SPORT, EXCERSISE & HEALTH

SCIENCE
TOPIC Nº 2 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

2.1 Structure and Function of the

Ventilatory System

(5 hours)
Prof. MSc. María Carla Cuende Fanton
2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system

The principle structures of the respiratory system are:

 Nose
 Mouth
 Pharynx
 Larynx: voice box
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Lungs
 Alveoli
2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system

 Smooth muscle tissue

produces smooth, rhythmical
and involuntary actions (e.g.
movement of blood and air in
the lungs).

 The trachea is a thin walled

tube composed of very thin,
tough connective tissue and
is strengthened at intervals
by incomplete rings of
cartilage.

 The trachea muscle runs

down the posterior wall of
the trachea. This is an
example of smooth muscle.
2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system

Upper R.S. (above the thorax)

 Nose,
 Sinuses,
 Pharynx, and
 Larynx.

Lower R.S. (in the thorax)

 Trachea,
 Bronchial tree,
 Lungs, and
 Diaphragm.
2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system

 Nose: Hairs filter air, mucous

moistens and catches small
particles.

 Pharynx: Pathway of air AND

food.

 Larynx: “Voicebox” contains the

epiglottis which keeps food out of
trachea.

Vocal chords: Fibrous elastic bands that

“tuned” with vocal muscles.
2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system

 Trachea and Bronchial

Tree: Rigid “tubing”
embedded with
cartilaginous rings.
Smooth muscle can
constrict these.

 Lung: Bronchial tree ends

in bundles of microscopic
airsacs called alveoli (300
million of them).

Alveoli are surrounded by blood

capillaries where gas exchange occurs.

O2 IN and CO2 OUT

2.1.2 Outline the functions of the conducting airways
1. Gas exchange.
2. Filter, warm, humidify air.
3. Low resistance pathway for airflow.
4. Regulate pH in the body.
5. Sounds and speech.
6. Defence against chemicals and other harmful substances that
are inhaled
2.1.2 Outline the functions of the conducting airways

 The nostrils are fringed with coarse hair,

which strains large particles out of the
airstream and may also serve to protect
the nasal cavity against chemicals and
other harmful substances that are inhaled.

 The interior of the nasal cavity contains

projections of considerable surface area.
Nasal cavity
These projections, nasal conchae, make
the airstream turbulent and subsequently
warm and hydrate it.

 Thanks to the structure of the nose, air

entering the trachea is virtually 100%
humidified.
2.1.2 Outline the functions of the conducting
airways

 Air passes through the 3 portions of the

pharynx, which provides a low resistance
path for airflow, to the trachea via the larynx.

 In addition to it’s function as the voice box

the larynx protects the trachea from invasion
by foods and fluids.

 The cartilaginous trachea, branches into the

two main bronchi.

The lining of the tracheobronchial system is designed to

protect the lungs from dehydration and invasion by
foreign particles, including micro-organisms.
2.1.2 Outline the functions of the conducting
airways
 The lungs themselves develop at the end of the bronchi. They are
elastic spongy organs.

 Gas exchange is carried out by a complex of structures at the end

of each terminal bronchioles.

 Simple thin walled structures which also have numerous thin-

walled outpocketings called alveoli, which are specialised for the
function of gaseous exchange.
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms

Only contraction of diaphragm is needed but chest elevating muscles

may aid during heavy breathing.

1. Muscle contractions increase

volume of thorax

2. Greater volume of thoracic

cavity lowers air pressure

3. Air moves in from atmosphere

due to pressure difference

INSPIRATION - (INHALATION)
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms
Only requires relaxation of inspiratory muscles but contraction of
abdominals may force expiration

1. Volume of thorax decreases

(elastic fibers of lungs recoil)
and air pressure in the lungs
increases

2. Air moves out to atmosphere

due to pressure gradient

EXPIRATION - (EXHALATION)
PULMONARY VOLUMES
(MEASURED WITH A SPIROMETER)
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms

Pulmonary ventilation:
• Is commonly referred to as breathing.
• It is the process of air flowing into the lungs during inspiration
(inhalation) and out of the lungs during expiration (exhalation).
• Air flows because of pressure differences between the
atmosphere and gases inside the lungs.
• Air, like other gases, flows from a region with higher pressure to a
region with lower pressure.
• Muscular breathing movements and recoil of elastic tissues create
the changes in pressure that result in ventilation.
 2.1.3 Define respiratory terms
Pulmonary ventilation:
• Pulmonary ventilation involves three different pressures:

1) Atmospheric pressure: is the pressure of the air outside the

body.
2) Intraalveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure: is the pressure inside
the alveoli of the lungs.
3) Intrapleural pressure: is the pressure within the pleural cavity.

• These three pressures are responsible for pulmonary ventilation.

VIDEO:

Mechanism of Breathing

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GD-HPx_ZG8I&ab_channel=ArmandoHasudungan)
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms
PARTIAL PRESSURE OF
GASES IN A MIXTURE
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE
PERCENTAGE OF THE GAS IN THAT
MIXTURE

TOTAL atmospheric pressure= 760 mmHg

Nitrogen = 592 mmHg (78%)
Oxygen = 159 mmHg (21%)
Carbon Dioxide = 0.2 mmHg (.03%)

Pressures of O2 and CO2 in alveoli and blood (mmHg):

Alveolar Air Arterial Blood Venous Blood
O2 = 100 100 40
CO2 = 40 40 46
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms
 2.1.3 Define respiratory terms
It is important to understand the various volumes and capacities of the
lungs in order to appreciate the effects of exercise on the respiratory
system.

• Total lung capacity can be calculated by adding vital capacity to

residual volume of the lungs.
• During normal, quiet respiration, about 500mL of air is inspired.
The same amount of air moves out with expiration. This volume of
air is called the tidal volume.
• When we forcibly take a deep breath, we can take in up to 3100mL
above the tidal volume. This additional air is the inspiratory reserve
volume.
• We can also forcibly exhale. This is termed the expiratory reserve
volume.
• Even after the expiratory reserve volume is expelled, some air is
still trapped in the lungs because of pressure. This is called the
residual volume.
2.1.3 Define respiratory terms

VO2= The rate at which oxygen is taken in to the body

and used

VO2 max= Is an excellent indicator of fitness. Must be

measured with special equipment.
2.1.4 Explain the mechanics of ventilation in
the human lungs
• To understand how a person breathes, you need to know that a
substance called pleural fluid lies between the lungs and the chest
wall.
• Think of the walls of the chest and the lungs as the two wet slides
and the pleural fluid as the film of water.
• When the chest expands during breathing, the film of pleural fluid
causes the membranous walls of the lungs to be pulled outward
along with the chest walls.
• This means the space within the lungs increases.
• The air molecules in the lungs now move momentarily farther
apart, so that the pressure in of the air in the lungs falls below the
pressure of the atmosphere outside the body.
• Consequently, air from outside rushes down the trachea and into
the lungs until the two pressures are equal again.
This is the process of inspiration.
2.1.4 Explain the mechanics of ventilation in
the human lungs

• Observation of the skeleton reveals that each rib pivots about a

vertebral joint.
• If it is lifted upward it also swings outward, with the thoracic
cavity being enlarged anteriorly and superiorly.
• This is the task in quiet breathing of the external intercostal
muscles.
• At the same time the ribs are lifted, the diaphragm (the muscular
floor of the thoracic cavity) contracts downward enlarging the
thoracic cavity inferiorly.

This process enlarges the cavity twofold.

2.1.4 Explain the mechanics of ventilation in
the human lungs
• Expiration is almost entirely a passive process that depends on
the elasticity of the lungs and chest structures, as well as fluid film
surface tensions within the lungs.
• When inspiratory muscles are relaxed, air simply leaves the lung,
much as it would leave an untied balloon.

This description is for quiet breathing.

• When one speaks or runs, the abdominal muscles press upon the
abdominal contents, squeezing them upwards against the
diaphragm.
• The internal intercostal muscles oppose the external intercostals
and pull the ribcage downward, helping to decrease the thoracic
cavity volume and forcibly empty the lungs. The diaphragm may
also function in forcible expiration.
2.1.4 Explain the mechanics of ventilation in
the human lungs
• In laboured inspiration (e.g. accompanying exercise) many of the
muscles of the upper trunk are also recruited.
• They are only indirectly attached to the ribs and are inefficient as
respiratory muscles.
• Pectoralis major and minor,
• Trapezius,
• Rhomboideus.
2.1.5 Describe the nervous and chemical
control of ventilation during exercise
2.1.5 Describe the nervous and chemical
control of ventilation during exercise

REGULATION OF BREATHING

• Involuntary breathing
controlled in primitive part
of brainstem (medulla).

• May also be controlled

voluntarily (cerebrum) but
eventually involuntary
control takes over.
2.1.5 Describe the nervous and chemical
control of ventilation during exercise

CO2 + Water = Carbonic ACID

Chemoreceptors in brain and throughout body send signals about
blood pH, CO2 and O2 concentration to medulla.

• If pH goes down, or CO2 goes up,

breathing increases.

• If pH goes up, or CO2 goes down,

breathing decreases.

• O2 receptors = less impact on breathing

rate vs. CO2
• Stretch receptors in lungs tell medulla
when lungs are expanded during
normal breathing and stop inhalation.
2.1.5 Describe the nervous and chemical
control of ventilation during exercise
Why do ventilation rates increase?
• Breathing rate increases during
exercise as the expiratory centre
sends impulses to the expiratory
muscles (internal intercostals)
which speeds up the expiratory
process;
• Increase CO2 causes the acidity
of the blood to increase
(decrease blood pH)
• A change in acidity of the blood is
detected by chemoreceptors
which send nerve impulses to the
respiratory muscles which
increase the rate of ventilation
(faster/deeper).
2.1.5 Describe the nervous and chemical
control of ventilation during exercise
Exercise will influence ventilation in two main ways:
• Increase ventilation rate (a greater frequency of breaths allows for
a more continuous exchange of gases)
• Increase tidal volume (increasing the volume of air taken in and out
per breath allows for more air in the lungs to be exchanged)

Trends in Tidal Volume and Breathing Frequency

2.1.6 Outline the role of hemoglobin in oxygen
transportation

• 98.5% of oxygen in the blood is

transported by hemoglobin as
oxyhemoglobin within the red blood cells

• Hemoglobin is the protein that allows

oxygen to bind to a red blood cell.
• Hemoglobin contains a central Iron ion
which can hold up to 4 oxygen atoms per
heme.
• These oxygen atoms are then diffused into
the tissues once they reach their target.
• While they are diffusing they are also
picking back up CO2 & returning it back to
lungs so you can exhale it into the
atmosphere.
2.1.6 Outline the role of hemoglobin in oxygen
transportation
Hemoglobin:
Oxygen molecules bind to the Iron
containing portion of hemoglobin
and some Carbon Dioxide binds
with certain amino acids in
hemoglobin.

“O2 and CO2 sponge”

About 98% of oxygen in the blood

is transported by hemoglobin as
oxyhemoglobin

• Only 20% of hemoglobin carries CO2.

• Most CO2 is carried in the plasma and forms carbonic acid with
water. Therefore excess CO2 in the blood will cause blood pH to
drop.
2.1.7 Explain the process of gaseous exchange
at the alveoli
Structure of Alveoli:
• Walls are very thin (1 cell)
• Huge Surface area so allows
for greater uptake of oxygen
• Supplied by a dense capillary
network

• Gas exchange is carried out by a

complex of structures at the end of
each bronchioles.
• The oxygen exchange in the lungs
takes place across the membranes of
small balloon-like structures called
alveoli attached to the branches of
the bronchial passages.
2.1.7 Explain the process of gaseous exchange
at the alveoli
• These alveoli inflate and deflate with inhalation and exhalation.
• The elastic recoil of these helps in the exhalation.
• Gases move by diffusion from where they have a high concentration
to where they have a low concentration.

• The alveoli create a pressure

gradient.
• Once the alveoli fill up with
air during inhalation the
oxygen diffuses from the air
in the alveoli and into the
blood.
• The CO2 diffuses from the
arriving venous blood and
into the air which exits the
body during exhalation.
2.1.7 Explain the process of gaseous exchange
at the alveoli
Alveolar lining is moist (H2O) Importance of Surfactants
Because H2O is a polar liquid it has
high surface tension (like magnets)

Surface tension of H2O resists

expansion of alveoli and can even
cause them to collapse
Applications and skills
Applications and skills
 Applications and skills
1. Why might a doctor be interested in
assessing VO2 in an exercise test?

2. Describe the process of breathing and

comment on how exercise affects this
process.