SEMINAR 2

Old English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax.

Issues for Discussion

1. The noun: grammatical categories. The use of cases. System of declensions.

2. The adjective: grammatical categories. Weak and strong declensions.
Degrees of comparison.
3. The pronoun. Personal pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns.
4. The verb: grammatical categories of the finite verb. Grammatical categories
of the verbals. Strong verbs. Weak verbs. Minor groups of verbs.
5. Old English Syntax. The simple sentence. Compound and complex
sentences. Word order. The phrase.

Glossary

The Strong Declension of OE nouns includes nouns that had had a vocalic
stem-forming suffix.
The Weak Declension of OE nouns consists of a rather numerous group of
nouns originally having -n-stems; the suffix is well-preserved in declension of
nouns in Old English, but disappeared in the nominative case.
Root Stems. This group of nouns comprises the nouns that never had a stem
suffix; hence had a mutated root vowel, for formerly case endings might have had
a front vowel, which no longer was present in Old English. The group was not
numerous, but the words belonging to it were characterized by high frequency of
use - they were the nouns used in everyday speech and therefore remained the most
conservative.
OE personal pronouns constitute a system of words replacing nouns; they
are also called noun-pronouns. In Old English they had 3 persons: the first, the
second and the third; 3 numbers: singular, plural and the remains of the dual
number in the second person; 3 genders: masculine, feminine, neuter.
OE demonstrative pronouns are se (that) and des (this), the first indicating
something far and the second something near; occasionally in colloquial speech the
third pronoun jeon - yonder, something still more distant and farther. They had
three genders, two numbers and five cases in the singular and four in the plural and
agree in number, gender and case with the nouns they modify.
OE adjective had the following categories: number - the singular and the
plural; gender - masculine, neuter and feminine; case - 4/5 (nominative, genitive,
dative accusative and partly instrumental). Besides, the adjectives had two
declensions, strong and weak.
Strong OE verbs were native verbs of Protogermanic origin and usually
have parallels in other Germanic languages. They are divided into seven classes.
Gradation in Old English develops from common Indo-European gradation but the
vowels differ due to numerous phonetic changes in Germanic languages and then
in English, so the vowels may be quite different, but the principle is the same.
Weak OE verbs. There are three classes of Old English weak verbs. Their
number was ever growing in the Old English as it was a productive pattern. They
had three basic forms, their past tense and Participle II were made by adding the
dental suffix -t- or -d- to the root morpheme. They are divided into three classes
depending on the ending of the infinitive, the sonority of the suffix and the sounds
preceding the suffix.
Suggested Questions
1. What are the major grammatical features of “Standard” Old English?
2. What categories did OE nouns possess?
3. How are noun declensions denoted in grammar books?
4. What noun declensions are called strong, weak, minor?
5. What are the peculiarities of OE personal pronouns?
6. Comment on the paradigm of OE demonstrative pronouns/
7. What categories did OE adjectives possess?
8. Comment on the degrees of comparison of OE adjectives.
9. What are the categories of OE verb? Comment on them.
10.What OE verbs are called strong? Comment on their forms.
11.What OE verbs are called weak? Comment on their forms.
12.What OE verbs are called preterite-present? How many of them are retained
in Modern English?
13.How does OE syntax[ differ from Modern English syntax?

Exercises

Exercise 1. Read phonetically correctly Passage 1 of The Battle of Maldon:

Byrhtnoth’s response in Old English.

This well-known Old English poem concerns the encounter between English
and Viking forces near the Essex town of Maldon in A.D. 991, when Æthelred II
(‘Ethelred the Unready’) was king. It is the stirring account of the last stand by a
group of heroic but doomed Anglo-Saxon warriors, led by ealdorman Byrhtnoth.
The action takes place around a causeway which links an island to the mainland,
and which is only passable at low tide. At the beginning of the surviving fragment
of the poem, Byrhtnoth draws up his troops on the mainland side.

1. Byrhtnoð maþelode, bord hafenode,

2. wand wacne æsc, wordum mælde,
3. yrre and anræd ageaf him andsware:
4. ‘Gehyrst þu, sælida, hwæt þis folc segeð?
5. Hi willað eow to gafole garas syllan,
6. ættrynne ord and ealde swurd,
7. þa heregeatu þe eow æt hilde ne deah.
8. Brimmanna boda, abeod eft ongean,
 9. sege þinum leodum miccle laþre spell,
10.þæt her stynt unforcuð eorl mid his werode,
11.þe wile gealgean eþel þysne,
12.Æþelredes eard, ealdres mines,
13.folc and foldan. Feallan sceolon
14.hæþene æt hilde. To heanlic me þinceð
15.þæt ge mid urum sceattum to scype gangon
16.unbefohtene, nu ge þus feor hider
17.on urne eard in becomon.
18.Ne sceole ge swa softe sinc gegangan;
19.us sceal ord and ecg ær geseman,
20.grim guðplega, ær we gofol syllon.

Translation into Modern English

Byrhtnoth made a speech, raised his shield,
waved his slender ash-spear, spoke in words,
angry and resolute gave him back an answer:
‘Do you hear, seafarer, what this people says?
They are willing to give you spears as tribute,
deadly point and tested swords,
a payment in war-gear that will do you no good in battle.
Report back again, sailors’ messenger,
tell your people a much more hateful account,
that an undaunted leader stands here with his troop,
one who desires to defend this land,
my lord Æthelred’s country,
the people and the ground. Heathens
must fall in battle. It seems to me too shameful
that you should go unfought to your ships with our money,
now that you have come so far
here into our country.
You ought not to win treasure so easily;
but spear-point and sword-edge, terrible battle-play,
must arbitrate between us before we give tribute.’

Exercise 2. Identify words in the following sentence that are in the nominative case

1. se eorl rærde þone scyld (the nobleman raised the shield);

2. ic stod on þære bricge (I stood on the bridge);

3. þæt wif seah þone eorl, ond he hie seah (the woman saw the nobleman, and
he saw her);

4. se modiga beorn wand þone æsc (the brave warrior shook the (ash) spear)
 5. þa laðe gystas spræcon on wordum (the hateful strangers spoke in words)

6. hie wealdaþ wel sweord (they use a sword well)

7. þæt ealde scip brohte þa grimman wicingas (the old ship brought the fierce
pirates)

8. cwalu com to þam fægum mannum (death came to the doomed men)

9. þa bricgweardas stopon forð ond hie fuhton wel (the bridge-guardians

stepped forwards and they fought well)

10.þa wæpnu weredon þone beorn (the weapons defended the warrior)

11.seo brade wælstow scan (the broad battlefield shone)

12.min ealda andsaca ofsloh minne godan freond (my old enemy killed my
good friend)

Exercise 3. Identify words in the following sentence that are in the accusative case

1. se eorl rærde þone scyld (the nobleman raised the shield)

2. se wicing fand þæt scip (the pirate found the ship)

3. ge helpað eowerne hlaford (you are helping your lord)

4. þin modor spræc tilu word (your mother spoke good words)

5. se modiga beorn wand þone wacne æsc (the brave warrior shook the slender
(ash) spear)

6. se flod bær þa dysigan hæleðas (the tide carried the stupid heroes)

7. seo cwen lufode þa beorhtan wicgu (the queen loved the bright horses)

8. se wlanca mann mette þone frodan dracan (the proud man met the
experienced dragon)

9. we sendon garas ond lufe to him (we sent spears and love to him)

10.ure ealda mann giefð wise bote (our old man gives wise remedies)

11.uncer georna gefera cann gode lar (our eager companion knows good
teaching)

12.ure wigan hydaþ hira torn, ac hie hine habbað (our warriors hide their grief,
but they have it)
Exercise 4. Identify words in the following sentence that are in the genitive case.

1. þæs eorles scyld (the nobleman’s shield)

2. se hlaford þære healle (the lord of the hall)

3. þæs wlancan andsacan earga fleam (the proud enemy’s cowardly flight)

4. þære lopystran sciell (the lobster’s shell)

5. seo lar þara sweorda (the teaching of the swords)

6. þære ealdan lafe agend (the old heirloom’s owner)

7. þisra manna mod (the courage of these men)

8. þæs cealdan brimes isigu grap (the cold sea’s icy grip)

9. ic seah ures feondes leger (I saw our enemy’s lair)

10.þa wicingas ofslogon þære cwene burþegn (the vikings killed the queen’s
chamberlain)

Exercise 5. Identify words in the following sentence that are in the dative case

1. þa flotan foron on þam scipe (the sailors travelled in the ship)

2. þa laðe gystas spræcon on wordum (the hateful strangers spoke in words)

3. ic geaf þe minne maþm, þu geafe me þine lufe (I gave to you my treasure,

you gave to me your love)

4. butan helmum, weras sindon fæge (without helmets, men are doomed)

5. seo bot wunode on þære cealdum healle (the remedy dwelt in the cold hall)

6. we sellaþ scyldas þam wigan (we are giving shields to the warrior)

7. se eorl feaht mid þam sweorde (the nobleman fought with the sword)

8. þæt wif ofsloh þone wigan on þære wælstowe (the woman killed the warrior
on the battlefield)

9. þa wlancan cyningas fuhton on þam swiftum wicgum (the proud kings

fought on the swift horses)

10.þu hine lufodost ond þu him geafe þine beagas (you loved him and you gave
your rings to him)
Exercise 6. Translate into Modern English, and state the case.

Model: cealdum wæpnum - cold weapons (dative).

1. wisne wigan;
2. tilu heall;

3. wacra wicinga;

4. miclu sweord;

5. grimmes brimes;

6. geornre helpe;

7. se laða gyst;

8. þam ilcan maþme;

9. minne wlancan hund;

10.þeos frode modor;

11.þinra bradena heafda;

12.þy beorhtan beage;

13.þa fægran cirice;

14.urum eargum lopystrum .

Exercise 7. Translate into Modern English, and give grammatical information

for the weak verb(s.)

Model: þa wicingas weredon hira scipu (the vikings defended their ships
(weredon = 3 pl. preterite indicative, werian)

1. se cyning meteð þone biscop;

2. lufast þu minne hund?

3. þæt gear licode þære cwene;

4. se læreda munuc wunaþ in þære cirice;

5. þu feddest swiftlice þone dracan;

 6. hit þynceð me þæt þa olfendas fremeden gode dæde;

7. neriaþ þa hwistliende nædran!

8. þa preostas feormiað þa bec;

9. þa hlafordas secgað þæt hie ræren þa wæpnu;

10.se hattefagol hydde bifiende under þam huse;

11.heo bletsað þa gegaderodan beornas.

Exercise 8. Translate into Modern English, and give grammatical

information for the strong verb(s).

Model: þa grimman beornas heoldon þa bricge (the fierce warriors held the
bridge(s) (heoldon = 3 pl. preterite indicative, healdan))

1. singest þu leoð?
2. se grimma þyrs creap to þære healle;

3. help – þa wicingas farað hider!

4. þæt mearhgehæc bið to etenne

5. þa helmas wurdon scinende;

6. ic seah þæt se ealda maþm fæger wære;

7. se dysiga munuc feoll ut of þam eagþyrle;

8. we spræcon wisdom þam bundenan andsacan;

9. ge sculon standan oþþæt þa dracan cumen;

10.þa modgan wigan ridon on þam frodum wicgum;

11. ðu brugde þone hladenan olfend.

12.

Appendix 1: glossary

arabic numerals (1–3) indicate weak verbs; roman (I–VII) indicate strong verbs

agend (masc.) owner

andsaca (masc.) enemy
awoffian (2) rave, be delirious
æghwylc [+ gen] each (one)
æsc (masc.) (ash) spear
beag (masc.) ring
beald bold
bearn (neut.) child
bearu (masc.) grove
beorht bright
beorn (masc.) warrior
beran (IV) carry
bifian (2) tremble
bindan (III) bind
biscop (masc.) bishop
bletsian (2) bless
boc (fem., irreg) book
bot (fem.) remedy
brad broad
bregdan (III) pull, draw
bricg (fem.) bridge, causeway
bricgweard (masc.) bridge-guardian
brim (neut.) sea
bringan (1, irreg) bring
bryttian (2) give, distribute
burþegn (masc.) chamberlain
butan without
cann knows
ceald cold
ceorl peasant
cild (neut.) child
ciric (fem.) church
cuman (IV) come
cwalu (fem.) death
cwen (fem.) queen
cweðan (V) say
cyning (masc.) king
dæd (fem.) deed
dæg (masc.) day
dead dead
deað (masc.) death
draca (masc.) dragon
dysig stupid
eagþyrl (neut.) window
eald old
earg cowardly
eaðe easy
ellen (neut.) courage
Engla land (neut.) England
eorl (masc.) nobleman
etan (V) eat
faran (VI) go, travel
fæge doomed
fæger fair
fæsten (neut.) fast
feallan (VII) fall
fedan (1) feed
fela (+ gen) many (of)
feohtan (III) fight
feond (masc.) enemy
feormian (2) polish
findan (III) find
flan (masc.) arrow
fleam (masc.) flight
flod (masc.) tide, sea
flota (masc.) sailor
forma first
forð forwards
for þam þe because
fot (masc., irreg) foot
fram from
frætwian (2) decorate
fremman (1) perform
freond (masc.) friend
fretan (V) devour
friþ (masc.) peace
frod experienced
gaderian (2) gather
gangan (VII) go
gar (masc.) spear
gear (neut.) year
gearu (gearow-) ready, prepared
gefera (masc.) companion
gelic like
geong young
georn eager
giefan (V) give
gielpan (III) boast
god good
grap (fem.) grip
grimm fierce
gyst (masc.) stranger, guest
habban (3) have
hacele (fem.) cloak
hatan (VII) command
hattefagol (masc.) hedgehog
hæleð (masc.) hero
heafod (neut.) head
healdan (VII) hold
heall (fem.) hall
helm (masc.) helmet
help (fem.) help
helpan (III) help
hergung (fem.) raiding, harrying
hider hither, in this direction
hild (fem.) battle
hladan (VI) load
hlaford (masc.) lord
hund (masc.) dog
hus (neut.) house
hwa who; someone
hwil (fem.) time
hwistlian (2) hiss, whistle
hydan (1) hide
ilca same
isig icy
laf (fem.) heirloom
lang long
lar (fem.) teaching
lað hateful
læran (1) teach
leger (neut.) lair
leoð (neut.) song
lician (2) please
liesan (1) release
lopystre (fem.) lobster
lufian (2) love
lufu (fem.) love
lytel little, small
magan (pret.-pres) can
mann (masc., irreg) man
maþm (masc.) treasure
mearhgehæc (neut.) sausage meat
metan (1) meet
micel big
mid with
mod (neut.) courage, mind
modig brave, proud
modor (fem.) mother
munuc (masc.) monk
nama (masc.) name
nædre (fem.) snake
neat (neut.) cow, cattle
nerian (1) save
niht (fem.) night
nu now
of of, from
ofsceotan (II) shoot down
ofslean (VI) kill
on on, in
onfon (VII, irreg) receive
oþþæt until
preost (masc.) priest
rædan (1) read
ræran (1) raise
ridan (I) ride
rodetacn (neut.) sign of the cross, crucifix
secgan (3) say, speak
sellan (1, irreg) give
sendan (1) send
seon (V) see
sciell (fem.) shell
scinan (I) shine
scip (neut.) ship
scipen (neut.) shed
sculan (pret.-pres) shall, must
scyld (masc.) shield
singan (III) sing
slean (VI) strike
soð (neut.) truth
sprecan (V) speak, talk
standan (VI, irreg) stand
steppan (VI, irreg) step, advance
stow (fem.) place
sweart dark
sweord (neut.) sword
swift swift, quick
swiftlice quickly
til good
to to, too
torn (masc.) grief
toð (masc., irreg) tooth
þær there/where
þeow (masc.) servant
þyncan (1) seem
þyrs (masc.) ogre, demon
ut out
wac weak, slender
wandrian (2) wander
wælstow (fem.) battlefield
wæpen (neut.) weapon
wealdan (VII) use, wield
wel well
wendan (1) go, turn
weorpan (III) throw
weorþan (III) become
wer (masc.) man
werian (1) defend
werod (neut.) troop, host
wesan (V, irreg) be
wicg (neut.) horse
wicing (masc.) pirate, viking
wif (neut.) woman
wiga (masc.) warrior
willan (pret.-pres) wish, will
windan (III) shake
wis wise
wisdom (masc.) wisdom
wiþ against
wlanc proud
word (neut.) word
writan (I) write
wunian (2) dwell
(ge)wyrcan (1) work, make
yfel bad

Reading & Summary

1. Верба Л. Г. Історія англійської мови. Посібник для студентів та викладачів

вищих навчальних закладів. Вінниця: Нова книга, 2004. с. 38–89.
2. План-конспект лекцій з дисципліни «Історія англійської мови» для
студентів III курсу спеціальності 7.030507 «Переклад»/ укл.: Е.О.Кущ.
Запоріжжя: ЗНТУ, 2016. с. 29–34, 39–40.
3. Khaimovich B. S. A Short Outline of the History of English. К.: Вища школа,
1975. c. 54–72.