

Fig. 7-3. Operation of tidal power plant

The sluice-ways are required either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin
during the low tide. These are in the form of gates and used as and when operational
requirements arise. Power house is situated adjacent to the sluice-ways. It has the
turbine-generator kept inside.

7.1.3 Classification of Tidal Plants

The different techniques for tidal energy harnessing available are:

1) Single basin - one way system

2) Single basin - two way system

3) Single basin - two way system with pumped storage

4) Double basin system

5) Double basin with pumped storage

1) Single Basin-One Way Cycle

In this a basin is allowed to fill in flood tide. There is a dam with sluice gates and power house at
the neck of the basin as shown in Fig. 7-4. During ebb-tide the basin starts emptying through
tubes, which are connected to turbines, thus running them. These turbines in turn run a generator
to produce power.

Fig. 7-4. Single basin plant

2) Single Basin-Two Way Cycle

This is similar to one way cycle type. But power is developed during both flood-tide and
ebb-tide. During flood tide the sea water level increases and flows to the basin, while turbine is
run and power are generated. The collected water flows back from the basin to the sea during
ebb-tide, and again turbine is run and power is developed.

The main difficulty in this system is that, the same prime mover (turbine) should be
arranged and designed to run in both direction of flood and ebb-tides. In pumped type, pumps are
used to pump the water driven by the same generator.

3) Double Basin type

In this type of system, a turbine-generator is set up between two basins as shown in Fig. 7-5. One
basin is intermittently filled by the flood tide and other is intermittently drained by the ebb-tide.
Therefore a small capacity but continuous power is made available with this system.
 Fig. 7-5. Double basin plant

4) Double basin-with pumped storage

In this the water from the low basin is pumped back to the high basin during peak-off periods,
using the energy produced by the generator.

7.1.4 Site Selection for Tidal Plants

The selection of a suitable site for the construction of a tidal power plant depends on various
factors. Some major factors include:

1. Barrage: Barrage is a dam of small height (20 m) constructed to withstand water heads,
between the sea and the basin. The site selected shall be convenient and naturally suitable for the
barrage construction, preferably with a narrow junction.

2. Sea condition: The site selected should have a flat sea bottom with strong soil characteristics,
so that barrage can be constructed easily. If the sea bottom is sandy it requires piling, which
makes the construction costly.

3. Basin location: The basin is the small reservoir which is separated by the barrage from the sea.
The basin should be naturally formed, and should have sufficient capacity to hold the water due
to high tide. Also, it should be at a convenient altitude with respect to the sea bottom.

4. plant capacity: The tidal plant capacity is proportional to product of tidal range and the volume
of water flowing from the sea to the basin, and later from the basin back to the sea. The site
selected should be optimum to meet this power capacity requirement, so that power can be
generated economically.

7.1.5 Advantages ft Disadvantages of Tidal Plants Advantages

1. Tidal power is available freely, and in abundance.

2. It is free from pollution and noise.

3. It is superior to hydro-power plants, as it is totally independent of rain, which always

fluctuates year to year. Therefore, there is certainty of power supply as the tide cycle is very
definite.

4. It has a unique capacity to meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in
combination with thermal or hydroelectric system.

5. It can provide better recreational facilities to visitors and holiday makers, in addition to the
possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins.

6. It is highly economical as the initial investment and maintenance costs are minimal.

Disadvantages

1. These power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available.

2. The sites are available on the bay, which will be always far away from the load centers, hence
the power generated must be transported to long distances. This makes the cost of production
expensive.

3. The supply of power is not continuous, as it depends upon the timing of tides.

4. The capital cost of the plant (Rs. 5000 per kW) is considerably large as compared to the
conventional power plants, such as the hydroelectric plant.

5. Sedimentation and siltation of the basins are some of the problems with the tidal power plants

7.2 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

7.2.1 Principle of OTEC

Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE) has its main source in the oceans, which in turn is originated from
the sun. Absorption of solar energy at the surface of the ocean creates a relatively warm layer of
water (27 to 29°C) that remains above the colder (4 to 7°C), more dense water layer in the lower
depths of the ocean. Rotation of the earth causes the cold water coming from the direction of the
poles to flow slowly along the ocean base towards the tropics. In the tropical region, the cold
water density decreases. The water warmed in this manner, flows at the surface in another
current toward the Polar Regions. The cycle is repeated as the water cools and starts a return trip
towards the tropics. These broad currents of water carry great amounts of thermal energy. The
temperature difference between the two streams is of the order of 20 to

250C which is an attractive source for the generation of electric power. This thermal energy is
used for running a turbine (using open or closed cycle) and generates electric energy.
 These broad currents of water carry great amounts of thermal energy and represent
potential sources of electric power. The feasibility of converting ocean thermal energy into
electrical energy is dependent upon the existence of two broad currents of water, one warm and
the other cold, flowing in close proximity to each other. There are numerous such locations near
tropical waters, such as Caribbean sea and the Gulf stream.

The OTE power plants are generally large and expensive installation. Also they have to
handle very large volumes of warm water (the heat source) and cold water (heat sink). But there
is no investment on the fuel like in fossil fuel plants and also there is problem of environmental
pollution. However, the design of an ocean thermal energy plant requires an efficient design of
the system, construction of an economical plant and the transportation to the market from the
sea.

7.2.2 OTE Power Plant Development

In 1882, D'Arsonval suggested that it is possible generate power based on the ocean thermal
energy, by utilising the energy in the warm surface water of the ocean and rejecting heat to the
colder water of the lower layer.

The first attempt to utilize the OTE was made in 1926 by G. Claude, a French scientist.
He constructed a 40 kW land-based OTEC power plant near Cuba. In his plant, a part of the
warm surface water was converted into steam in a low-pressure flash evaporator operating at a
high vacuum. In the flash evaporating process, sensible (heat) energy in the water gets converted
into latent energy. The steam produced in the evaporator was expanded in a turbine and
subsequently condensed by direct contact with the cold sea water piped from the lower layer in
the ocean.

However, Claude's system to utilize the OTE for power generation was not successful,
mainly due to reasons like corrosive nature of the sea water (corrosion resistance materials were
expensive), the pressure was low as water was evaporated at low temperature, high pumping
work required for operations, requirement of very large turbine, and conveying the cold
sea-water to the power plant over a long distance.

Thus, Claude's experiment demonstrated that the OTE power plant will inherently require
large components, have a relatively low power output, and operate at a high vacuum when the
working fluid is water.

7.2.3 Problems Encountered in Harnessing OTE

1) The sea water is more corrosive, thus the life of the plant is less.

2) The water can be evaporated (in a flash evaporator) at low temperatures only, thus the
corresponding pressure is low, thus only smaller outputs are possible.
3) Much pumping work is required to remove the non- condensable gases.

4) The specific volume is more due to low pressure and temperature. This necessitates a large
turbine.

5) The plants have to be based at lands, some distance away from the OTE source. This requires
long pipelines to convey cold sea water to the power plant.

6) Due to low output and large components the cost of the OTE power plant is high.

7) The plant requires expensive and large size structures for installation and operation.

7.2.4 Advantages Et Disadvantages of OTE plants Advantages

1) OTE is available free of cost, and in large quantities.

2) OTE is non-polluting and non-depleting in nature.

Disadvantages

1) Arrangement of the plants very difficult.

2) The power developed is not continuous.

3) Transmission costs are high.

4) Cost per unit of power generated is high.

5) Sea water corrosion problem is severe.

7.2.5 Open Cycle OTEC System

The open cycle OTEC systems, also known by the name Claude system, are a practically feasible
system to convert ocean thermal energy into useful electrical energy. It makes use of the sea
water as the working medium. It is termed open cycle, since the condensate of the working
medium is not recycled. The principle of operation of an open OTEC system is shown in Fig.
7-6.

In this the warm water at the top layer of the sea is passed through a deaerator, and flash
evaporated under partial vacuum. The vacuum pump removes the non-condensate and exhausts
to the atmosphere. The flash evaporated water is converted into a low pressure steam, which is
used to run a steam turbine. The exhaust steam is cooled in a condenser and the condensate is
discharged back to the sea. The turbine is coupled to a generator to generate electric energy. In
this fashion, ocean thermal energy is converted into electric energy in open OTEC system.
 Fig. 7-6. Open cycle OTEC system

7.2.6 Closed Rankine Cycle OTEC System

In 1965, J.H. Anderson presented in considerable detail a conceptual design of an OTE

power plant encased in a submerged structure anchored in deep water of the Caribbean sea. The
plant was designed to operate with a thermal differential of 20°C between the warm surface
water and the colder water in a layer 600 m below the surface. Approximately 14% of the gross
power generated by the plant was consumed by the plant auxiliary equipment.

The closed Rankine cycle OTEC power plant operates with a low boiling fluid like
propane as the working medium (the other low boiling fluids that can be used are ammonia,
R-12, R-22, etc.). The schematic representation of this system is shown in Fig. 7-7.

The warm sea water flows through a heat exchanger, the boiler, in which the low-boiling
point propane is evaporated. Propane vapour at a pressure of about 1035 kPa (absolute), propane
expands ill the turbine to a pressure of about 690 kPa (absolute). Condensation of the vapor is
effected in a surface condenser by transfer of heat to the cold sea water. The temperature increase
in the cooling water is about 3 to 4°C. Special attention must be given for the design of heat
exchangers, in order to reduce all secondary temperature drops, because these elements (Heat
exchangers) are very large, and to obtain highest possible drop in temperature through turbine.

Special attention must be given for the design of heat exchangers, in order to reduce all
secondary temperature drops, because these elements (Heat exchangers) are very large, and to
obtain highest possible drop in temperature through turbine.

Also, the operating pressure in the closed propane cycle is high, and hence a turbine of
reasonable size and cost is to be used. Vacuum and dearation problems are eliminated by
operation of the thermal cycle above atmospheric pressure.
 Fig. 7-7. Closed Rankine cycle OTEC system

7.3 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (GTEC)

7.3.1 Utilization of Geothermal Energy (GTE)

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in under ground deposits as steam, hot water and
hot dry rock. The inner core of the earth is highly radioactive, and as a consequence a natural
flow of heat occurs from the core to the surface of earth, which can be harnessed into useful
energy.

Geothermal energy is normally found in two basic forms, namely, in subterranean hot
water or hot dry rock. In some locations, the vapour phase of the hot water is predominant, hence
the geothermal energy source is described as steam. Where the hot water is entirely in the liquid
phase, the term geo-hydrotherma or geo-pressurized, is applied.

The utilization of GTE is being investigated through a number of research and

development programs. Like the solar and wind energy, GTE is quantitatively significant, but the
extraction of this energy from the ground and subsequent conversion to electrical energy is not
cost free and not without certain operating problems. But, geothermal energy generation is not
subject to interruptions that are inherent in solar and wind power generation. The Geothermal
power plant is capable of continuous operation,--provided that the generating capability properly
matches the energy supply. There are many locations in the world where geothermal steam and
water (hot) are utilized for heating buildings. Even it can be used for industrial processing.

7.3.2 Geothermal Power Plant Operation

The geothermal power plant operates on a simple, low-pressure steam power cycle. At the
Geysers, the turbines operate with inlet steam pressures of 450 and 690 kPa. Boiler and handling
equipment are not required. Also, since there is no need to conserve the condensate, a
direct-contact condenser can be used.

The geothermal steam discharged from a well contains a quantity of non-condensable

gases that can cause operating difficulties, including corrosion in the condensing system. These
gases are removed from the steam in the condenser by the vacuum pump, usually a steam jet
ejector, and expelled into the atmosphere.

Most of the wells drilled for geothermal power production discharge a mixture of steam and
water. If the hydrostatic pressure is sufficiently high at the bottom of the well, the water will
flow, unaided to the surface. Hot water rising in the well and subjected to reduced pressure,
partially flashes into vapour. At the well head the water is mechanically removed from the
mixture in cyclone separators, and the relatively dry steam is transported to the power station.

The steam and water mixture flowing from the geothermal wells contains dissolved solids
that are particularly trouble some. It ranges from 1 to 20 gm per kg of water. In addition to the
dissolved solids some wells may give out the mixture containing some acids. In general, the
dissolved solids and acids in geothermal water cause scaling and corrosion. Scale formation can
be particularly severe in the outflow pipeline in which the discarded water is carried away from
the separator.

Geothermal power production cause air and water pollution in operation. Ear splitting
noise caused by escaping steam and the escape of radioactive gases are other objectionable
characteristics that have been observed.

7.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of GTE

Advantages

1) GTE is available free of cost, in large quantities.

2) There are no interruptions in GTE conversion as in solar and wind energy conversions.

3) It is capable of continuous operation.

4) Boiler and Fuel handling equipment are not required.

5) There is no need to conserve the condensate, thus a direct contact condensate can be used.

6) Operation and maintenance costs are less.

Disadvantages

1) Such plants will always be located far away from the load centers.
2) Erection and installation costs are high.

3) It causes air, water, thermal and noise pollution. Ear-splitting noise caused by the escaping
steam causes noise pollution.

4) The hot water geothermal sources have higher mineral contents and their disposal is a
problem.

5) Seismic activities are caused, if water is injected into hot rocks to recover the thermal energy.

7.3.4 Sources of Geothermal Energy

The various sources of geothermal energy are as follows-

1) Hydrothermal systems: In these, water is heated by contact with hot-rock in the earth's crust.
The temperature of the steam raised by this is in the range of 150 to 200°C.

2) Geopressure system: These sources are similar to hydrothermal systems, and are reservoirs of
high temperature water under high pressures (50 to 100 MPa).

3) Hot dry rocks (HDR): Also termed petrothermal systems, are very hot solid rocks available in
the earth's crust at medium depths (2 to 5 km). The temperature is of the order of 300°C.

4) Magma source: These are molten rocks with temperature much above 750°C, available in
deep earth's crust. Presently, the hydrothermal systems and hot dry rocks are more feasible for
geothermal energy harnessing.

1. Hydrothermal Systems

In these, water is heated by contact with hot-rock in the earth's crust. These are two types of
hydrothermal systems:

a) Steam dominated systems

In this type of geothermal system, water is vaporised into steam at the lower level in the earth's
crust. The steam rises to the earths surface in a dry state (about 200°C and more than 2 MPa
pressure). This dry steam can be used conveniently and directly to run steam turbines and
generate electric power. The schematic of such a system is illustrated in Fig. 7-8.
 Fig. 7-8. Steam dominated geothermal energy system

b) Liquid dominated systems - Flash steam Open System

This is a major geothermal energy source, which is liquid dominated (hot water), and
steam is obtained by the use of a flash separator. The schematic arrangement of a flash steam
open geothermal system is illustrated in Fig. 7-9.

Fig. 7-9. Liquid dominated (flash steam) geothermal energy system

 In this type of geothermal system, hot water at about 150°C under high pressure available
under the earth's crust is utilised. Since the water is under pressure, it does not boil even above
100°C. When trapped by wells, the high pressure hot water rises to the well surface and looses its
pressure. The drop in pressure causes it to partially flash to a two phase mixture of low quality
(i.e., water dominated) steam. During this the hot water undergoes a constant enthalpy throttling
process, and changes into a two-phase water-steam low quality mixture. This low quality mixture
is then throttled in a flash separator, further reducing the pressure but with a improved quality.
Here the mixture gets separated into dry saturated steam and saturated brine. The dry steam from
the separator is used to run turbines and generate electricity, while the brine is pumped back into
the ground.

2. Geopressure System

These sources are similar to hydrothermal systems and are available in large sedimentary
basins, deep down the crust. These are reservoirs of high temperature water under high pressures
(50 to 100 MPa). This water contains natural gas of high calorific value in dissolved state, which
can be obtained with the release of pressure. Geopressured water is trapped in very deep
underground aquifers. The depths are in the range of 2.5 to 10 km. This high pressure water
exists in the temperature range of 150-160°C and above 100 MPa. It has high salinity of about
5-10% (as good as brine). Geopressure systems are sources of both steam power and natural gas.

3. Hot Dry Rocks

Hot dry rocks are also termed petrothermal systems. These are very hot solid rocks available in
the earth's crust at medium depths (2 to 5 km). The temperature of the dry rocks is of the order of
300°C, which is quite sufficient to produce steam. These dry rocks in real hot i condition, as
there is no water contact. To exploit this hot energy source, cold water is pumped into the hot
rocks, which becomes hot and get evaporated. The hot water or steam so produced is passed
through a suitable heat exchanger, to produce steam and run a steam turbine, for power
generation. The schematic of such a system is illustrated in Fig. 7-10.

4. Magma Source

These are molten rocks with temperature much above 750°C, available in deep earth crust. Such
beds are found generally in the active volcanic regions these have very large geothermal energy
content, but it is difficult to extract energy because of very high temperatures. To generate the
power the heat energy of the magma has to be tapped by drilling holes close to the magma
chamber, where the temperature is around 18000C. The energy is then extracted by circulating
water to produce steam and then run turbines.
 Fig. 7-10. Hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal energy system

7.3.5 Problems in Geothermal Energy Conversion Systems

There are a number problems associated with the operation of geothermal systems. Some
of the major problems are discussed here.

1) Solid particles and non-condensable Gases:

The steam/water from hydrothermal reservoirs contain solid particles and non-condensable
gases. The solid particles are removed using centrifugal separators at the well exit and by
strainers before the turbine entry. This leads to pressure and temperature loss and hence loss of
the thermal efficiency of the complete system.

The main non-condensable4ase9p-the geothermal sources are CO2 (70 to 80%) and small
amounts of methane, H2, N2, NH3 and H2S. These gases along with the fluid enter equipments
and also escape to the atmosphere through condenser, ejectors and cooling towers. These gases
in the equipments cause corrosion and scaling problems. The gases, particularly H2S (a
poisonous gas), are also harmful to the living beings:

2) Discharge of Used Water: Discharging large quantities of used water from the geothermal
systems to rivers and seas will cause water pollution (both thermal and chemical). This may
make the water toxic and becomes hazardous to the animals and users. A possible solution to this
problem is to reinject the used water into the well so that land subsidence can be minimised and
also avoid environmental pollution.

3) Noise Pollution: In geothermal systems noise pollution is also a major problem. Exhausts,
blow down and centrifugal separators work always with high noise, which is hazardous to the
working people. The noise can be minimised by using silencers and its effect on working people
can be reduced by using noise protective devices.

4) Atmospheric Pollution: The harmful gases in the geothermal water after use will escape,(from
the cooling tower, separator, etc.) and cause atmospheric pollution. Hydrogen, sulphide (H2S} is
highly toxic and harmful to the living beings.

Air pollution is severe due to the emission aft heavy radioactive gases and hydrogen sulphide gas
from the wells. Due to its poor steam condition, geothermal plant discharges more thermal
energy into environment (3 times that of a conventional thermal plant) causing thermal pollution.
The steam-water from well brings many corrosive substances which when mixed with
atmospheric water, cause water pollution.

5) Subsidence: The removal of huge quantities of underground water causes land subsidence
(collapse of ground layers, and fall in the ground level). Subsidence causes stressing of pipelines
and damage to the structures/foundations. This problem can be greatly reduced by reinjection of
the used water.

5) Seismic Activity: it is also possible that underground water exploitation is done. land
subsidence. Even the reinjection of high temperature difference. earth quakes may take place, if
continuous One cause could be the large underground used water may cause seismic activity due
to high temperature difference.

7) Fog due to escaping steam: The entry of steam from the cooling towers, separators into the
environment may lead to the formation of dense fog which many drift to the nearby busy living
areas and cause problems. Also the temperature of the environment may increase leading to
thermal pollution and cause discomfort in the surrounding areas due to increases in humidity.

8) Sand & other solid particles: The high pressure water from the geothermal system usually
carries sand and other solid particles. These cause separation problem, erosion and scaling
problems in the equipments. This-Causes a lot of maintenance problems for the plant and loss of
efficiency.