3D Printed Walking Robot

Minimalist Approach
Ivan Chavdarov

Abstract

3D printing technology enables the design and testing of highly complex robot
prototypes and joints. Here an original idea for a walking robot is presented, based
on a minimalist approach. Although the robot has a simple mechanical structure
using only 2 motors, it can walk, turn around its central axis and climb high
obstacles. The simple design ensures higher reliability in terms of mechanics and
control. A design principle is suggested, which minimizes power consumption
during climbing. The kinematics and static conditions for overcoming an obstacle
are analyzed and the movements of the robot are simulated. A 3D-printed prototype
of the robot is created. It is used for experiments to test the efficiency of different
materials and shapes for the robot’s feet when climbing. The results are ranked and
compared with the efficiency of other walking robots.

Keywords: Walking robot, Robot design, Overcoming an obstacle, 3D print,

Minimalist approach

1. Introduction

Walking robots are designed to move in an environment with multiple and

diverse obstacles [1]. For that reason they need to do complex coordinated motions,
which require a complex mechanical structure and advanced control system with
multiple sensors [2]. Mobile robots, created to conduct rescue operations or inspec-
tion tasks in an urban environment, often face problems when they need to climb
stairs [3]. As opposed to wheel robots, walking robots have a more complex design,
more motors and are slower [1, 3]. Often, they have more degrees of freedom and
use special algorithms. The advantage is that the robot can do complex movements
[1, 4]. However, this comes at the price of more components in the design. Hence,
the disadvantages:

• the complex structure is expensive

• maintenance is difficult

• it is more difficult to be controlled

• the probability that a fault occurs increases with the number of components

• the higher number of motors means more energy is consumed and the total
mass of the robot increases.

1
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

The following questions arise: What would be the simplest walking robot
design that can effectively overcome obstacles? What would be the minimal
number of degrees of freedom for such a robot? Can a simple control system work
when overcoming different types of obstacles? How can 3D printing technology
bring additional advantages in the development of robots, based on minimalist
approach?
The stability of a walking robot is a major issue, because it defines the conditions
under which it will not lose balance. There are two types of stability - static and
dynamic. Static walking means that the robot can be stopped at any moment during
the gait cycle without losing balance. Dynamic walking means that additional
internal movements and algorithms are needed to sustain balance.
Two-legged robots usually have dynamic stability and a relatively large number
of degrees of freedom [5–7]. They can go around or climb obstacles, but need a
complex control system and consume a lot of energy. Their reliability is lower, due
to the large number of electrical and mechanical components. There are experi-
mental two-legged robots which can sustain static balance.
Alternative design solutions with a minimum number of mechanical elements
[8] and nature-inspired robots are being sought [9]. In [10] is presented an ultra-
light, inexpensive two-legged robot “SLIDER” with a design of the leg without a
knee. This non-anthropomorphic design with straight legs reduces the weight of the
legs significantly, while maintaining the same functionality as anthropomorphic
legs. The robot has 8 degrees of freedom, four for each leg.
The four-legged 3D printed robot presented in [9] is 3D printed with PLA
(polylactic acid). It has a simple design and can walk without any form of software
or controller. The robot consists of a rectangular body and four legs, each with a
degree of freedom that rotates and raises the leg. At the end of each of the legs is
mounted a rubber foot to improve traction. Although there are only 4 degrees of
freedom, the robot realizes a gait which is similar to the gaits used by walking
primates and cattle (grazing animals).
In [8] is presented a robot with one motor and several clutches. By sequential
action of the clutches, the proposed robot can rotate in different directions and can
walk. It can be combined with other identical modules to build more complex
reconfigurable robots.
Walking mechanisms that do not need motors are studied [11, 12]. However,
their passive movement is realized only on slopes and is difficult to control.
3D printing technology is used to create and test the qualities of prototypes of
walking robots [9, 10, 13, 14]. Conventional materials such as PLA [9] and ABS
(Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) [13] are most commonly used. In [14] a method-
ology for 3D printing of hermetic soft drives with built-in air couplings is proposed.
Two materials are used, hard and flexible, and printing is done with a printer with
two extruders. Additive manufacturing is evolving and finds more and more appli-
cations in robotics. In [15] the main focus is on developing a methodology for
creating a 3D printed, low-budget robotic arm with six degrees of freedom that can
be used with an external artificial intelligence system. In [16] is used a custom 3D
printer and CAD model of a structure for a specialized device, which consists of
two-layer micro actuators driven by hydrogels.
Maintaining stability when moving [17, 18] and overcoming obstacles [2, 19] are
also important issues that have been studied in recent years.
For these reasons, here it will be discussed the design of a new 3D printed model
of a walking robot, based on a minimalist approach [20, 21]. Mies van der Rohe’s
motto “Less is more” reflects the approach to the robot’s design. Using only two
motors, the robot can walk forward and backward, rotate 360 deg. around itself and
overcome obstacles including climbing stairs.

2
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

2. Simple mechanical design

It is well known that a robot needs at least 6 degrees of freedom to reach any point
in its workspace with any orientation. 3 for changing the position and 3 for realizing
the random orientation. Since the walking robot moves on a surface, it can be
concluded that 3 degrees of freedom are enough - X, Y axis and orientation. After all
there are examples of mobile robots with two motors that achieve satisfactory results
1. A new simple design of a two-motored robot, called “Big Foot”, is suggested.
The robot’s body is made up of a round base {1} and a platform {2} in which all the
main elements are located. The platform is mounted in the center of the circular base,
and the two bodies can rotate relative to each other around the vertical axis R1 (see
Figure 1). The movement around R1 is realized by means of a controlled motor {6}.
The stator of this motor is fixed on the platform {2}, and the rotor is connected by
means of a reducer to the base {1}. The motor {7} is located in the platform {2} and
drives the shaft {8} by means of a gear mechanism. This shaft performs the second
important rotation R2, which is perpendicular to R1. Two arms {3} are fixed to the
shaft {8}, and two feet {4} are mounted at the ends of the arms. For proper walking,
the feet {4} and the round base {1} need to move with a constant orientation with
respect to each other. To achieve this, a gear mechanism {5} is used, which has a gear
ratio of 1. It consists of 3 gears with the same module and number of teeth which are
mounted in the arm {3} (Figur 1) The 3D printed model is powered by a rechargeable
battery, and the control is carried out remotely via Bluetooth communication with a
PC or a smartphone. Different variants of the control software are developed using
sensors of different types. Video with the robots movements is available from: Video 1.
The key elements for walking are the body {2}, arms {3} and feet {4}. This is the
basic structure of the robot. While walking, the body and feet remain parallel Figure 2.
Initially the body {2} is fixed (Figure 2a). The arm {3} is rotating and thanks to
the gears z1, z2, z3 the feet are moving parallel to the fixed body before reaching the
ground. Afterwards, the feet {4} are fixed (Figure 2b), the arm {3} is rotating and
this time the body {2} is in motion, remaining parallel to the feet. The trajectories
can be seen in the following videos: Video 2 and Video 3.
The trajectory of any edge point of gear z2 is interesting. The trajectory resem-
bles a heart and is called the cardioid - a type of cycloid. It can be followed in the
animation: Video 4.
The rotation mechanism is presented in Figure 3. Here the gear motor {6} works
in a mode where the rotor is fixed and the body rotates as the stator operates. Thus
the robot can rotate to any angle without any of the wires tangling up.

Figure 1.
Structure of the big foot robot and a picture of the 3D printed prototype.

3
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Figure 2.
The mechanism for maintaining a parallel movement between the body and the feet. a) Fixed body {2}. b)
Fixed feet {4}.

Walking on flat terrain is accomplished by repeating between two phases:

Phase 1 – the two feet {4} are acting as supports. The motor {6} by means of the
shaft {8} drives the arms {3}, which rotate around point A. The body of the robot is
moved, where all its points move along the trajectories of arcs of a circle with radius
RAB ¼ AB ¼ L3 and angle φB ¼ αmax  αmin . The body of the robot travels forward
with one step S (Figure 4).
To simplify the theoretical model, it is assumed that the mass of all moving parts
during this phase is concentrated at point C1. The coordinates of this point (mass
center) are given in Figure 4. When designing the robot, it is aimed to keep the
center of gravity C1 as low as possible. This increases the stability of the robot.
The horizontal movement of the robot’s body is evaluated by:

X c1 ¼ X B ¼ X A þ L3 cos ðαÞ, (1)

XA is the horizontal coordinate of point A with respect to a fixed coordinate

system, and α = α(t) is the current angle of rotation of the unit {3} with length L3
with respect to the horizon. The vertical displacement of point C1 is determined by:

Y c1 ¼ Y B  hc1 ¼ Y A þ L3 sin ðαÞ  hc1 : (2)

4
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

Figure 3.
Rotating mechanism.

Where YB is the vertical coordinate of point B, h c1 is the vertical distance to the

center of mass at point C1. The height hc1 does not change during movement. The
robot moves at low speed and therefore the inertial forces are not taken into
account. The torques at points A and B are determined by:

MA1 ¼ ½L3 cos ðαÞ þ dG1 , (3)

MB1 ¼ dG1 , (4)

G1 = m1g is the robot’s body weight, and g is the Earth’s gravitational

acceleration.
After differentiating (1) and (2) is obtained the velocity of the robot:

_
V x ¼ X C1 ¼ _αL3 sin ðαÞ ¼ ωL3 sin ðαÞ
 V ¼ Y_ ¼ αL _ 3 cos ðαÞ ¼ ωL3 cos ðαÞ (5)
C1
 y

5
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Figure 4.
Phase of support steps.

Here ω is the angular velocity of the arms {3}. From (5) the magnitude and
velocity of a point from the robot’s body can be determined. This phase ends when
the round base {1} reaches the ground. Then the body stops moving and a second
phase beggins.
Phase 2 - The robot body is stationary, the arms {3} rotate about an axis at point
B, the feet {4} are moving. The mass of the moving parts is less than the mass of the
robot’s body. It is assumed that it is concentrated at point B. During this phase, the
robot does not move and therefore its speed is zero. The feet move progressively
along a trajectory, which is an arc of a circle. The torques at points A and B are
determined by:

M A2 ¼ 0, (6)
MB2 ¼ L3 G 2 cos ðαÞ, (7)

G2 = m2g is the mass of the moving elements in this phase. The loading in the
shafts is cyclic, with shaft A being more loaded (see formulas (3), (4), (6) and (7).
During the transition from phase 1 to phase 2 and vice versa, shock loads occur in
the construction of the robot, which are not taken into account.

3. Determining the basic dimensions

When walking on a relatively flat ground the robot switches between two phases
where the contact area with the ground is large. Movement is balanced and reliable.
In Figure 5 are presented the basic dimensions of the 3D printed prototype. Five
lengths (L1-L 5 ; Figure 3) and their proportions determine the qualities of the robot
and its capability to walk and overcome obstacles.
Obviously, the larger the model, the higher the obstacles that it can overcome.
Therefore, the height of the obstacle ho should be compared with the height—H R
and the length—BR of the robot. Thus, different designs of one robot and even a
variety of different robots can be objectively compared.
A dimensionless coefficient is suggested with the help of which the scale of a
robot and an obstacle can be compared:

ho
K ro ¼ p : (8)
HRBR
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

6
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

Figure 5.
Basic dimensions of the 3D printed prototype.

HR and BR are dimensions according to Figure 5. The coefficient usually assumes

positive values less than one. Kro > 1 only for climbing and jumping robots.
In order for the robot to move, it is necessary for the body and its feet to reach
the ground. This is only possible under certain conditions for the sizes L2 , L3 and L4 .
The conditions are set by the inequalities:

 L2 ≤ L3 þ L4


L ≤L þL (9)
4 2 3

Dimensions L1 and L5 are important for increasing the robot’s stability, but their
excessive increase reduces the maneuverability of the robot and increases its overall
dimensions.
From Figure 6 can be determined the step S, at which the robot moves
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
S ¼ 2 L23  ð L 2  L4Þ (10)

Maximum lift height of the body hBmax

h Bmax ¼ L3  L2 þ L4 (11)

Maximum lift height of the feet hSmax

h Smax ¼ L2 þ L 3  L4 (12)

During the phase of support feet (phase 1) the arm is rotated at an angle φB:
 
S
φB ¼ 2artan (13)
2ð L2  L 4Þ

Accordingly, in phase 2, the arm {3} rotates at an angle φs ¼ 2π  φB .

7
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Figure 6.
Scheme for determining the geometric parameters for walking on flat terrain.

When attacking an obstacle with the robot’s body, the height of the obstacle h0
must be less than the maximum possible lifting of the robot body (h0 < hBmax).
When attacking with the feet {4} the maximum height of the obstacle h0 is
determined in a similar way ℎo <ℎSmax .
After differentiating formula (10) with respect to L2 and knowing the values of
lengths L3 and L4 , is obtained

dS 2ðL2  L 4 Þ
¼  q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi , L 23  L22 þ 2L4L2 þ L24 > 0 (14)
dL2 L  L2 þ 2L L þ L2
2
3 2 4 2 4

which shows that when L2 = L 4, the function has an extreme, in this case it is a
maximum (Figure 7).
In the specific example when the length of the link L2 = 17 [mm] the robot will
move with maximum step S and as fast as possible under equal other conditions. In
this case, the body and feet of the robot are raised to the same height hBmax = h Smax.
The driving mechanisms and the battery are located in the body of the robot,
therefore the displaced masses in the two phases differ significantly. From the point
of view of energy saving, it is more profitable to lift the body less, but this in turn
leads to a reduction in velocity of the robot. An approach is applied in which the
potential energy in the two phases of movement on flat terrain is equated.
The energy needed to lift the body during phase 1 is:

Ep1 ¼ m1 gh Bmax (15)

The energy that the motor delivers in order to move the feet during phase 2 is:

Ep2 ¼ m2 gh Smax (16)

The equalized energies are as follows

E p1 ¼ Ep2 ! m1 hBmax ¼ m2hSmax (17)

From (17) and geometrical considerations from Figure 6, the following system is
obtained

8
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

Figure 7.
Graph of the function for changing the step S(L2 ).

 m 1 h Bmax ¼ m 2 hSmax

 (18)
Bmax þ hSmax ¼ 2L 3
h

From (18), the height at which the body is lifted when the maximum potential
energies, for the two phases are equalized, is as follows

2L 3m 2
h Bmax ¼ (19)
ðm1 þ m2 Þ

The weights of the 3D printed prototype are distributed in the two masses,
respectively m1 = 245 [g] and m2 = 30 [g]. The maximum lifting height of the body
h Bmax = 12[mm] is obtained. At L 3 = 55 [mm] all parameters of the prototype are
determined. These proportions of the lengths of the links not only improve the
loading of the links and improve the distribution of energy in the two phases of
movement on flat terrain, but also have a positive effect on overcoming high
obstacles.

4. Passive adaptation to obstacles

When overcoming obstacles with height hb < h0 < hS, there are two ways to
attack the obstacle: with the body (the round base {1} Figure 1) or with the feet.
If the height of the obstacle h 0 is greater than the maximum lift of the body
h Bmax, the robot cannot climb on it during phase 1. In practice, it turns out that the

9
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

robot can adapt to the obstacle and climb it by attacking it with the feet. It does not
need special sensors and control algorithms. This process is illustrated in Figure 8.
The robot body (round base) collides with the vertical section of the obstacle. Then
there is a sliding of the feet on the horizontal terrain and the body is sliding on the
vertical obstacle, the arm {3} performs a planer movement. It can be determined the
instantaneous center of velocities of the arm {3} by taking into account the motion
of points A and B from it. With respect to the absolute coordinate system, the
instantaneous center of velocities of the link AB has coordinates:

 XQ ¼ X B  L3 sin ðαÞ


 Y ¼ L cos ðαÞ (20)
Q 3

In this situation, the instantaneous velocity center of the arm jumps from
point A0 to point Q1 and starts to move along an arc of a circle (Figure 8). The circle
has radius L3 and center [X B,0] and its equation excluding the angle α, is derived
from (20):
2
X Q þ X B þ Y2Q ¼ L23

(21)

The relative instantaneous velocity center with respect to the coordinate

system [A0,X0 ,Y0 ], and connected to the arm AB, is defined by the system of
equations

L

 X Q ¼ 3 ð cos ð2αÞ þ 1Þ
 2
 0
0
 X Q ¼ L3 sin ðαÞ 2
! (22)
 
 0
 Y Q ¼ L 3 sin ðαÞ cos ðαÞ L3
Y 0Q ¼ sin ð2αÞ


2

The relative trajectory of the instantaneous velocity center is also an arc of a

circle, and its equation is derived from (22) after excluding α:

Figure 8.
Instantaneous velocity center and adaptive movements in case of collision between the robot’s body and the
obstacle.

10
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

 2    2
L3 2 L3
0 0
XQ  þ YQ ¼ (23)
2 2

Trajectory (TMCa ) is an arc from the red circle, which is described according to
the absolute coordinate system OXY. Trajectory (TMCr) is an arc from the blue
circle, which is described with respect to the relative coordinate system, connected
with the moving arm AB. In this situation the arms perform a planar movement and
the body and feet of the robot are moving along X and Y axes respectively. When
the body touches the ground, the instantaneous velocity center switches again and
jumps to point B01 . The feet begin to rotate and attack the obstacle. Video of the
described passive adaptation is available from Video 5.

5. Overcoming obstacles

From the reasoning made so far, it can be seen that depending on the height of
the obstacle, it is possible to overcome it when attacking with the body or to adapt
to it and attack it with the feet. If the height of the obstacle h0 is less than the
maximum height reached by the feet h Smax, several scenarios are possible:

• Overcoming the obstacle

• Rolling over of the robot

• Repeated sliding of the robot’s feet and body on the obstacle, during which it
cannot climb.

Figure 9 illustrates 5 stages when climbing an obstacle which differ in the

elements of contact between the robot, the obstacle and the terrain.

1.The feet are in contact with the obstacle and the round base with the ground.
Because of the rotation of the arm {3} sliding starts between the base and the

Figure 9.
Five consecutive stages when climbing an obstacle.

11
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

ground or between the feet and the obstacle. At this stage, it is good to ensure
good traction between the feet and the obstacle, which will allow the robot to
pull itself towards it.

2.The first stage ends when the feet are simultaneously in contact with both the
obstacle and the terrain. The arm {3} rotates and moves the robot body. In this
case, the feet are usually stationary, but for high obstacles, it is possible
slipping to occur.

3.The round base of the robot has reached the obstacle. Due to the movement of
the arm {3} a situation is reached in which the base is in contact with the
obstacle and the feet in contact with the ground. The robot performs a planer
movement in which there is sliding of the feet, the base or both on the terrain
and the obstacle.

4.A configuration is reached in which the round base is in contact with both the
terrain and the obstacle. The arms {3} rotate and they move the feet.

5.The center of gravity of the robot changes, shifting towards the obstacle.
Depending on the height of the obstacle, the shape and the materials of the
base, the masses of the links and the feet, it is possible to rotate point C around
the edge of the obstacle in order to overcome the obstacle.

These stages are described in detail in [20, 21], where simulations and results of
various experiments are presented.

6. Results from experiments with the 3D printed model

Although the 3D printed model is only a prototype, it can be used for experi-
ments and useful conclusions can be drawn. 3D printing enables us to easily create
and adjust prototypes. Already known key advantages of this technology are:

• Opportunity to create very complex external and internal areas

• Opportunity to create components with different density and internal infill

structure

• Mixing multiple materials with different characteristics in the production of

the same element (only with multi material printers).

Different versions of Big Foot were created. The first prototype used shafts with
small diameters and with very small diameters and the transmission of torque is
achieved by friction forces (Figure 10 above). This leads to higher tension on the
joints in the shafts and they have a tendency to slip.
In the second prototype (Figure 10 below) some of the problems are solved. The
feet shape is improved to secure better traction when overcoming obstacles. To
avoid the shafts slipping, their diameter and contact surface is increased. A pin
coupling is used (Figure 10, pos. 7), which is much more reliable, but leads to stress
concentration. An innovative and patented coupling is successfully applied for the
joint at point A, where the tension is highest [22] (Figure 10 pos. 8a). It combines
reliability of the contour joints with low levels of stress concentration. This coupling
has the advantage to fix the foot to the shaft with constant orientation, which is

12
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

Figure 10.
Structural changes to big foot.

important for the proper functioning of the walking mechanism. The shape changes
gradually from a reuleaux triangle to a circle. Such objects can be drawn using CAD
products and can afterwards be 3D printed. The elements are held by a screw joint.
To increase the max obstacle height, the shapes of the feet and the body’s base
(Figure 10 pos. 9–10) are changed. The front jigged areas increase the traction and
“pull” the robot, while the back edges are rounded which aids the “sliding ”. As there
is no limit for the complexity of the 3D printed feet, the components can resemble
nature more closely.
Figure 11 shows an analogy between a walrus and Big Foot when climbing. The
movements share many common characteristics. A comparison with a walrus was

13
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Figure 11.
3D printed feet with a complex shape, inspired by nature.

chosen because, like the animal, the robot pulls its heavy body on the obstacle with
the help of sharp elements in its feet. Unlike perhaps all known animals, Big Foot
can rotate its base and arms more than 360 degrees.
By increasing the width of the feet and the area of the round base the robot can
walk on soft terrain (sand, snow, marsh) more easily.
Over 100 experiments for overcoming a higher obstacle were conducted. The
same prototype was used, where only the feet {4} and the round base {1} were
replaced. They were 3D printed and had different shapes. Two materials were used:
PLA (Polylactic acid - most popular for 3D printing) and the flexible FIlaFLEX. The
highest obstacle of 43 [mm] which was overcome can be seen here: Video 6; A
detailed description of the results is available in [21]. After adding a “tail” to
improve the balance of Big Foot, the maximum height was increased to 52 [mm]:
Video 7; which corresponds to a coefficient Kro = 0.41, see formula 8.
Experiments to overcome an obstacle with a maximum height are made with
various mobile robots. Based on literary sources, [21, 23] their respective Kro-
indexes are defined and given in Table 1.
Using information from the literature, the coefficient Kro can be determined for
different mobile robots in Table 1. From the considered examples, it is seen that the
highest value Kro = 0.41 is associated with the Transformable-wheeled leg robot
[21]. The Big Foot robot proposed in the present study has higher values of the Kro
index compared to the mobile robot [20] and the humanoid robot NAO. It can be
noted that Big Foot manages to overcome this height by using only one of its two
motors, while all other robots use several motors.

Robot Height Length Maximum height Кro Number of

[mm] [mm] of the obstacle [mm] index motors
1. MSRox 290 830 100 0.20 2

2. NAO 640 160 70 0.22 25

3. Big Foot 88 182 52 0.41 2

4.Transformable-wheeled 180 390 120 0.45 3

leg robot

5. Micro rover – Spacecat 200 200 100 0.5 8

[23]

Table 1.
K ro indices of different mobile robots.

14
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

7. Conclusion

An original design of a 3D printed walking robot based on minimalistic approach

is presented. This idea is intended to inspire the design of useful robot structures in
the future.
It is considered a design principle and determination of the proportions of the
links, based on minimizing the energy during walking.
The kinematics of the robot are analyzed and the key stages for walking on flat
terrain and climbing obstacles are given.
The principles of movement are considered and the robot’s ability to adapt to
obstacles due to the mechanical structure is highlighted. An algorithm is shown for
calculating the change in the instantaneous velocity center of one link while the robot
is adapting. This is a practical example of applying kinematic methods in robotics.
The main dependences for determining the torque loading of the motor when
walking are given. The results of a study of the static conditions for overcoming an
obstacle and experiments with a 3D printed model are discussed. Detailed studies
and simulations are given in [20, 21]. 3D printing gives new opportunities to create
unconventional structures, which can change the way robots are designed.
The results of experiments with different materials and shapes for the feet and
the base of the robot are discussed. Thus is detected the maximum height of the
obstacle that can be overcome. After additional design changes, this height is
increased to 52 [mm]. An index Kro is proposed which relates the robot’s dimensions
with the height of the obstacle it can overcome.
The results for overcoming an obstacle by different types of robots are ranked
using the proposed index.
It is not easy to give definitive answers to the questions posed in the introduc-
tion. However, from the analysis of the literature and the results of this study it can
be noted that:
If the number of degrees of freedom is less than two, the walking robot cannot
be controlled to bypass obstacles. The idea proposed in [8] is debatable whether it
can be characterized by one degree of freedom as it also uses controllable couplings.
In addition, it is possible to realize the movements only sequentially.
The presented 3D printed model shows that it is possible to overcome obstacles
by using a simple control system without sensors and feedback.
3D printing technology facilitates the creation of prototypes of the developed robots.
It allows easy realization of links with complex shapes and connections between them.

Acknowledgements

These research findings are supported by the National Scientific Research Fund,
Project N ДН17/10-12.12.2017.

Thanks

The author is grateful to his colleagues and in particular to PhD Bozhidar

Naidenov for their help in creating the prototype, conducting the experiments and
supporting this work.

Other declarations

All graphics and video material used are created by the author.

15
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Video materials

All video materials referenced in the text are available at: https://bit.ly/3xSfT0K.

16
3D Printed Walking Robot Based on a Minimalist Approach
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/ITexLi.97335

References

[1] F. Rubio, F. Valero, C. Llopis-Albert, Biped Locomotion of Humanoid Robots,

A review of mobile robots: Concepts, International Journal of Humanoid
methods, theoretical framework, and Robotics, Vol. 13, No. 4 (2016) 1650030
applications, International Journal of (26 pages), World Scienti¯c Publishing
Advanced Robotic Systems. Company, DOI: 10.1142/
March 2019. doi:10.1177/ S0219843616500304.
1729881419839596.
[8] A. Peidró, J. Gallego, L. Payá, J.
[2] U. Jahn, D. Heß, M. Stampa, A. Marín and O. Reinoso, Trajectory
Sutorma, C. Röhrig, P. Schulz and C. Analysis for the MASAR: A New
Wolff, A Taxonomy for Mobile Robots: Modular and Single-Actuator Robot,
Types, Applications, Capabilities, Robotics, 2019, 8(3), 78; https://doi.org/
Implementations, Requirements, and 10.3390/robotics8030078.
Challenges, Robotics 2020, 9, 109; doi:
10.3390/robotics9040109. [9] BGH. Smith, JR. Usherwood.
Minimalist analogue robot discovers
[3] S. Caron, A. Kheddar, O. Tempier, animal-like walking gaits. Bioinspir
Stair Climbing Stabilization of the HRP- Biomim. 2020 Feb 7;15(2):026004. doi:
4Humanoid Robot using Whole-body 10.1088/1748-3190/ab654e. PMID:
Admittance Control. IEEE International 31869827; PMCID: PMC7655146.
Conference on Robotics and
Automation, May 2019, Montréal, [10] K. Wang, D. Marsh, R. Saputra, D.
France. .1109/ICRA.2019.8794348. hal- Chappell, Z. Jiang, A. Raut, B. Kon, and
01875387v6. P. Kormushev, Design and Control of
SLIDER: An Ultra-lightweight, Knee-
[4] S. Faraji, H. Razavi, AJ. Ijspeert. less, Low-cost Bipedal Walking Robot,
Bipedal walking and push recovery with Published in: 2020 IEEE/RSJ
a stepping strategy based on time- International Conference on Intelligent
projection control. The International Robots and Systems (IROS), DOI:
Journal of Robotics Research. 2019;38 10.1109/IROS45743.2020.9341143.
(5):587-611. doi:10.1177/
0278364919835606. [11] B. Beigzadeh, M. Sabaapour, M.
Yazdi, K. Raahemifar, From a 3D
[5] M. Fevre, B. Goodwine, JP. Passive Biped Walker to a 3D Passivity-
Schmiedeler. Terrain-blind walking of Based Controlled Robot, International
planar underactuated bipeds via velocity Journal of Humanoid Robotics, Vol. 15
decomposition-enhanced control. The (2018) 1850009 (27 pages), World
International Journal of Robotics Scienti Publishing Company, DOI:
Research. 2019;38(10-11):1307-1323. 10.1142/S0219843618500093.
doi:10.1177/0278364919870242.
[12] E. Corral, M.J. García, C. Castejon, J.
[6] X. Luo and D. Xia, Impact Dynamics- Meneses and R. Gismeros, Dynamic
Based Torso Control for Dynamic Modeling of the Dissipative Contact and
Walking Biped Robots, International Friction Forces of a Passive Biped-
Journal of Humanoid Robotics, Vol. 15, Walking Robot, Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(7),
No. 1 (2018) 1850004 (25 pages), World 2342; https://doi.org/10.3390/a
Scienti¯c Publishing Company, DOI: pp10072342.
10.1142/S0219843618500044.
[13] D. Mrozik, T. Mikolajczyk, L.
[7] G. Muscolo & C. Recchiuto, Flexible Moldovan, D. Pimenov, Unconventional
Structure and Wheeled Feet to Simplify Drive System of a 3D Printed Wheeled

17
Collaborative and Humanoid Robots

Mobile Robot, Procedia Manufacturing, https://doi.org/10.1177/

Vol. 46, 2020, Pages 509-516, Publisher: 1729881419891329
Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
promfg.2020.03.073. [21] Chavdarov, I., Krastev, A.,
Naydenov, B., & Pavlova, G. (2020).
[14] G. Stano, L. Arleo and G. Percoco, Analysis and experiments with a 3D
Additive Manufacturing for Soft printed walking robot to improve
Robotics: Design and Fabrication of climbing obstacle. International Journal
Airtight, Monolithic Bending PneuNets of Advanced Robotic Systems. https://
with Embedded Air Connectors, doi.org/10.1177/1729881420925282
Micromachines 2020, 11(5), 485; h
ttps://doi.org/10.3390/mi11050485. [22] Chavdarov, I., 3D printed coupling
between a shaft and a link, patent N
[15] K. Tomczuk, Z. Malecha, 3D printed 67072 B1, 2020, in Bulgarian, http://ir.
robotic arm with elements of artificial bas.bg/fni2018/pdf/patent-67072b.pdf
intelligence, Procedia Computer
Science, Vol. 176, 2020, Pages [23] T. Sun, X. Xiang, W. Su, et al. A
3741-3750, Publisher: Elsevier, https://d transformable wheel-leggedmobile
oi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.09.013. robot: design, analysis and experiment.
Robot AutomSyst 98; 2017: 30–41
[16] M. Tyagi, G. Spinks, and E. Jager,
Fully 3D printed soft microactuators
forsoft microrobotics, Smart Materials
and StructuresSmart Mater. Struct.29
(2020) 085032 (11pp) https://doi.org/
10.1088/1361-665X/ab9f48.

[17] Y. Jia, X. Luo, B. Han, G. Liang, J.

Zhao and Y. Zhao, Stability Criterion for
Dynamic Gaits of Quadruped Robot,
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2381; https://doi.
org/10.3390/app8122381.

[18] Q. Hao, Z. Wang, J. Wang and G.

Chen, Stability-Guaranteed and High
Terrain Adaptability Static Gait for
Quadruped Robots, Sensors 2020, 20
(17), 4911; https://doi.org/10.3390/
s20174911.

[19] S.Habibian, M. Dadvar, B. Peykari,

A. Hosseini, M. Hossein Salehzadeh, and
F. Najafi, Design and implementation of
a maxi-sized mobile robot (Karo) for
rescue missions, Journal reference:
Robomech J 8, 1 (2021), Springer, DOI:
10.1186/s40648-020-00188-9.

[20] Chavdarov, I., & Naydenov, B.

(2019). Design and kinematics of a 3-D
printed walking robot “Big Foot”,
overcoming obstacles. International
Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems.

18