Power Plant and Transmission System Protection Coordination: Technical Reference Document

Technical Reference Document
Power Plant and

Transmission System
Protection Coordination
NERC System Protection and Control Subcommittee
Revision 1 – July 2010

Table of Contents
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Goal of this Report ....................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Scope ............................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.3. Coordination Definition ............................................................................................................................... 3
1.4. Multi-Function Protective Relays ................................................................................................................ 4
1.5. Assumed System Stressed Voltage Level ...................................................................................................... 4
1.6. Modeling Considerations ............................................................................................................................. 5
2. Coordination and Data Exchange Summary .................................................................................................... 7
3. Discussion of Specific Protection Functions ................................................................................................... 17

3.1. Phase Distance Protection (Function 21) .................................................................................................. 19
3.1.1. Purpose of Generator Function 21 — Phase Distance Protection ..................................................... 19
3.1.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission Systems ..................................................................... 22
3.1.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 24
3.1.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.2.3. Coordination with Breaker Failure................................................................................................ 25
3.1.3. Considerations and Issues.................................................................................................................. 25
3.1.4. Coordination Procedure ..................................................................................................................... 26
3.1.4.1. Loadability Requirements when the Protection is Set to Provide Generator Thermal Backup
Protection 27
3.1.4.2. Loadability Requirements when the Protection is Set to Provide Generator Trip Dependability .27
3.1.5. Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.5.1. Proper Coordination ...................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.5.1.1. System Faults – Generator Thermal Backup Protection ......................................................... 29
3.1.5.1.2. System Faults – Generator Trip Dependability ....................................................................... 30
3.1.5.1.3. Loadability – Generator Thermal Backup Protection ............................................................. 31
3.1.5.1.4. Loadability – Generator Trip Dependability ........................................................................... 33
3.1.5.1.5. Methods To Increase Loadability: .......................................................................................... 36
3.1.6. Summary of Protection Function Required for Coordination............................................................ 38
3.1.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange required for Coordination ......... 39
This Technical Reference Paper was approved by the NERC Planning Committee on December 9, 2009.
Revision 1 of this Technical Reference Paper was approved by the NERC Planning Committee on July 30,
2010.
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and i

Transmission System Protection Coordination July 2010
3.2. Overexcitation or V/Hz Protection (Function 24) ...................................................................................... 40
3.2.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 24 — Overexcitation Protection ................................................ 40
3.2.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission System ....................................................................... 41
3.2.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 41
3.2.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 41
3.2.2.3. Other Operating Conditions .......................................................................................................... 41
3.2.4.1. Setting Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 43
3.2.5. Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 44
3.2.6. Summary of Protection Functions Required for Coordination .......................................................... 46
3.2.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange Required for Coordination ........ 46
3.3. Undervoltage Protection (Function 27) ..................................................................................................... 48
3.3.1. Generator Unit Undervoltage Protection ........................................................................................... 48
3.3.1.1. Purpose of Generator Function 27 — Undervoltage Protection.................................................... 48
3.3.1.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission System................................................................... 49
3.3.1.2.1. Faults....................................................................................................................................... 49
3.3.1.2.1.1. Alarm Only — Preferred Method .................................................................................... 50
3.3.1.2.1.2. Tripping for Faults (not recommended, except as noted above)...................................... 50
3.3.1.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 50
3.3.1.3. Considerations and Issues ............................................................................................................. 51
3.3.1.4. Coordination Procedure ................................................................................................................ 51
3.3.1.4.1. Alarm Only — Preferred Method ........................................................................................... 52
3.3.1.4.2. Tripping Used (not recommended) ......................................................................................... 52
3.3.1.5. Examples ....................................................................................................................................... 52
3.3.1.5.1. Proper Coordination ................................................................................................................ 52
3.3.1.5.2. Improper Coordination............................................................................................................ 52
3.3.1.6. Summary of Protection Functions Required for Coordination ...................................................... 53
3.3.1.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange required for Coordination ..... 53
3.3.2. Generating Plant Auxiliary Power Supply Systems Undervoltage Protection .................................. 54
3.3.2.1. Purpose of the Generator Auxiliary System Function 27 — Undervoltage Protection ................. 54
3.3.2.2.1. Faults....................................................................................................................................... 55
3.3.2.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 55
3.3.2.4.1. Setting Procedure .................................................................................................................... 57
3.3.2.4.2. Setting Considerations ............................................................................................................ 57
3.3.2.5. Examples ....................................................................................................................................... 58
3.3.3. Undervoltage Relays (Function 27) Applied at the Point of Common Coupling .............................. 60
3.3.3.1. Purpose of the Function 27 at Point of Common Coupling .......................................................... 61
3.3.3.2.1. Faults....................................................................................................................................... 61
3.3.3.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 61
3.3.3.4.1. Setting Considerations ............................................................................................................ 62
3.3.3.5. Examples ....................................................................................................................................... 62
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and ii

3.3.4. Nuclear Power Plants — Undervoltage Protection and Control Requirements for Class 1E Safety
Related Auxiliaries Design Guidelines and Preferred Power Supply (PPS) ....................................................... 64
3.3.5. Comparison of Stressed Transmission System Voltage Impact on Combustion Turbine Plants with
Auxiliaries Directly Fed from the Transmission System versus Fed from the Generator Bus via a Unit
Auxiliary Transformer ........................................................................................................................................ 66
3.4. Reverse Power Protection (Function 32) ................................................................................................... 69
3.4.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 32 — Anti-Motoring Protection ................................................ 69
3.4.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 70
3.4.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 70
3.4.5. Examples ........................................................................................................................................... 71
3.5. Loss-of-Field Protection (LOF) — Function 40 ........................................................................................ 72
3.5.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 40 — Loss-of-Field Protection .................................................. 72
3.5.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 74
3.5.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 74
3.5.4. Coordination Considerations ............................................................................................................. 76
3.5.5. Example ............................................................................................................................................. 78
3.6. Negative Phase Sequence or Unbalanced Overcurrent Protection (Function 46)..................................... 82
3.6.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 46 — Negative Phase Sequence Overcurrent Protection ........... 82
3.6.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 83
3.6.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 84
3.6.5. Example ............................................................................................................................................. 84
3.6.5.1. Proper coordination ....................................................................................................................... 84
3.6.5.2. Time Delay Coordination.............................................................................................................. 85
3.6.5.3. Improper Coordination .................................................................................................................. 86
3.7. Inadvertent Energizing Protection (Function 50/27) ................................................................................. 88
3.7.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 50/27 — Inadvertent Energizing Protection .............................. 88
3.7.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 89
3.7.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 90
3.7.4.1. Test Procedure for Validation ....................................................................................................... 90
3.7.4.2. Setting Considerations .................................................................................................................. 90
3.7.5. Example ............................................................................................................................................. 90
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and iii

3.10.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 115
3.10.3. Considerations and Issues................................................................................................................ 116
3.8. Breaker Failure Protection (Function 50BF) ............................................................................................ 93
3.8.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 50BF — Breaker Failure Protection .......................................... 93
3.8.2.1. Faults ............................................................................................................................................. 95
3.8.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................... 96
3.8.4.1. Setting Considerations .................................................................................................................. 97
3.8.5. Example ............................................................................................................................................. 98
3.8.5.1. Proper Coordination – Critical Breaker Failure Coordination ...................................................... 98
3.8.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange required for Coordination ....... 100
3.9. Generator Step-Up Phase Overcurrent (Function 51T) and Ground Overcurrent (Function 51TG)
Protection .............................................................................................................................................................. 101
3.9.1. Purpose of the Generator Step-Up Function 51T — Backup Phase and Function 51TG – Backup
Ground Overcurrent .......................................................................................................................................... 101
3.9.1.1. Generator Step-Up Backup Phase Overcurrent Protection — Function 51T .............................. 101
3.9.1.2. Generator Step-Up Transformer Backup Ground Overcurrent Protection — Function 51TG.... 102
3.9.2. Generator Step-Up Transformer and Transmission System Coordination for Overcurrent Functions
103
3.9.2.1. Faults ........................................................................................................................................... 103
3.9.2.2. Loadability .................................................................................................................................. 104
3.9.3. Considerations and Issues for Utilizing 51T and 51TG .................................................................. 104
3.9.4. Coordination Procedure ................................................................................................................... 105
3.9.4.1. Coordination of Function 51T..................................................................................................... 105
3.9.4.2. Coordination of Function 51TG .................................................................................................. 105
3.9.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 106
3.9.5.1. Proper Coordination .................................................................................................................... 106
3.9.5.1.1. Settings for Function 51T ..................................................................................................... 107
3.9.5.1.2. Setting for the 51TG ............................................................................................................. 108
3.9.5.2. Improper Coordination ................................................................................................................ 110
3.9.6. Summary of Protection Functions Required for Coordination ........................................................ 111
3.10. Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Protection (Function 51V)............................... 113
3.10.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 51V — Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent
Protection 113
3.10.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission System ..................................................................... 114
3.10.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 114
3.10.2.1.1. 51V-C Setting Considerations ............................................................................................ 115
3.10.2.1.2. 51V-R Setting Considerations ............................................................................................ 115
3.10.3.1. Special Considerations for Older Generators with Low Power Factors and Rotating Exciters
117
3.10.4.1. Test Procedure for Validation ................................................................................................. 118
3.10.4.1.1. Voltage-Controlled Overcurrent Function (51VC) ............................................................. 118
3.10.4.1.2. Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Function (51VR) ............................................................. 119
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3.10.4.2. Setting Considerations ............................................................................................................ 120
3.10.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 120
3.10.5.1. Voltage Controlled Overcurrent Function (51V-C) ................................................................ 120
3.10.5.2. Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Function (51V-R) ............................................................... 120
3.10.5.3. Proper Coordination ............................................................................................................... 121
3.10.5.4. Improper Coordination ........................................................................................................... 122
3.11. Overvoltage Protection (Function 59) ..................................................................................................... 124
3.11.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 59 — Overvoltage Protection .................................................. 124
3.11.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 125
3.11.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 126
3.11.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 127
3.11.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange Required for Coordination ...... 128
3.12. Stator Ground Protection (Function 59GN/27TH) .................................................................................. 129
3.12.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 59GN/27TH — Stator Ground Relay ...................................... 129
3.12.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 130
3.12.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 130
3.12.4. Coordination Procedure and Considerations ................................................................................... 131
3.12.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 131
3.12.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and Information Exchange Required for Coordination ...... 131
3.13. Out-of-Step or Loss-of-Synchronism Protection (Function 78) ............................................................... 132
3.13.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 78 — Loss of Synchronism Protection .................................... 132
3.13.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 134
3.13.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 134
3.13.2.3. Other Operating Conditions ....................................................................................................134
3.13.4.1.1. Generators Connected to a Single Transmission Line ........................................................ 137
3.13.4.1.2. Check List ........................................................................................................................... 137
3.13.5. Examples ......................................................................................................................................... 138
3.13.5.1.1. Example of Calculation for Mho Element and Blinder Settings ......................................... 138
3.13.5.1.2. Example of Verifying Proper Coordination ........................................................................ 140
3.13.5.2. Power Swing Detection .......................................................................................................... 142
3.14. Overfrequency and Underfrequency Protection (Function 81)................................................................ 146
3.14.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 81 — Overfrequency and Underfrequency Protection ............ 146
3.14.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 148
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and v

3.14.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 148
3.14.2.3. Other Operating Conditions ....................................................................................................148
3.14.4.1. Setting Validation for Coordination ....................................................................................... 151
3.14.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 151
3.15. Generator Differential (Function 87G), Transformer Differential (Function 87T), and Overall
Differential (Function 87U) Protection................................................................................................................. 154
3.15.1. Purpose ............................................................................................................................................ 154
3.15.1.1. Function 87G — Generator Differential Protection ............................................................... 154
3.15.1.2. Function 87T — Transformer Differential Protection ............................................................ 154
3.15.1.3. Function 87U — Overall Differential Protection ................................................................... 154
3.15.2.1. Faults ...................................................................................................................................... 156
3.15.2.2. Loadability .............................................................................................................................. 156
3.15.4. Coordination Procedure and Considerations ................................................................................... 156
3.15.5. Example ........................................................................................................................................... 156
3.15.5.2. Improper Coordination ........................................................................................................... 156
Appendix A — References ...................................................................................................................................... 158
Appendix B — Step Response of Load Rejection Test on Hydro Generator ..................................................... 160
Appendix C — TR-22 Generator Backup Protection Responses in Cohesive Generation Groups .................. 161
Appendix D — Conversion Between P-Q And R-X .............................................................................................. 163
Appendix E — Supporting Calculations and Example Details for Section 3.1 .................................................. 165
Appendix F — Setting Example For Out-Of-Step Protection ............................................................................. 180
Appendix G — System Protection and Controls Subcommittee Roster ............................................................. 187
Appendix H — Revision History ............................................................................................................................ 189
List of Tables
Table 1 — 2003 Blackout Generation Protection Trips ........................................................................................... 1
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and vi

Table 2 — Protection Coordination Considerations ................................................................................................ 8
Table 3 — Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ................................................................................................ 13
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 21 Protection Coordination Considerations ........................................................... 38
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 21 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................................ 39
Table 3.2.1 – Example V/Hz Withstand Capability of GSU Transformer ........................................................... 44
Table 3.2.2 – Example V/Hz withstand Capability of Generator .......................................................................... 44
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Gen. Prot.) Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................... 53
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Gen. Prot.) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ....................................... 53
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Protection Coordination Considerations ..................................... 59
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities....................................... 59
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant HV System Side) Protection Coordination Considerations .................. 63
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant HV System Side) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ................... 64
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 32 Protection Coordination Consideration ............................................................ 71
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50 / 27 (Inadvertent Energization) Protection Coordination Considerations ..... 91
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 50 / 27 (Inadvertent Energization) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ....... 92
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50BF Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................................... 99
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 50BF Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ..................................................... 100
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 51T / 51TG Protection Coordination Data Exchange Requirements ............... 111
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 51T / 51TG Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ......................................... 112
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 51V Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................................... 123
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 51V Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ....................................................... 123
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and vii

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 59 Protection Coordination Considerations ......................................................... 128
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 59 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities .......................................................... 128
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 59GN / 27TH Protection Coordination Considerations..................................... 131
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 59GN / 27TH Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ...................................... 131
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 78 Protection Coordination Considerations ......................................................... 144
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 78 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities .......................................................... 145
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 81U / 81O Protection Coordination Considerations .......................................... 153
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 81U / 81O Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................ 153
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 87T / 87G / 87U Protection Coordination Data Exchange Requirements ........ 157
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 87T / 87G / 87U Data to be Exchanged Between Entities .................................. 157
Table F-1 — Case Summary ................................................................................................................................... 182
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 — Relay Configuration ............................................................................................................... 2

Figure 1.2 — Protection and Controls Coordination Goals .......................................................................... 6
Figure 3.1.1 — 904 MVA Generator Connected to a 345-kV System by Three Lines .............................. 29
Figure 3.1.2 — Trip Dependability Reach Time Coordination Graph (Machine-only thermal protection)30
Figure 3.1.3 — Trip Dependability (Relay Failure) Reach Time Coordination Graph .............................. 31
Figure 3.1.4 — Calculated Apparent Impedance versus 150% and 200% Setting ..................................... 32
Figure 3.1.5- — Simulated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 Function and Zone 2 Function
with Blinders ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.1.6 — Methods to Increase Loadability ....................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.2.1 — Generator Overexcitation Protection ................................................................................. 40
Figure 3.2.2 — Example Location of UFLS Program Relays and Generator Function 24 ........................ 42
Figure 3.2.3 — Setting Example with Inverse and Definite Time V/Hz Relays ........................................ 45
Figure 3.3.1.1 — Typical Unit Generator Undervoltage Scheme ............................................................... 49
Figure 3.3.2.1 — Generating Plant Auxiliary Power System Undervoltage Protection Scheme ............... 54
Figure 3.3.3.1 — Undervoltage Relay Applied at the Point of Common Coupling ................................... 60
Figure 3.3.4.1 — Nuclear Power Plant Auxiliary System Power Supply................................................... 65
Figure 3.3.5.1 — Unit Auxiliary Transformer Supplied Scheme ............................................................... 67
Figure 3.3.5.2 — Transmission System Transformer Supplied Scheme .................................................... 68
Figure 3.4.1 — Reverse Power Flow Detection ......................................................................................... 69
Figure 3.5.2 — Simplified System Configuration of Function 40 Relay and Fault Locations ................... 79
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and viii

Figure 3.5.3 — “Two Zone Offset Mho with Directional Element” type Loss-of-Field Relay
Charactersitic ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 3.6.1 — Negative Phase Sequence Protection Coordination ........................................................... 83
Figure 3.6.2 — Sequence Diagram of a Phase-to-Phase Fault ................................................................... 86
Figure 3.7.1 — Inadvertent Energizing (INAD) Protection Scheme .......................................................... 89
Figure 3.8.1 — Unit Breaker Failure Logic Diagram ................................................................................. 94
Figure 3.8.2 — Line Breaker Failure Logic Diagram ................................................................................. 95
Figure 3.8.3 — Example of Breaker Failure Timing Chart ........................................................................ 96
Figure 3.8.6 — Breaker Failure Coordination ............................................................................................ 98
Figure 3.9.1 — Phase and Ground Backup Overcurrent Relays on Generator Step-Up Transformer ..... 102
Figure 3.9.2 — Phase and Ground Backup Overcurrent Relays on Generator Step-Up Transformer ..... 106
Figure 3.9.3 — Function 51TGenerator Step-Up Transformer and 51LINE (G or N) Overcurrent Relay
Coordination Curves ......................................................................................................................... 108
Figure 3.9.4 — Function 51TG Overcurrent Relay Characteristic Curve ................................................ 109
Figure 3.9.5 — Miscoordination of 51GLINE and 51GGSU Settings ..................................................... 110
Figure 3.10.1 — Application of 51V System Backup Relays – Unit Generator- Transformer Arrangement
.......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 3.10.2 — Voltage Controlled Overcurrent Relay (51VC) ............................................................. 118
Figure 3.10.3 — Voltage Restrained OC Relay (51VR) .......................................................................... 119
Figure 3.10.4 — System One-Line for Setting Example .......................................................................... 121
Figure 3.10.5 — Proper Coordination ...................................................................................................... 122
Figure 3.11.1 — Overvoltage Relay with Surge Devices Shown Connected to the Stator Windings ...... 125
Figure 3.11.2 — Location of Overvoltage Relays Requiring Coordination ............................................. 125
Figure 3.11.3 — Typical Example Load Rejection Data for Voltage Regulator Response Time ............ 127
Figure 3.12.1 — Stator Ground Protection ............................................................................................... 130
Figure 3.13.1 — Loci of Swing by Eg/Es .................................................................................................. 133
Figure 3.13.2 — Generator Out-of-Step Relay Connection ..................................................................... 134
Figure 3.13.3 — Out-of-Step Protection Characteristic Using a Single Blinder Scheme......................... 136
Figure 3.13.4 — Out-of-Step Mho and Blinders Characteristic Curves from C37.102-2006 ............. Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3.13.5 — Reverse Reach – Mho and Blinder Elements ................................................................ 140
Figure 3.13.6 — Sample Apparent Impedance Swings ............................................................................ 142
Figure 3.13.7 — “Mho”-Type Out-Of-Step Detector with a Single Blinder ............................................ 143
Figure 3.14.1 — Typical Location of Generator Frequency Relays and Load Shedding Relays Requiring
Coordination ..................................................................................................................................... 147
Figure 3.14.2 — Generator Operation Ranges ......................................................................................... 149
Figure 3.14.3 — Generator Underfrequency Protection Coordination Example ...................................... 152
Figure 3.15.1 — Overall Differential, Transformer Differential , and Generator Differential Relays
without Unit Circuit Breaker............................................................................................................. 155
Figure 3.15.2 — Overall Differential, Transformer Differential, and Generator Differential Relays with
Unit Circuit Breaker .......................................................................................................................... 155
Figure B-1 ................................................................................................................................................. 160
Figure B-2 ................................................................................................................................................. 160
Figure D-1 — R-X Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 163
Figure D-2 — P-Q Diagram ..................................................................................................................... 164
Figure E-1 — Generator and Generator Step-up Transformer Impedance Model ................................... 165
Figure E-2 — Example 1: Model of a Generator Connected to a Stressed System .................................. 169
Figure E-3- — Example 1a: Calculated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Phase Distance Backup
Characteristic .................................................................................................................................... 172
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and ix

Figure E-4- — Example 1b: Calculated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Phase Distance Backup
Characteristics ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure E-5 — Example 2: 904 MVA Generator Connected to a 345-kV System by Three Lines ........... 173
Figure E-6 — Example 2: Symmetrical Component Sequence Network ................................................. 174
Figure E-7- — Example 2: Method 1 Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 2 Function with Blinders
.......................................................................................................................................................... 176
Figure E-8- — Example 2: Method 2 (Simulated) Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 Function
and Zone 2 Function with Blinders ................................................................................................... 178
Figure E-9- — Example 2: Simulated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 Function and Zone 2
Function with Blinders ...................................................................................................................... 179
Figure F-1 — Example Power System ..................................................................................................... 180
Figure F-2 — IEEE Type ST1 Excitation System .................................................................................... 181
Figure F-3 — IEEE Type 1 Speed Governing Model............................................................................... 181
Figure F-4 — Rotor Angle vs Time from the Three Cases Considered ................................................... 183
Figure F-5.1 — Diagram R vs X for Case 1 ............................................................................................. 184
Figure F-6 — Diagram R vs X for cases 1, 2 and 3 .................................................................................. 186
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and x

1. Introduction
The record of Generator Trips (290 units, about “Goal: to reduce the number
52,745 MW) during the North American distur- of unnecessary trips of
bance on August 14, 2003, included thirteen types generators during system
of generation-related protection functions that op- disturbances”
erated to initiate generator tripping. There was no
information available that directly addresses which of those generator trips were appropriate for
the Bulk Electric System (BES) conditions, and which were nuisance trips.
The list of protection functions that tripped were: mho-distance (21), voltage-controlled and
voltage-restrained overcurrent (51V), volts-per-hertz (24), undervoltage (27), overvoltage (59),
“A reliable electric reverse power (32), loss-of-field (40), negative sequence
(46), breaker failure (50BF), inadvertent energizing (50/27),
system requires
proper protection and out-of-step (78), over/underfrequency (81), transformer
differential (87T), and a significant number of unknown trips.
control coordination
The number of each type of protective function that tripped
between power plants generator units during the disturbance is shown below: This
and the transmission Technical Reference Document concentrates on bulk electric
system.” system reliability and resulting performance implications of
protection system coordination with power plant protection functions.
Table 1 — 2003 Blackout Generation Protection Trips
Unknown
Function 50/ 50
21 24 27 32 40 46 51V 59 78 81 87T Total
Type 27 BF
Number of
8 1 35 8 13 5 7 1 20 26 7 59 4 96 290
Units
For each protective function listed in Table 1, the number of generators on which that protective
function operated on August 14, 2003 is presented. There is limited information available that
directly addresses which of those protective function operations were appropriate for the Bulk
Electric System (BES) conditions, and which were undesired operations. There also is limited
information available as to which protective operations directly tripped generating units and
which operated after a turbine trip. However, some undesired generator trips by these protective
functions did contribute to expanding the extent of the blackout. This Technical Reference
Document addresses the coordination of each one of these generator protection functions
depicted in Figure 1.1with the transmission system protection.
NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 1

Additionally, the following protection functions are also discussed in this report to provide
guidance on complete coordination to the owners of the transmission system and the generating
stations: plant auxiliary undervoltage protection (27), transformer overcurrent (51T), transformer
ground overcurrent (51TG), generator neutral overvoltage (59GN), generator differential (87G),
and overall unit differential (87U).
Figure 1.1 — Relay Configuration

The generator trip types that were listed as unknown for the 2003 blackout event are being
addressed through the ongoing analysis of subsequent system disturbances for root causes via the
NERC Events Analysis program. Other types of generation tripping that have since been
identified include: lean blowout trips of combustion turbines, power load unbalance actuations
during system disturbances, response of nuclear and other types of generator and auxiliary
system undervoltage protection to system disturbances, and other unit control actuations.
1.1. Goal of this Report

The goal of this Technical Reference Document is to explore generating plant protection
schemes and their settings, and to provide guidance for coordination with transmission
protection, control systems, and system conditions to minimize unnecessary trips of
generation during system disturbances.

1.2. Scope
This Technical Reference Document is applicable to all generators but concentrates on those
generators connected at 100-kV and above. This document includes information exchange
requirements between Generator Owners and Transmission Owners to facilitate coordination
between their protection schemes. This document provides a technical basis to evaluate the
coordination between generator protection and transmission protection system. The
protection coordination discussed in this document applies only to situations where the
specific protection functions are present and applied. There are generator protection schemes
that do not include some of these functions based on the application or need. This Technical
Reference Document is not an endorsement of using these functions; good industry guidance
such as IEEE Standard C37.102, “IEEE Guide to AC Generator Protection,” and
recommendations from the generator and other equipment manufacturers should take
precedence as to which protection functions are applied.
Distributed Generation (DG) facilities connected to distribution systems are outside the scope
of this report. Such DG protection requirements and guidance are covered by IEEE 1547 –
2003 – IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
Systems.
1.3. Coordination Definition

For purposes of this document and as guidance to the entities, coordination is defined as the
following:
Coordination of generation and transmission protection systems (for events external to
the plant), means that power plant protection and related control elements must be set
and configured to prevent unnecessarily tripping the generator prior to any
transmission protection and related control systems acting first, unless the generator is
in jeopardy by exceeding its design limits due to operating conditions, generator system
faults, or other adverse potentially damaging conditions.

1.4. Multi-Function Protective Relays
Recently it has become possible to purchase a
The application of a multi-function generator protection system that
protective function to contains all the protection functions that could
be imagined for all possible applications. There
trip a unit should be
is a strong tendency for users to want to enable
based on a specific and set all these functions. In the past each
need to protect the separate generator protective function required a
separate relay; therefore the tendency today is to
turbine-generator. If
utilize numerous and unnecessary protective
that protection functions in many generation applications. It is
function is not needed, definitely not appropriate that some of the
available protection functions be used in every
DON’T USE IT!
given application! The decision to enable one
of these protective functions should be based on a specific need to protect the turbine-
generator or a need to provide backup protection functions for the interconnecting power
system. If there is no specific protection need for applying a setting, that protection function
should not be enabled. On the subject of system backup, an example of protection functions
that should not be enabled at the same time are the 21 and 51V. These two protection
functions are designed to provide the same protective function for very different applications
and purposes, and therefore, should NOT be enabled together. This is explained in the
sections covering those protection functions.
1.5. Assumed System Stressed Voltage Level

In this report, 0.85 per unit voltage at the system high-side of the generator step-up
transformer is used as the stressed system voltage condition for an extreme, but recoverable
system event. This is based on Recommendation 8a, footnote 6 of the NERC Actions to
Prevent and Mitigate the Impacts of Future Cascading Blackouts (Approved by the Board of
Trustees February 10, 2004).
The impetus for writing this Technical Reference Document is to address the
recommendations contained within Blackout Recommendation Review Task Force
(BRRTF), recommendation TR-22 – Generator Backup Protection Responses in Cohesive
Generation Groups, (see Appendix C).

During system disturbances and stressed system conditions, a cohesive generator group can
experience lower voltage, underfrequency, and large power flows brought on by large angles
across its ties to the Interconnection. During the August 14, 2003 system cascade, a number
of relaying schemes intended to trip generators for their own protection operated for the
event.
TR-22 recommended that NERC should evaluate these protection schemes and their settings
for appropriateness including coordination of protection and controls when operating within
a coherent generation area weakly connected to an interconnection or in an electrical island.
One example explicitly identified in TR-22 is that generators directly connected to the
transmission system using a 51V protective function should consider the use of an impedance
protective function (21) instead, for generator system backup protection.
1.6. Modeling Considerations

A significant element in assuring reliable and stable operation of the overall electric system is
the ability to predict the behavior of generation and transmission acting as a single system.
While the transmission system and its system controls are currently well-modeled and
understood, transmission system protection is only rarely modeled in dynamic simulations. It
is generally assumed in the models that those protection systems will operate normally and
that they are coordinated. Analysis of significant system disturbances since 2007 have
shown that out of 39 protection system misoperations during those events, 12 have been due
to miscoordination of generation and transmission protection systems, usually resulting in the
unnecessary tripping of generators.
The purpose of this Technical Reference Document is to provide guidance for the
coordination of two key system elements: transmission system and generation protection.
This document provides additional guidance for IEEE generation protection standards and
guides and NERC standards. NERC Standards Development Project 2007-06 System
Protection Coordination is intended to codify the coordination tenets expressed in this
Technical Reference Document in a revision to Standard PRC-001.

System
Conditions
Trans
Gen Protection Protection
PRC-001 Coordination
Gen Controls System

Controls
Turbine / Boiler
Controls
Figure 1.2 — Protection and Controls Coordination Goals

Figure 1.2 illustrates the interrelationships between control and protection systems in a power
plant (on the left) and the transmission protection and controls (on the right). While
generator exciters, governors, and power system stabilizers (generator controls) are
commonly modeled in dynamic simulations, the transient stability behavior and interaction of
generator protection and turbine/boiler controls during transient and post-transient conditions
are not. Consequently, transmission planning and operations engineers never see the
consequences of those interactions with the rest of the system. The transmission system is
judged to be in a safe operating condition if there are no overloads, voltage is acceptable, and
all generators remain stable. To maintain overall reliability of the Bulk Electric System, all
of those elements must act in a coordinated fashion. That coordination must be provided
regardless of ownership of the facilities.

2. Coordination and Data Exchange Summary
Table 2 and its contents act as and provide an executive summary for the protection system
function coordination described in this technical report. The columns provide the following
information:
Column 1 — The protective functions that require coordination by the Generator Owner.
Column 2 — The corresponding protective functions that require coordination by the
Transmission Owner.
Column 3 — The system concerns the Transmission Owner and Generator Owner must,
as a minimum, jointly address in their protection coordination review.
Table 3 provides the detailed information to be exchanged that is required from each entity. The
table lists protection setpoints, time delays, and the detailed data required to be exchanged for
each function between the entities. The columns provide the following information:
Column 1 — The detailed data the Generator Owner must provide to the Transmission
Owner
Column 2 — The detailed data the Transmission Owner must provide to the Generator
Owner
Column 3 — Concerns that need to be addressed with the Planning Coordinator
A step-by-step procedure is presented for each appropriate protective function to be followed by
the Generator Owner and Transmission Owner to complete the coordination process. Each
protective function and setting criteria section contains the following basic subsections:
1. Purpose
2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission System
a. Faults
b. Loadability
c. Other Operating Conditions (where applicable)
3. Considerations and Issues
4. Setting Validation for the Coordination
a. Test Procedure for Validation
b. Setting Considerations
5. Example
a. Proper Coordination
b. Improper Coordination
6. Summary of Detailed Data Required for Coordination of the Protection Function
7. Table of Data and Information that Must be Exchanged

Table 2 — Protection Coordination Considerations
Generator Protection Transmission System
System Concerns
Function Protection Functions
 Both 21 functions have to coordinate
 Trip dependability
 Breaker failure time
 System swings (out‐of‐step blocking)
21  Protective function loadability for extreme
87B system conditions that are recoverable
21 – Phase distance  System relay failure
87T
50BF  Settings should be used for planning and
system studies either through explicit
modeling of the function, or through
monitoring impedance swings at the relay
location in the stability program and
applying engineering judgment
 Generator V/Hz protection characteristics
shall be determined and be recognized in
the development of any UFLS program for all
required voltage conditions. The Generator
Owner (and the Transmission Owner when
the GSU transformer is owned by the
Transmission Owner) exchange information
of V/Hz setpoints and UFLS setpoints with
the Planning Coordinator
 Coordinate with the V/Hz withstand
capability and V/Hz limiter in the excitation
control system of the generator
 Coordinate with V/Hz conditions during
UFLS Program
islanding (high voltage with low frequency
UFLS design is generally
24 – Volts/Hz system conditions that may require system
the responsibility of the
mitigation actions)
Planning Coordinator
 Regional UFLS program design must be
coordinated with these settings.
 Islanding issues (high voltage and low
frequency) may require planning studies and
require reactive element mitigation
strategies
 Settings should be used for planning and
monitoring voltage and frequency
performance at the relay location in the
stability program and applying engineering
judgment

System Concerns
27 – Generator Unit
Undervoltage
Protection
** Should Not Be Set  Must not trip prematurely for a recoverable

to Trip, Alarm Only** extreme system event with low voltage or
system fault conditions
21
If function 27 tripping  UVLS setpoints and coordination if
27 if applicable
is used for an applicable
87B
unmanned facility –  Settings should be used for planning and
87T
the settings must system studies either through explicit
50BF
coordinate with the modeling of the function, or through
Longest time delay for monitoring voltage performance at the relay
stressed system
transmission system location in the stability program and
condition of 0.85 per
protection to clear a fault applying engineering judgment
unit voltage and time
delays set to allow for  Must coordinate with transmission line
clearing of system reclosing
faults by transmission
system protection,
including breaker
failure times.
 Coordinate the auxiliary bus protection and
control when connected directly to the High
Voltage system
27 – Plant Auxiliary  Generator Owner to validate the proper
Undervoltage 21 operation of auxiliary system at 80‐85
27 if applicable percent voltage. The undervoltage trip
If Tripping is used – the 87B setting is preferred at 80 percent
correct setpoint and 87T  Generator Owners validate the proper
adequate time delay so 50BF operation of auxiliary system at 0.8‐0.85 per
it does not trip for Longest time delay for unit voltage
system faults and transmission system  Settings should be used for planning and
recoverable extreme protection to clear a fault system studies either through explicit
system events modeling of the function, or through
monitoring voltage performance at the relay

System Concerns
 Must not trip prematurely for a recoverable
21 extreme system event with low voltage or
27 if applicable
27 – Plant High Voltage  UVLS setpoints and coordination if
87B
system‐side applicable
undervoltage 87T
50BF
Longest time delay for
transmission system
protection to clear a fault
 Some relays can be susceptible to
32 – Reverse Power None misoperation at high leading reactive power
(var) loading
 Preventing encroachment on reactive capability
curve
 See details from sections 4.5.1 and A.2.1 of
C37.102‐2006
Settings used for planning  It is imperative that the LOF function does not
40 – Loss of Field (LOF)
and system studies operate for stable power swings – The impedance
trajectory of most units with a lagging power
factor (reactive power into the power system) for
stable swings will pass into and back out of the
first and second quadrants
 Should be coordinated with system
protection for unbalanced system faults
 Plant and system operations awareness
21 when experiencing an open‐pole on the
21G system
46  Transposition of transmission lines
67N  System studies, when it is required by
46 – Negative phase
51N system condition
sequence overcurrent
Longest time delay of  Open phase, single‐pole tripping
transmission system  Reclosing
protection including  If there is an alarm, Generator Owners must
breaker failure time provide I2 measurements to the
Transmission Owner and Planning
Coordinator and they must work together to
resolve the alarm

System Concerns
 The function 27 must be set at or below 50
percent of the nominal voltage
 Instantaneous overcurrent (function 50)
must be set sensitive enough to detect
inadvertent energizing (breaker closing)
50 / 27 – Inadvertent  Timer setting should be adequately long to
None
energizing avoid undesired operations due to transients
– at least 2 seconds
 Relay elements (27, 50 and timers) having
higher Dropout Ratio (ratio of dropout to
pickup of a relay) should be selected to
avoid undesired operations
 Overcurrent (fault detector) and 52a contact
considerations
 Critical clearing time
 Coordination with zone 2 and zone 3 timers
system studies
 Line relay reach and time delay settings with
Protection on line(s) and
50BF – Breaker failure on respect to each generator zone.
bus(es) that respond to
generator
faults and conditions on  Bus differential relay (usually instantaneous)
interconnection timing for HV bus faults including breaker
the generator side of the
breaker(s) failure on an adjacent bus.
interconnection breaker(s)
 Line and bus breaker failure timers and line
zone 1 and zone 2 timers on all possible
faults.
 Single line diagram(s) including CTs and VTs
arrangement
 Power Circuit Breaker (PCB) test data
(interrupting time)
 Must have adequate margin over GSU
protection and nameplate rating
21  51T not recommended, especially when the
51 Transmission Owner uses distance line
51T – Phase fault protection functions
67
backup overcurrent  Open phase, single‐pole tripping and
51G
reclosing
51N
51TG – Ground fault  Generator Owners(s) needs to get Relay
67N
backup overcurrent Data (functions 51, 67, 67N, etc) and Single
Open phase, single‐pole
line diagram (including CT and PT
tripping and reclosing
arrangement and ratings) from
Transmission Owner(s) for function 51T
coordination studies

System Concerns
 51V not recommended when Transmission
Owner uses distance line protection
functions
 Short circuit studies for time coordination
 Total clearing time
 Review voltage setting for extreme system
51 conditions
51V – Voltage
67  51V controlled function has only limited
controlled / restrained
87B system backup protection capability
monitoring voltage and current performance
at the relay location in the stability program
and applying engineering judgment
59 – Overvoltage 59 (when applicable)
 Ensure that proper time delay is used such
that protection does not trip due to inter‐
59GN/27TH – winding capacitance issues or instrument
21N
Generator Stator secondary grounds
51N
Ground  Ensure that there is sufficient time delay to
ride through the longest clearing time of the
transmission line protection
 System studies are required.
21 (including coordination  Settings should be used for planning and
of OOS blocking and system studies either through explicit
78 – Out‐of‐step modeling of the function, or through
tripping)
78 (if applicable)

System Concerns
 Coordination with system UFLS setpoints
and time delay (typically achieved through
compliance with regional frequency
standards for generators)
81U  Meet underfrequency overfrequency
81O requirements
81U – Underfrequency  Auto‐restart of distributed generation such
Note: UFLS design is as wind generation during overfrequency
81O — Overfrequency generally the responsibility conditions
of the Planning  Settings should be used for planning and
Coordinator system studies either through explicit
monitoring frequency performance at the
relay location in the stability program and
87G — Generator None
Differential
Proper overlap of the overall differential zone

87T — Transformer None
and bus differential zone, etc., should be
Differential
verified.
87U — Overall None

Differential
Table 3 — Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Generator Owner Transmission Owner Planning Coordinator
Function 21
One line diagram of the transmission
Relay settings in the R‐X plane in Feedback on coordination
system up to one bus away from the
primary ohms at the generator problems found in stability studies
generator high‐side bus.
terminals
Impedance of all transmission
Relay timer settings elements connected to the
generator high‐side bus
Relay settings on all transmission
Total clearing times for the
elements connected to the
generator breakers
Total clearing time for all
transmission elements connected to
the generator high‐side bus

Total clearing time for breaker
failure, for all transmission elements
connected to the generator high‐
side bus
Function 24
The overexcitation protection
characteristics, including time Feedback on problems found
characteristics for the GSU
delays and relay location, for the between overexcitation settings
transformer (if owned by the
generator and the GSU and UFLS programs
Transmission Owner)
Generator Owner)
Function 27 ‐ Generator
Feedback on problems found in
Relay settings: Undervoltage
Time delay of transmission system coordinating with stressed voltage
setpoint if applicable, including
protection condition studies and if applicable,
time delays, at the generator
UVLS studies
terminals
Function 27 – Plant Auxiliary
System Feedback on problems found in
Relay settings: Undervoltage Time delay of transmission system coordinating with stressed voltage
Setpoint if applicable , including protection condition studies and if applicable,
time delays, at the power plant UVLS studies
auxiliary bus
Function 27 – High Voltage
System Side
UVLS studies
time delays, at high‐side bus
Function 32
None None
None
Function 40 Impedance trajectory from system
Relay settings: loss of field The worst case clearing time for stability studies for the strongest
characteristics, including time each of the power system elements and weakest available system
delays, at the generator terminals connected to the transmission bus at
which the generator is connected Feedback on problems found in
Generator reactive capability coordination and stability studies

Function 46
Relay settings: negative phase
sequence overcurrent protection
characteristics, including time The time‐to‐operate curve for the
delays, at the generator terminals system relays that respond to
unbalanced system faults. This None.
Generator Owners must provide I2 would include the 51TG if the GSU is
measurements to the Transmission owned by the Transmission Owner
Owner and Planning Coordinator
for resolution if significant
unbalance is observed
Function 50/27 – Inadvertent
Energizing
Review method of disconnect and
Undervoltage setting and current None
operating procedures
detector settings pick‐up and time
delay
Function 50BF – Breaker Failure
Times to operate, including timers, Provide critical clearing time or
Times to operate of generator
of transmission system protection confirm total clearing time is less
protection
Breaker failure relaying times than critical clearing time
Breaker failure relaying times
Function 51T – Phase fault backup
overcurrent One line diagram of the transmission
system up to one bus away from the None
Function 51TG – Ground fault generator high‐side bus
backup overcurrent
Impedances of all transmission
Relay timer settings. elements connected to the
generator breakers
Total clearing times for all
Total clearing times for breaker
side bus
Function 51V – Voltage controlled
/ restrained
Times to operate, including timers,
Provide settings for pickup and of transmission system protection
time delay (may need to provide None
relay manual for proper
interpretation of the voltage
controlled/restrained function)

Function 59
Relay settings: setting and
Pickup and time delay information of
characteristics, including time
each 59 function applied for system None
delay setting or inverse time
protection
characteristic, at the generator
terminals
Provide worst case clearing time for
Function 59GN/27TH
phase‐to‐ground or phase‐to‐ phase‐
Provide time Delay setting of the None
to‐ground close‐in faults, including
59GN/27TH
the breaker failure time.
Determine if there is a need for
generator out‐of‐step protection
Function 78 Determine if there is a need for

Provide relay settings, time delays
Relay settings, time delays and transmission line out‐of‐step
and characteristics for the out‐of‐
characteristics for out‐of‐step tripping/blocking related to the
step tripping and blocking if used
tripping and blocking generator
Feedback on coordination
problems found in stability studies.
Function 81U / 81O Feedback on problems found
Relay settings and time delays None between underfrequency settings
and UFLS programs
Function 87G – Generator
None None
Differential
Function 87T – Transformer
None None
Differential
Function 87U –
Overall Differential None None
None

3. Discussion of Specific Protection Functions
This report does not prescribe practices to Generator Owners and Transmission Owners, but is
intended to provide useful information and guidance for self-examination of their protection
schemes as well data exchange and coordination. It is envisioned that this self-examination and
coordination process will significantly reduce the number of nuisance trips in future events.
These suggested processes should be simple and easy to perform for generator protection
application reviews. The following are general data and information requirements that should be
exchanged by the Generator and Transmission Owners for a complete review of all protection
functions. Note that all data and information may not be required for a review of each individual
protection function. Note also that unique situations may exist in which the Transmission
Owners owns protective relays within the generating plant, or the Generator Owner owns
protective relays that protect transmission system elements. In these unique situations one entity
may be responsible for coordination, but the principles in this Technical Reference Document are
still applicable.
Coordinating several of the protection functions requires that the Generator Owner and
Transmission Owner have knowledge of the system conditions expected to occur during extreme
system events. This document includes data exchange requirements between the Generator
Owner, Transmission Owner, and the Planning Coordinator to facilitate exchange of this
information. While this document refers specifically to the Planning Coordinator, the system
studies may be performed by the Transmission Planner. Some entities perform multiple roles in
the NERC Functional Model, so in some cases the Transmission Planner may be the same entity
as the Transmission Owner. In this document, use of the term Planning Coordinator is intended
to cover all of these cases.
Generator Owner Data and Information Requirements1

In addition to the protective function settings the Generator Owner should provide additional
general and specific application information as requested including the following, where
applicable:
 Relay scheme descriptions
 Generator off nominal frequency operating limits
 CT and VT/CCVT configurations
 Main transformer connection configuration
 Main transformer tap position(s) and impedance (positive and zero sequence) and neutral
grounding impedances
1
Based on initial work of the Project 2007-06, System Protection Coordination (PRC-001-2) standard drafting team.

 High voltage transmission line impedances (positive and zero sequence) and mutual coupled
impedances (zero sequence)
 Generator impedances (saturated and unsaturated reactances that include direct and quadrature
axis, negative and zero sequence impedances and their associated time constants)
 Documentation showing the function of all protective functions listed above
Transmission or Distribution Owner Data and Information Requirements2

In addition to the protective function settings Transmission Owner or Distribution Provider
should provide additional information as requested including the following, where applicable:
 Relay scheme descriptions
 Regional Reliability Organization’s off-nominal frequency plan
 CT and VT/CCVT configurations
 Any transformer connection configuration with transformer tap position(s) and impedance
(positive and zero sequence) and neutral grounding impedances
 High voltage transmission line impedances (positive and zero sequence) and mutual coupled
impedances (zero sequence)
 Documentation showing the function of all protective functions listed above
 Results of fault study or short circuit model
 Results of stability study
 Communication-aided schemes
This information is required to gain a complete understanding of the protection schemes in place
for all involved entities and, if necessary, allow the Planning Coordinator to include the plant
protection in models for system studies.
2
Based on initial work of the Project 2007-06, System Protection Coordination (PRC-001-2) standard drafting team.

3.1. Phase Distance Protection (Function 21)
3.1.1. Purpose of Generator Function 21 — Phase
Distance Protection
Phase distance protection measures impedance derived from the quotient of generator
terminal voltage divided by generator stator current. When it is applied, its function is to
provide backup protection for system faults that have not been cleared by transmission
system circuit breakers via their protective relays. Note that Function 51V (Section 3.10)
is another method of providing backup for system faults, and it is never appropriate to
enable both Function 51V and Function 21. Section 4.6.1.1 of IEEE C37.102-2006,
“Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this protection as follows
(emphasis added):
“The distance relay applied for this function is intended to isolate the
generator from the power system for a fault which is not cleared by the
transmission line breakers. In some cases this relay is set with a very
long reach. A condition which causes the generator voltage regulator to
boost generator excitation for a sustained period that may result in the
system apparent impedance, as monitored at the generator terminals, to
fall within the operating characteristics of the distance relay. Generally,
a distance relay setting of 150 to 200% of the generator MVA rating at its
rated power factor (sic: This setting can be re-stated in terms of ohms as
0.66 – 0.50 per unit ohms on the machine base.) has been shown to
provide good coordination for stable swings, system faults involving
infeed, and normal loading conditions. However, this setting may also
result in failure of the relay to operate for some line faults where the line
relays fail to clear. It is recommended that the setting of these relays be
evaluated between the generator protection engineers and the system
protection engineers to optimize coordination while still protecting the
turbine-generator. Stability studies may be needed to help determine a set
point to optimize protection and coordination. Modern excitation control
systems include overexcitation limiting and protection devices to protect
the generator field, but the time delay before they reduce excitation is
several seconds. In distance relay applications for which the voltage
regulator action could cause an incorrect trip, consideration should be
given to reducing the reach of the relay and/or coordinating the tripping
time delay with the time delays of the protective devices in the voltage
regulator. Digital multifunction relays equipped with load encroachment
blinders can prevent misoperation for these conditions. Within its
operating zone, the tripping time for this relay must coordinate with the
longest time delay for the phase distance relays on the transmission lines
connected to the generating substation bus. With the advent of

multifunction generator protection relays, it is becoming more common to
use two phase distance zones. In this case, the second zone would be set
as described above. When two zones are applied for backup protection,
the first zone is typically set to see the substation bus (120% of the
generator step-up transformer). This setting should be checked for
coordination with the zone-1 element on the shortest line off of the bus.
Your normal zone-2 time delay criteria would be used to set the delay for
this element. Alternatively, zone-1 can be used to provide high-speed
protection for phase faults, in addition to the normal differential
protection, in the generator and isolated-phase bus with partial coverage
of the generator step-up transformer. For this application, the element
would typically be set to 50% of the transformer impedance with little or
no intentional time delay. It should be noted that it is possible that this
element can operate on an out-of-step power swing condition and provide
misleading targeting.”
In addition to the purposes described for generator protection in C37.102 – 2006, is the
need to consider the protection of the power system as a whole with regard to the
intended function of the impedance function. It is just as important to protect the
reliability of the power system as the generator. If the generator is over-protected,
meaning that the impedance function can operate when the generator is not at risk
thermally or from a stability perspective, then it can trip leaving other generators to
shoulder its share of the system load. If any of these other generators also are over-
protected and trip the remaining generators become at risk of damage. This is especially
of concern in stressed or extreme contingency conditions. Sequential tripping of
generators under such conditions can lead to cascade tripping of system elements,
potentially leading to a system blackout.
There are two common approaches to setting function 21 as applied to the protection of
generators. One approach is to set the function focusing on thermal protection of the
generator for a transmission fault that is not cleared by transmission relays. Often this
approach leads to setting the function at about 150 percent to 200 percent of the generator
MVA rating at its rated power factor. This approach is not intended to provide backup
protection for the transmission system as could be needed for transmission line relay
failure. The setting of 150 percent to 200 percent of rated MVA at the rated power factor
is intended to provide a secure setting, but it still is necessary to evaluate the setting to
assure it will not operate for system loading during extreme system conditions.
The other approach is to set it with a longer reach to provide significant transmission
system relay failure backup protection (e.g. 120% of the longest line connected to the
generating station bus including the effects of infeed from other lines and sources). In

this approach, two zones of impedance functions are often used. Zone 1 and zone 2 are
time delayed. Zone 1 is set to detect faults on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer and the high voltage bus. Zone 1 must be set to not overreach the
transmission line zone 1 functions with margin. Zone 1 is a backup function and must be
time delayed. Its time delay is set longer than the primary relaying time [zone 1
transmission line distance protection (function 21), generator differential (function 87G),
transformer differential (function 87T), overall differential (function 87U), bus
differential (function 87B)], plus circuit breaker failure time (function 50BF) and a
reasonable margin. The generator zone 2 is set to detect a fault on the longest line (with
in-feed). Zone 2 time delay is set longer than all transmission line protection times for all
zones in which it can detect a fault including breaker failure time and a reasonable
margin.
For the reliability of the overall power system, backup protection should be provided for
transmission system relay failure. Depending on the protection philosophies of the
Generator Owner and Transmission Owner and any agreements between them, one or
both of these entities may provide this protection.
It is necessary to evaluate the zone 2 (extended reach) setting to assure it will not operate
for system loading during extreme system conditions. During extreme system
contingencies, it is likely that the power system generators may swing with respect to
each other. Often these swings dampen and the system returns to a steady state. It is
essential that functions that can respond to stable swings do not trip the generator
unnecessarily. The 21 impedance function is such a function. This loadability evaluation
is in addition to checking the coordination with transmission system protection for system
faults as stated above.
Annex A.2.3 of the IEEE C37-102 Guide provides a setting example for the impedance
function. Although annexes are not a part of the guide, they do provide useful
explanations. In C37.102, Annex A describes settings calculations for generator relays
using a particular example. For the impedance function that is used to detect system
relay failures, called zone 2 in the annex, it states the following settings rules from the
IEEE C37-102 Guide:
“Set zone 2 to the smallest of the three following criteria:
A. 120% of longest line (with in-feed). If the unit is connected to a
breaker and a half bus, this would be the length of the adjacent line.
B. 50% to 66.7% of load impedance (200% to 150% of the generator
capability curve) at the rated power factor angle.

C. 80% to 90% of load impedance (125% to 111% of the generator
capability curve) at the maximum torque angle.”
As with PRC-023, the loadability standard for transmission lines, this Technical
Reference Document will define a stressed system condition as a bus voltage of 0.85 per
unit at the high voltage side of the generator step up (GSU) transformer. This is not a
worst case voltage but a voltage that was observed in the August 14, 2003 blackout at
many buses before the cascade portion of the blackout. It was in a time frame at which
automatic action to return the power system to within limits was quite possible. In
contrast to loadability requirements for transmission system relays in PRC-023 for which
the 0.85 per unit voltage is treated as a quasi-steady-state condition, evaluation of
generator relay loadability additionally must include the generating unit dynamic
response to this stressed voltage condition.
In a stressed system condition, it is likely that the generator exciter may be undergoing
some level of field forcing. In this Technical Reference Document, two operating
conditions are examined: (1) when the unit is at rated active power out in MW with a
level of reactive power output in Mvar of 150 percent times rated MW (some level of
field forcing) and (2) when the unit is at its declared low active power operating limit
(e.g. 40 percent of rated load) with a level of reactive power output in Mvar of 175
percent times rated MW (some additional level of field forcing). Both conditions are
evaluated with the generator step-up transformer high-side voltage at 0.85 per unit.
These dynamic load levels were chosen based on observed unit loading values during the
August 14, 2003 blackout, other subsequent system events, and simulations of generating
unit responses to similar system conditions. These load operating points are believed to
be conservatively high levels of reactive power out of the generator with a 0.85 per unit
high-side voltage based on these observations.
3.1.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission

Systems
The relay settings as determined by the Generator Owner require affirmation by the
Transmission Owner for fault detection and time coordination. The relay setting must
also be tested to assure that it will not respond incorrectly for system loading during
extreme system conditions when the generator is not at risk of thermal damage. For the
purposes of validating loadability, two separate methods are proposed and discussed.
The first method is a conservative, but simple test that evaluates loadability against two
operating points. These operating points were selected based on observed unit loading
values during the August 14, 2003 blackout as well as other subsequent system events,

and on simulations evaluating a wide range of operating conditions, including both fault
and steady-state conditions. These load operating points are believed to be a
conservatively high level of reactive power out of the generator with a 0.85 per unit high-
side voltage, such that a relay set to be secure for these conservative operating points will
be secure for the wide range of conditions that may challenge the apparent impedance
characteristic of the phase distance protection. The second method allows for more
extensive evaluation of the worst-case expected operating points for a specific generator
that may be applied when the conservative, but simple test restricts application of the
desired relay setting.
Method 1: As stated above, the first method is a conservative but simple test that is
applied to validate generator relay loadability. This method may be applied for any
application of the phase distance backup function although it may be most useful when
this function is applied to provide generator backup thermal protection. With this method
the relay reach is compared against the loadability requirement by calculation or
graphically by plotting the relay characteristic on an impedance plot and checking against
the apparent impedance operating points as specified above. These operating points are
calculated with stator current based on (1) rated MW and a Mvar value of 150 percent
times rated MW output; (e.g. 768 MW + j1152 Mvar) and (2) a declared low active
power operating point such as 40 percent of rated MW and a Mvar value of 175 percent
times rated MW output; (e.g. 307 MW + j1344 Mvar). In both cases, the generator
terminal voltage is calculated based on the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit
voltage on the high-side of the generator step-up transformer.
Method 2: The second method may be applied when the conservative, but simple test in
Method 1 restricts application of the desired relay setting. This method allows for more
extensive evaluation of the worst-case expected operating points based on characteristics
of the specific generator. These operating points may be determined from dynamic
modeling of the apparent impedance trajectory during simulated events. The stressed
system condition used is similar to method 1, but the evaluation is conducted using a
dynamic model simulation with the voltage at the high-side reduced to 0.85 per unit prior
to field-forcing to simulate the response of the unit to depressed transmission system
voltage. This process provides a more accurate and comprehensive representation of the
field forcing, active and reactive power output, and the resulting apparent impedance
trajectory during the event.

3.1.2.1. Faults
The detection of a fault is most easily demonstrated by the examples in section 3.1.5.
In the examples, it is assumed that transmission line relay failure has occurred and the
fault is at the far end of the protected line. The examples present solutions that can be
used to permit tripping for the fault, while not tripping for non-fault conditions when
the generator is not at risk.
3.1.2.2. Loadability
C37.102 presents a range of likely acceptable settings for the impedance function of
150 percent to 200 percent of the generator MVA rating at rated power factor as
settings that will not operate for normal generator outputs. This setting can be re-
stated in terms of ohms as 0.66 – 0.50 per unit ohms on the machine base. The
methods in this document go beyond these requirements by examining generator
output under stressed conditions. Most exciters have a field forcing function [2] (see
appendix A, reference 2 in IEEE Standard 421.1-2007) that enables the exciter to
operate beyond its full load output. These outputs can last 10 seconds or more before
controls reduce the exciter field currents to rated output.
Section 4.2.1 of C37.102 states (emphasis added):
“The field winding may operate continuously at a current equal to or less
than that required producing rated-kVA at rated power factor and voltage.
For power factors less than rated, the generator output must be reduced to
keep the field current within these limits.
The capability curves as defined in IEEE Std 67-1990 are determined on
this basis. Under abnormal conditions, such as short circuits and other
system disturbances, it is permissible to exceed these limits for a short
time. IEEE C50.13-2005, lists the short-time thermal capability for
cylindrical-rotor machines. In this standard, the field winding short-time
thermal capability is given in terms of permissible field current as a
function of time as noted below.”
Time (seconds) 10 30 60 120
Field current (percent) 209 146 125 113
A generator impedance function has a time delay much less than 10 seconds. Time
coordination with any excitation control that activates to lower field current is not
likely. The 10 second limit is 209 percent of rated field current at full load (Amperes
Field Full Load (AFFL)). AFFL is typically approximately 250 percent of Ampere

Field Air Gap (AFAG). AFAG is the 1.0 per unit (unity) field current per industry
standards. Levels of field current higher than AFFL, as specified by the exciter
manufacturer, are possible during field forcing.
The recommended basis for the loadability test during stressed system are two
operating conditions: (1) when the unit is at rated active power out in MW with a
level of reactive power output in Mvar of 150 percent times rated MW (some level of
field forcing) and (2) when the unit is at its declared low active power operating limit
(e.g. 40 percent of rated load) with a level of reactive power output in Mvar of 175
percent times rated MW (some additional level of field forcing). Both conditions are
evaluated with the generator step-up transformer high-side voltage at 0.85 per unit.
In reference to the discussion above, these values of stator current will result in a
level of field current that is greater than AFFL, but less than the maximum 10-second
value of 209 percent of AFFL. Typical values are on the order of 3.5 per unit to 4.5
per unit (350 percent to 450 percent of AFAG corresponds to 140 percent to 180
percent of AFFL).
3.1.2.3. Coordination with Breaker Failure

The 21 function will detect transmission system faults. These faults normally will be
cleared by the transmission system relays. Should a circuit breaker fail at the time it
is called upon to interrupt the fault, breaker failure relaying will initiate time delayed
backup clearing by tripping all circuit breakers adjacent to the failed breaker. The 21
relay time delay must be set to coordinate with the breaker failure clearing times with
a reasonable margin. This requirement is necessary for all transmission protection
zones (protected elements) within which the 21 function can detect a fault. For
example, a 21 function can detect a fault on a transmission line connected to a bus
that is adjacent to the bus at which the generator is connected. Time coordination is
needed should the transmission line fault and its breaker fail.
3.1.3. Considerations and Issues

From a trip dependability perspective, for example relay failure protection, it may be
desirable to set the impedance function to detect faults in another zone of protection. For
some system configurations however, the impedance function may not be able to detect
these faults due to the effect of infeed from other fault current sources. In these cases,
other means for providing relay failure protection for the zone is required. Unbalanced
system faults are detected by negative sequence functions which are immune to operating
on balanced load. Coordination for three-phase faults is the most challenging because of

the need to not trip for load and because the generator reactance increases with time from
subtransient to transient and then approaches synchronous reactance. The generator fault
current decreases in time based on its associated reactances and time constants. (Please
see reference 18 for further detail.) For a transmission system three-phase fault the
generator overfrequency protection and overspeed protection may operate in response to
unit acceleration resulting from the three-phase fault before any thermal damage can
occur. These functions provide this protection in addition to their primary function.
The impedance function must not operate for stable system swings. When the impedance
function is set to provide remote backup, the function becomes increasingly susceptible
to tripping for stable swings as the apparent impedance setting of the function increases.
The best way to evaluate susceptibility to tripping is with a stability study. The study
typically is performed by the Planning Coordinator with input from the Generator Owner,
since the Planning Coordinator possesses the analysis expertise and the system models
necessary to perform the study. The Generator Owner should provide the Planning
Coordinator with the impedance function setting and the basis for the setting. For the
critical stable swing, the swing loci of apparent impedances should not enter the relay
characteristic. Adjustment of time delay is not sufficient to assure coordination for stable
swings. Should the swing penetrate the relay characteristic, the function should be reset
or control methods such as out-of-step blocking should be incorporated into the
impedance function tripping logic to assure the function will not operate for stable
swings.
For unstable swings, the phase distance function should not be used to trip as the angle at
which the breaker opens cannot be controlled with a 21 function. The voltage across the
breaker can reach dangerous values if the breaker is opened when the angle is near 180
degrees. Under these conditions a 78 (out-of-step) function should be used to trip such
that the breaker opening can be controlled to occur at a safe angle using blinder settings
of the 78 function.
3.1.4. Coordination Procedure

At all times the generation protection settings must coordinate with the response times of
the overexcitation limiter (OEL) and V/Hz limiter on the excitation control system of the
generator.
Step 1 — Generator Owner and Transmission Owner work out and agree on the reach
and time delay settings for the system and generator protection 21 functions.

Step 2 — Generator Owner verifies that the generator 21 function are coordinated with
OEL functions of the excitation system to meet the loadability requirements. This is
especially important when the excitation system of the machine is replaced.
Step 3 — Generator Owner and Transmission Owner review any setting changes found to
be necessary as a result of Step 2.
Depending on the results of step 2, this may be an iterative process, and may require
additional changes to the transmission system protection.
3.1.4.1. Loadability Requirements when the Protection is Set

to Provide Generator Thermal Backup Protection
The phase distance function typically is set in the range of 50 percent to 66.7 percent
of load impedance (200 percent to 150 percent of the generator capability curve) at
the rated power factor angle when applied for machine-only coverage. The following
items must be evaluated to ensure security for stressed conditions.
 This setting, including a reasonable margin, should not exceed the two apparent
load impedances that are calculated from the generator terminal voltage and stator
current. Two operating conditions are examined and used to calculate the
apparent load impedances: (1) when the unit is at rated active power out in MW
with a level of reactive power output in Mvar of 150 percent times rated MW
(some level of field forcing) and (2) when the unit is at its declared low active
power operating limit (e.g. 40 percent of rated load) with a level of reactive power
output in Mvar of 175 percent times rated MW (some additional level of field
forcing). Both conditions are evaluated with the generator step-up transformer
high-side voltage at 0.85 per unit.
 In cases where coordination cannot be obtained for these conservative

assumptions, a more extensive evaluation of the worst-case expected operating
point may be performed based on characteristics of the specific generator. These
operating points may be determined by dynamic modeling of the apparent
impedance trajectories during simulated events.
3.1.4.2. Loadability Requirements when the Protection is Set

to Provide Generator Trip Dependability
The phase distance function typically is set to reach 120 percent of the longest line
(with infeed) when applied for relay failure backup coverage. The following items
must be evaluated to ensure security for stressed conditions

 This setting, including a reasonable margin, should not exceed the two apparent
load impedances that are calculated from the generator terminal voltage and stator
current or by dynamic model simulations. When the protection is set for relay
failure backup it is unlikely that the setting will meet the conservative calculated
Method 1 operating points; specifically (1) when the unit is at rated active power
out in MW with a level of reactive power output in Mvar of 150 percent times
rated MW (some level of field forcing) and (2) when the unit is at its declared low
active power operating limit point (e.g. 40 percent of rated load) with a level of
reactive power output in Mvar of 175 percent times rated MW (some additional
level of field forcing). Both conditions are evaluated with the generator step-up
transformer high-side voltage at 0.85 per unit..
 In cases where coordination cannot be obtained for these conservative

assumptions, a more extensive evaluation of the worst-case expected operating
load points may be performed based on characteristics of the specific generator.
These operating points may be determined by dynamic modeling of the apparent
impedance trajectories during simulated events.
 During extreme system contingencies it is likely that the power system generators
may swing with respect to each other. It is essential that functions that can
respond to stable swings do not trip the generator unnecessarily. The 21
impedance function is such a function.
3.1.5. Examples
3.1.5.1. Proper Coordination
In this example, the impedance function is required to protect the generator and
provide transmission line relay failure backup protection. The example is based on a
904 MVA generator connected to a 345-kV system by three transmission lines (see
Figure 3.1.1).

Figure 3.1.1 — 904 MVA Generator Connected to a 345-kV System by Three Lines
3.1.5.1.1. System Faults – Generator Thermal Backup
Protection
Figure 3.1.2 demonstrates time and reach coordination of the Function 21 with
transmission line relays when the function 21 is set 150 percent to 200 percent of
the machine at rated power factor to provide generator thermal backup protection
for system faults.

Device 21 set 150% to 200% of generator
MVA rating at rated power factor. Setting
Generator Device 21 Set for Generator does not consider line protection and may
Thermal Protection from System Faults reach any distance into power system
1.5
depending on length of all lines connected
to station and other system source
Total time to operate (seconds)
impedances..
Line Zone 3 + zone 3 time delay + CB trip time

1.1
Line Zone 2 + zone 2 time delay + breaker fail time + CB trip time
0.8
Optional Device 21 “zone 1” set to see
0.7
120% of generator step up transformer and
short of shortest lines zone 1 without
including the effects of infeed from other
lines/sources
Line Zone 1 + breaker fail time + CB trip time

0.3
80% 100% 125% 150%

Distance to fault in % of line length
Figure 3.1.2 —Time Coordination Graph for Generator Thermal Backup Protection
3.1.5.1.2. System Faults – Generator Trip Dependability
Figure 3.1.3 demonstrates time and reach coordination of the Function 21 with
transmission line relays when the function 21 is set to detect faults at the end of
the longest transmission line connected to the station high voltage bus.

Device 21 set to see 120% of
Generator Device 21 Set for Relay Failure Protection longest line connected to
1.5 generating station bus
including the effects of infeed
Total time to operate (seconds)
from other lines/sources
Line Zone 3 + zone 3 time delay + CB trip time

1.1
Line Zone 2 + zone 2 time delay + breaker fail time + CB trip time
0.8
Optional Device 21 “zone 1” set to see
0.7
120% of generator step up transformer and
short of shortest lines zone 1 without
including the effects of infeed from other
lines/sources
Line Zone 1 + breaker fail time + CB trip time

0.3
80% 100% 125% 150%

Distance to fault in % of line length
Figure 3.1.3 — Coordination Graph for Generator Trip Dependability

3.1.5.1.3. Loadability – Generator Thermal Backup Protection
Figure 3.1.4 shows the apparent impedances calculated for a 904 MVA, 0.85
power factor generator for two operating points based on the generator stator
current and terminal voltage associated with (1) rated MW output and a level of
Mvar of 150 percent times rated MW (768 MW + j1152 Mvar) and (2) ) based on
the unit operating at its a declared low active power operating limit point (e.g. 40
percent of rated load) with a level of reactive power output in Mvar of 175
percent times rated MW (some additional level of field forcing). Both conditions
are evaluated at the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on the high-
side of the generator step-up transformer. The apparent impedances are plotted
against a relay setting at 200 percent of the machine’s full rated MVA (0.5 per
unit impedance) at rated power factor with a maximum torque angle of 85°. For
this example these apparent impedances do not coordinate with the 200 percent
setting. For this application it is not imperative that the reach at the rated power
factor angle is in the range 0.50 – 0.66 per unit; this reach is used as a guideline
for ensuring the generator phase distance protection setting is secure rather than
ensuring trip dependability.

A modified relay characteristic also is plotted with a revised relay setting at 298
percent of the machine’s full rated MVA (0.3358 per unit impedance) at rated
power factor with a maximum torque angle of 85°. The apparent impedance does
coordinate, with margin, with the revised setting with an 85° maximum torque
angle.
A typical time delay setting for this element would be similar to the zone 3 remote
backup element time delay used for transmission relays. This provides time
coordination between the generator phase distance backup protection and the
protection systems on the transmission lines connected to the generator step-up
transformer high-side bus, including breaker failure. In this example, a 1.5
second setting is selected. (See Example 1 in Appendix E for further details.)
Maximum Torque Angle = 85º
1.0
Initial Relay Setting:
Provides 0.5 pu Reach at
Rated Power Factor
Low Operating Limit

Stressed System
Operating Point
Full Load
Stressed System
Operating Point
Revised Relay Setting:

0.5 Provides 0.336 pu Reach at
Rated Power Factor
Rated Power Factor Angle = 31.8º (0.85 pf)
0.5 1.0
Figure 3.1.4 — Calculated Apparent Impedance versus Two Phase Distance

Settings Based on 200% and 298% of Rated Generator MVA at Rated Power
Factor

3.1.5.1.4. Loadability – Generator Trip Dependability
Figure 3.1.5 shows the two apparent impedances simulated for the same 904
MVA generator for the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on the
high-side of the generator step-up transformer prior to field-forcing. For
comparison the calculated apparent impedances are plotted for the operating
points calculated using Method 1 and derived by simulations using Method 2. In
this example the worst-case expected operating points based on characteristics of
the specific generator derived using method 2 are less stringent than the
conservative, but simple test that evaluates loadability against the two operating
points calculated in Method 1. The zone 2 function utilizes blinders to meet the
loadability requirement derived in Method 2 with sufficient reach to provide
system relay failure backup coverage. A zone 1 function is added to provide
more complete coverage for generator protection and to provide faster backup
clearing for generator step-up transformer and high-side bus faults. Time delay
settings for these two zones would be coordinated as shown above in Figure 3.1.2.
In this example a 0.5 second timer setting is selected for zone 1 and a 1.5 second
timer setting is selected for zone 2. (See Example 2 in Appendix E for further
details.)
Note that the modification applied in the example above for the relay set to
provide generator thermal backup protection (Section 3.1.5.1.3), i.e. reducing the
reach, cannot be applied to the zone 2 function in this example because pulling
back the reach to meet the loadability requirement will result in a setting that does
not provide the desired trip dependability backup protection. In this example
blinders are applied to the zone 2 function to meet the relay loadability
requirement based on the apparent impedance points obtained by simulation using
Method 2.

Zone 2 Relay Setting:
1.883 pu at Maximum
Torque Angle = 85º
Method 2 Operating Points
Generator Capability Determined by Simulation
Curve Translated to
R-X Plane

0.274 pu at Maximum
Rated Power Factor
Torque Angle = 85º
Angle = 31.8º
Method 1
Operating Points
Zone 2 Blinders
Set at ± 0.15 pu
Figure 3.1.5- — Simulated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 and Zone 2
Function with Blinders
It is important to note that even though the zone 2 setting with blinders provides
security for the two operating points used to assess relay loadability, the setting
still encroaches on the generator capability curve. Figure 3.1.5 includes the
generator capability curve in the R-X plane overlaid on the phase distance
protection settings and operating points derived in this example. In this figure,
the area above the generator capability curve represents the region in which the
generator is operating within its capability. This figure illustrates that under
certain operating conditions the generator apparent impedance may enter inside
the blinders of the zone 2 operating characteristic. This condition would occur
with the generator operating at a low active power (MW) level and high reactive
power (Mvar) level. In this particular example the apparent impedance would

enter this region of the R-X plane when operating below the generator low
operating limit. Thus, for this particular example the risk of tripping the generator
is limited to unit startup and shutdown while the generator is ramping up or down
below its low operating limit. Nonetheless, the generator is at risk of tripping
unless the Generator Operator is aware of this potential and operation of the unit
is limited to avoid the portion of the generator capability curve that is encroached
on by the zone 2 setting.
The only way to ensure full security for the phase distance protection is to pull the
reach back to be inside the generator capability curve. In fact, the reach must be
pulled back even within the steady state capability curve in order to provide
security for generator dynamic response during field forcing, as illustrated by
inclusion of the operating points derived by Method 2. In the limiting case, if the
generator may be operated as a synchronous condenser the low operating limit is
0 MW and the only alternative is to pull back the zone 2 relay reach. Figure 3.1.6
provides an alternate solution, in which the zone 2 reach is pulled back to ensure
security for all steady-state operating conditions and to meet the relay loadability
requirements for the operating points derived through Method 2. In this example
the zone 2 reach is reduced to 0.814 per unit compared to the desired reach of
1.883 per unit.

Figure 3.1.6- — Simulated Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 and Zone 2
Functions set to Coordinate with the Generator Reactive Capability Curve and
Dynamic Reactive Capability During Field-Forcing
3.1.5.1.5. Methods To Increase Loadability:
Tools to increase relay loadability presented in the SPCS transmission line relay
loadability documents, and repeated in Figure 3.1.7 below, may provide some
benefit. However, it is important to note that these methods are applied in the
figure at transmission load angles on the order of 30 degrees. The methods may
provide greater benefit at transmission load angles than for generator load angles,
which during field forcing, may be on the order of 45 to 60 degrees.
Some methods are better suited to improving loadability around a specific
operating point, while others improve loadability for a wider area of potential

operating points in the R-X plane. The operating point for a stressed system
condition can vary due to the pre-event system conditions, severity of the
initiating event, and generator characteristics such as reactive power support
capability (field forcing). For this reason, adding blinders or reshaping the
characteristic provides greater security than enabling load encroachment. The
effectiveness of using the off-set zone 2 mho characteristic will vary depending
on the relationship between the zone 1 reach, the zone 2 off-set, and the apparent
impedance angle used for assessing loadability. The off-set zone 2 can be
effective when applied as shown in Figure 3.1.6; however, the off-set zone 2
provides less security if the zone 1 and zone 2 settings are selected so that the
operating point during field forcing is near the point at which the zone 1 and zone
2 characteristics cross, creating a notching effect similar to the load encroachment
technique.
Add Load Encroachment Change the Characteristic

jX
(ohms)
Loadability
improvement
Bus C
Z 30° Bus C Lens angle also called

60 Ω ad
Lo the characteristic angle
40Ω
Bus B 35°
Z 30°
Bus B ad
60 Ω Lo
30°
Loadability
60Ω improvement
Bus A
10 Ω 30°
Bus A R
(ohms)
Add Blinders
Offset Zone 2
Loadability jX
jX Loadability
improvement (ohms) improvement
(ohms) Bus C
40 Ω Bus C
Zone 2
40 Ω
offset
Bus B
Z3 0°
ad Z 30°
Lo Bus B ad
Lo
60 Ω
Zone 1
60 Ω
30°
30°
Bus A Bus A R
R
(ohms) (ohms)
Figure 3.1.7 — Methods to Increase Loadability

3.1.6. Summary of Protection Function Required for
Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 21 Protection Coordination Considerations
System Concerns
 Both 21 functions have to coordinate
 Trip dependability
 Breaker failure time
 System swings (out‐of‐step blocking),
21  Protective Function Loadability for extreme
87B system conditions that are recoverable
21 – Phase distance
87T  System relay failure
50BF  Settings should be used for planning and system
studies either through explicit modeling of the
function, or through monitoring impedance
swings at the relay location in the stability
program and applying engineering judgment

3.1.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and
Information Exchange required for Coordination
The following table presents the data and information that needs to be exchanged
between the entities to validate and document appropriate coordination as demonstrated
in the above example(s). The protection coordination may be iterative and require
multiple exchanges of these data before coordination is achieved.
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 21 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

One line diagram of the
Relay settings in the R‐X plane in
transmission system up to one bus Feedback on coordination problems
primary ohms at the generator
away from the generator high‐side found in stability studies
terminals
bus
Impedance of all transmission
Relay timer settings elements connected to the
generator breakers
Total clearing time for all
Total clearing time for breaker
side bus

3.2. Overexcitation or V/Hz Protection (Function 24)
3.2.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 24 —
Overexcitation Protection
Overexcitation protection uses a measure of the ratio of generator terminal voltage to
frequency. Section 4.5.4 of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator
Protection,” describes the purpose of this protection as follows:
“Overexcitation of a generator or any transformers connected to the generator
terminals will occur whenever the ratio of the voltage to frequency (V/Hz)
applied to the terminals of the equipment exceeds 105% (generator base) for a
generator; and 105% (transformer base) at full load, 0.8 pf or 110% at no load
at the secondary terminals for a transformer.
Over excitation causes saturation of the magnetic core of the generator or

connected transformers, and stray flux may be induced in non-laminated
components that are not designed to carry flux.
Excessive flux may also cause excessive eddy currents in the generator
laminations that result in excessive voltages between laminations. This may
cause severe overheating in the generator or transformer and eventual
breakdown in insulation.
The field current in the generator could also be excessive.”
G
System
GSU
24
Figure 3.2.1 — Generator Overexcitation Protection

System
3.2.2.1. Faults
There are no coordination issues for system faults for this function.
There are no coordination issues related to loadability for this function.
3.2.2.3. Other Operating Conditions

Coordination between generating plant overexcitation protection and the transmission
system is necessary for off-nominal frequency events during which system frequency
declines low enough to initiate operation of the underfrequency load shedding
(UFLS) program. In most interconnections, frequency can decline low enough to
initiate UFLS operation only during an island condition. However, adequate
frequency decline may occur to initiate UFLS operation as a result of tripping
generators and tie lines on smaller interconnections or on weakly connected portions
of interconnections.
Coordination is necessary to ensure that the UFLS program can operate to restore a
balance between generation and load to recover and stabilize frequency at a
sustainable operating condition. Without coordination, generation may trip by
operation of overexcitation protection to exacerbate the unbalance between load and
generation resulting in tripping of more load than necessary, or in the worst case,
resulting in system collapse if the resulting imbalance exceeds the design basis of the
UFLS program. The need for coordination may not be readily apparent since the
relays respond to different quantities and are deployed remote from each other (as
shown in figure 3.2.2); however, the coordination is necessary for reliability of the
overall power system. It is important to note that the coordination is not a relay-to-
relay coordination in the traditional sense, rather it is a coordination between the
generator and transformer withstand characteristics, the overexcitation protection, and
the UFLS program and transmission system design.

Figure 3.2.2 — Example Location of UFLS Program Relays and Generator
Function 24

Overexcitation withstand limit characteristics of generators and transformers should be
obtained from the equipment manufacturer whenever possible.
During an event that initiates UFLS operation, excitation levels typically remain within
equipment capability provided that system voltage can be controlled within normal
operating ranges. However, abnormal system voltage during UFLS events is not
uncommon, particularly when such events occur during heavy load conditions.
Following UFLS operation the transfer of active power to loads is reduced, resulting in
lower reactive power losses and high system voltage. Under such conditions restoring a
balance between load and generation to recover system frequency may be insufficient to
control excitation to acceptable levels. Additional coordination may be required to
remove reactive compensation (e.g., shunt capacitor banks) or to connect shunt reactors.

The following data and information exchange steps should be taken by the Generator
Owner and Planning Coordinator. Note that in cases where the generator step-up

transformer is owned by the Transmission Owner, the Transmission Owner would have
the same responsibility as the Generator Owner.
Step 1 — Generator Owner to provide settings, time delays, and protection characteristics
to the Planning Coordinator for both the generator and generator step-up transformer.
Step 2 — The Generator Owner and Planning Coordinator confirm that the protection
settings coordinate and allow the UFLS program to operate first.
Step 3 — The Planning Coordinator performs studies to verify this if necessary.
3.2.4.1. Setting Procedure

A. Plot the V/Hz withstand capability curves of the generator step-up transformer
and generator similar to the ones shown in figure 3.2.3.
B. Plot the overexcitation (V/Hz) protection characteristic on the same graph.
C. Check proper coordination between the relay characteristic time curves and
timing settings of excitation control limiter(s). The limiters in the excitation
control system limiter should act first. The settings for the protective function
must be set so that the function will only operate if the excitation is greater than
the limiter setting but before the capability of the protected equipment is reached.
Short time excursions beyond the overexcitation limit should not cause the
protection systems to trip the generator because the overexcitation limiter time
delay setting is used to prevent tripping during these conditions. Protection
system tripping times are generally long enough so that coordination with exciter
response is not a problem.
D. If UFLS is used on the system connected to the generator (shown in Figure 3.2.2)
then the UFLS program and the overexcitation settings should be coordinated
such that UFLS is given a chance to act before overexcitation protection trips the
unit. The overexcitation protection should be set with adequate margin above the
withstand capability to ensure equipment protection, while providing as much
operating range as possible for design of the UFLS program.
Coordination between the overexcitation protection and the UFLS program design
can be validated only through a stability study. The study should either monitor
excitation at all buses at which overexcitation protection is utilized for comparison
against tripping characteristics, or the overexcitation protection should be modeled in
the study. With either approach a determination that coordination exists should be
based on observing that no generators would trip by overexcitation protection. In a

limited number of cases, conditions may exist that coordination cannot be achieved
for every generating unit. In such cases coordination may be deemed acceptable if
tripping does not cascade and is limited to a small amount of generation (as a
percentage of the load in the affected portion of the system). Protection models
should be added to system models for any units for which coordination cannot be
obtained. In any case, stability studies should have sufficient margin and a sufficient
number of scenarios should be simulated to provide confidence in the determination.
3.2.5. Examples
Figure 3.2.3 shows a setting example for overexcitation protection using definite time and
inverse time overexcitation (V/Hz) functions.
Generator and transformer manufacturers should be consulted for the information on
overexcitation withstand capability. An example withstand curve shown in Figure 3.2.3
is given in the Table 3.2.1.
Table 3.2.1 – Example V/Hz Withstand Capability of GSU Transformer

Time (Min.) 40 30 20 10 6 2 1 0.5 0.3
V/Hz (%) 106.4 106.9 107.4 108.4 109.3 112.1 114.3 118.0 123.5
Table 3.2.2 – Example V/Hz withstand Capability of Generator

Time (Min.) 33 25 20 15 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.2
V/Hz (%) 110 111 111.5 112.5 113.5 115.5 118.0 120.0 122.0 125.0

Transformer
130 Generator
Inverse Time Curve
125 Definite Time

Series5
120
P e rc e n ta g e V /H z
115
Definite Time
Pickup
110
105 Inverse Time

Pickup
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Operating Time in Minutes
Figure 3.2.3 — Setting Example with Inverse and Definite Time V/Hz Relays
Proper coordination between the overexcitation setting and the generator or
transformer withstand characteristic can be demonstrated on a plot of excitation
versus time. Coordination between the overexcitation protection and the UFLS
program design cannot be demonstrated in this traditional manner; a transient stability
study is necessary to demonstrate this coordination (see section 3.14 for further
information). A transient stability study is necessary due to the time varying nature
of the voltage and frequency, which may vary significantly prior to and following
UFLS operation and between different locations within the system. The protection
and UFLS program should be evaluated for all expected recoverable events to assure
coordination. This includes conditions where high voltage and low frequency occur
that may require mitigation actions such as tripping capacitor banks. UFLS design
parameters (threshold settings, block size, time delays, etc) and resultant voltage-
frequency relationships should be checked against the overexcitation function setting
characteristics. If tripping a generator by overexcitation protection is unavoidable,

the overexcitation protection for that generator should be accounted for in the system
models used for planning and operational studies.
3.2.6. Summary of Protection Functions Required for

Coordination
System Concerns
 Generator V/Hz protection characteristics shall
be determined and be recognized in the
development of any UFLS program for all
required voltage conditions. The Generator
Owner (and the Transmission Owner when the
GSU transformer is owned by the Transmission
Owner) exchange information of V/Hz setpoints
and UFLS setpoints with the Planning Coordinator
 Coordinate with the V/Hz withstand capability
and V/Hz limiter in the excitation control system
of the generator
UFLS Program  Coordinate with V/Hz conditions during islanding
UFLS design is generally (high voltage with low frequency system
24 – Volts/Hz conditions that may require system mitigation
the responsibility of the
Planning Coordinator actions)
 Regional UFLS program design must be
coordinated with these settings.
 Islanding issues (high voltage and low frequency)
may require planning studies and require reactive
element mitigation strategies
 Settings should be used for planning and system
studies either through explicit modeling of the
function, or through monitoring voltage and
frequency performance at the relay location in the
stability program and applying engineering
judgment

Information Exchange Required for Coordination
in the above example(s). Whenever a miscoordination between the overexcitation setting

of a generator and the UFLS program cannot be resolved, it may be necessary to redesign
the UFLS program to compensate for the loss of that generation in order to be fully
coordinated.

characteristics, including time Feedback on problems found
characteristics for the GSU
delays and relay location, for the between overexcitation settings and
generator and the GSU transformer UFLS programs
Transmission Owner)
(if owned by the Generator Owner)

3.3. Undervoltage Protection (Function 27)
3.3.1. Generator Unit Undervoltage Protection
3.3.1.1. Purpose of Generator Function 27 — Undervoltage
Protection
Undervoltage protection uses a measure of generator terminal voltage. Section 4.5.7
of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the
purpose of this protection as follows:
“For the generating unit, undervoltage protection that trips the unit is rarely
applied to generators. It is frequently used as an interlock element for other
protection function or schemes, such as loss-of-field relay (40), distance relay
(21), inadvertent energizing relay (50/27), out-of-step relay (78), etc, where the
abnormality to be detected leads directly or indirectly to an undervoltage
condition. (See Sections 2.1, 2.5,2.8 for further details)
Generators are usually designed to operate continuously at a minimum voltage of

95% of its rated voltage, while delivering rated power at rated frequency.
Operating a generator with terminal voltage lower than 95% of its rated voltage
may result in undesirable effects such as reduction in stability limit, import of
excessive reactive power from the grid to which it is connected, and
malfunctioning of voltage sensitive devices and equipment. This effect however is
a function of time. If applied, the undervoltage protection is generally connected
to alarm and not trip the unit, so that the operator can take appropriate action to
remedy the undervoltage condition (if possible).”
IEEE Standard C37.102, “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection,” does not
recommend use of the 27 function for tripping, but only to alarm to alert operators to
take necessary actions.
Undervoltage alarms as experienced
Tripping units on undervoltage
by hydro, fossil, combustion and
is not recommended by the
nuclear units are an indicator of
IEEE C37.102 guide on possible abnormal operating
generator protection. conditions such as excitation
problems and thermal issues within the unit. Other alarms from Resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTDs) and hydrogen pressure are better indicators of thermal
concerns. Manufacturers recommend operator action up to and including reduction in
unit output rather than a unit trip. Tripping units on undervoltage is not
recommended by the IEEE Standard C37.102 guide on generator protection. Rather,

C37.102 recommends an alarm to alert the operator to the abnormal conditions that
require operator intervention. Each type of unit, hydro, fossil, nuclear, combustion
and renewable have different abnormal operating issues relating to system
undervoltage.
GSU System
27 Alarm
Figure 3.3.1.1 — Typical Unit Generator Undervoltage Scheme
3.3.1.2. Coordination of Generator and Transmission System

An undervoltage function(s) is used for detecting a pre-determined low voltage level,
and alarming or supervising other functions such as loss-of-field (40), distance (21),
inadvertent energizing (50/27), out-of-step (78), etc.
In a few occasions such as unmanned plants, the 27 function may be used to trip the
generator (when on line). The 27 function to trip is applied as a surrogate for
machine thermal current protection and detection of other abnormal conditions
detrimental to the generator where an operator is not available to take appropriate
action to mitigate the problem.
3.3.1.2.1. Faults
There are several considerations for use of the 27 function:
 There are coordination issues regarding system faults.
 The undervoltage function should never trip for any transmission system
fault condition.
 The Transmission Owner needs to provide the longest clearing time and
reclosing times for faults on transmission system elements connected to
the high-side bus.
 This coordination should be validated by both the Generator Owner and

Transmission Owner.

3.3.1.2.1.1. Alarm Only — Preferred Method
 Follow IEEE C37.012 – set 27 function for alarm only
 Have written procedure for operators to follow when the 27 undervoltage

alarm occurs.
NOTE: If the MVA output range of the generator is proportionately reduced
with voltage, then an alarm initiated by the 27 function is sufficient because
the unit is being operated within it thermal capability limits.
3.3.1.2.1.2. Tripping for Faults (not recommended, except as
noted above)
 Utilize the 27 undervoltage function for tripping with a maximum setting

of 0.9 pu for pickup and with a minimum time delay of 10 seconds.
 All planning and operational studies should model this undervoltage

tripping of the generator to properly reflect its performance under transient
or abnormal steady-state conditions.
NOTE: It is highly recommended to use more direct temperature and thermal
detection methods versus an undervoltage protection function to protect the
generator, such as RTDs, thermocouples, and cooling medium temperature
measurements.
3.3.1.2.2. Loadability
As noted above, the preferred method is to alarm only with the undervoltage
function. If the undervoltage function is used to trip the unit, the additional
coordination issues must be addressed by the Transmission and Generator
Owners.
1. The Transmission and Generator Owners exchange and utilize the
information below to analyze the coordination of the undervoltage
protection.
a. Setpoint and time delay should be given to the Transmission
Owner.
2. This coordination should be validated by both the Generator Owner and
Transmission Owner.

3.3.1.3. Considerations and Issues
The loss of generating units due to tripping of the undervoltage functions or operator
action during a system fault or a recoverable extreme system event must be avoided.
A recoverable extreme system event is defined as a transmission system voltage at the
high-side of the generator transformer of 0.85 per unit.
If undervoltage tripping is used for the generator and an Undervoltage Load Shedding
(UVLS) program is used on the system connected to the generator, the UVLS
setpoints and time delays must be coordinated with the generator undervoltage trips.
In this case, the generator setpoints should be modeled in system studies to verify
coordination. A simple relay-to-relay setting coordination is inadequate due to
differences in voltage between the generator terminals and transmission or
distribution buses where the UVLS protection is implemented.
3.3.1.4. Coordination Procedure

Step 1 — The Generator Owner determines the proper undervoltage trip setpoint for
his machine. This should be based on manufacturer’s recommendation or protection
application circumstances for the generating station.
Step 2 — The Transmission Owner determines the local or remote backup clearing
times for all transmission elements connected to the high-side bus.
Step 3 — The Generator Owner and Transmission Owner collaboratively analyze the
settings to determine if they are coordinated. The time delay of the undervoltage
function trip must be longer than the greater of the local or remote backup clearing
times for all transmission elements connected to the high-side bus, but not less than
10 seconds.

3.3.1.4.1. Alarm Only — Preferred Method
IEEE Standard C37.102, “IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection,” does not
recommend use of the 27 function for tripping, but only to alarm to alert operators
to take necessary actions.
Undervoltage function (27) calculation:
V27 = 90% of Vnominal = 0.9 x 120 V = 108 V with a 10 second time delay
to prevent nuisance alarms (per IEEE standard C37.102).
3.3.1.4.2. Tripping Used (not recommended)

CAUTION: If the Generator Owner uses the 27 function for tripping, the
following conditions must be met at a minimum: Time delay of the undervoltage
function trip must be longer than the greater of the local or remote backup
clearing times for all transmission elements connected to the high-side bus, but
not less than 10 seconds.
V27 = 87% of Vnominal = 0.87 x 120 V = 104 V with a coordinated time delay
Note: An 87 percent setpoint was chosen because the power plant is not capable
of continued operation at this voltage level, and allows for a reasonable margin
for extreme system contingencies.
3.3.1.5. Examples
3.3.1.5.1. Proper Coordination
If the undervoltage function is set to trip the generator, a threshold setting below
90 percent voltage at the generator terminals and an adequate time delay is
necessary to allow system recovery above this level.
3.3.1.5.2. Improper Coordination

If the undervoltage function is set to trip the generator, a threshold setting higher
than 90 percent voltage at the generator terminals and/or an inadequate time
delay.
There is no improper coordination for an alarm-only function.

3.3.1.6. Summary of Protection Functions Required for
Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Gen. Prot.) Protection Coordination Considerations

System Concerns
27 – Generator Unit
Undervoltage
Protection
** Should Not Be Set extreme system event with low voltage or
to Trip, Alarm Only** system fault conditions
21  UVLS setpoints and coordination if
If function 27 tripping 27 if applicable applicable
is used for an 87B  Settings should be used for planning and
unmanned facility – 87T system studies either through explicit
the settings must modeling of the function, or through
50BF
coordinate with the monitoring voltage performance at the relay
stressed system location in the stability program and
transmission system
condition of 0.85 per applying engineering judgment
unit voltage and time  Must coordinate with transmission line
delays set to allow for reclosing
clearing of system
faults by transmission
system protection,
including breaker
failure times.
3.3.1.7. Summary of Protection Function Data and

between the entities to validate and document appropriate coordination as
demonstrated in the above example(s).
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Gen. Prot.) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

setpoint if applicable, including time
delays, at the generator terminals
UVLS studies

3.3.2. Generating Plant Auxiliary Power Supply
Systems Undervoltage Protection
3.3.2.1. Purpose of the Generator Auxiliary System Function
27 — Undervoltage Protection
This undervoltage protection uses a measure of auxiliary system voltage.
When the voltage levels of the auxiliary system reaches the undervoltage setpoint,
this protection initiates alarming, automatic transfer to alternative power supply, if
available with transfer capability, starting of emergency generator(s), or, if necessary,
tripping.
This function is used to transfer loads to the backup auxiliary power supply, as well
as to protect auxiliary system equipment from severe undervoltage conditions that
would have serious consequences, such as auxiliary motors stalling or voltage
collapse for the generating unit(s).
This function also protects the integrity of the power supply to safety related buses
applied to support the reactor of nuclear power plants. In these applications two
undervoltage thresholds are utilized; the first undervoltage level (function 27SB1)
initiates auxiliary load transfers to an alternative power supply and the second
undervoltage level (function 27SB2) initiates a unit trip. (See section 3.3.4 for further
details)
27
Backup
Power
Power Supply
Trasfer
Plant
Switch
Station
Service Auxiliary
GSU
System
G
Figure 3.3.2.1 — Generating Plant Auxiliary Power System Undervoltage

Protection Scheme

3.3.2.2.1. Faults
Coordination issues can exist regarding system faults when this function is used to
trip the generator. This protection should not react to any transmission system
faults. When applying the 27 undervoltage protection for plant auxiliaries, it
should be recognized that it is common for transmission line faults that occur near
a power plant to momentarily result in a depressed voltage condition.
Transmission system faults are momentary events on the electric system that are
generally cleared in a few cycles, but may occasionally last a few seconds. These
faults will momentarily depress the transmission voltage such that the
transmission/plant substation voltage drops to almost zero for a power plant
substation bus fault, or if a transmission line fault occurs at some distance from
the power plant, the voltage at the plant substation bus would be higher.
Generation equipment undervoltage settings should permit ride through capability
for such momentary voltage excursions during fault clearing on the transmission
system.
Step 1 — If the undervoltage function is used to trip the auxiliaries system which
would lead to tripping the generator, the Transmission and Generator Owners
exchange and utilize the information below to analyze the coordination of the
undervoltage protection.
a. The setpoint and time delay should given to the Transmission Owner
b. The Transmission Owner needs to provide the longest clearing time
and reclosing times for faults on transmission system elements
connected to the high-side bus.
Step 2 — Check to see that the auxiliary system trip level will not preclude the
unit from riding through a recoverable extreme system event defined as:
a. A transmission system voltage of 0.85 per unit at the high-side of a
system-connected auxiliary transformer.
b. A transmission system voltage of 0.85 per unit at the high-side of a
generator step up transformer for generator-connected auxiliary
systems.

Step 3 — For nuclear units, coordination between the Transmission Owner and
the Generator Owner of the nuclear power generating unit(s) is required for
Preferred Power Supply and Nuclear Plant Interface Requirements (NPIRs) — see
NERC Standard NUC-001-1. Please also see Section 3.3.4 of this report for
further details.

 Auxiliary power supply system — auxiliary motors with 80 percent to 85 percent
motor terminal voltage create approximately 64 percent to 72 percent motor
torque. Motor torque is approximately equal to the supplied motor terminal
voltage squared in per unit or percent of rated motor voltage. Lack of adequate
voltage can cause auxiliary motors to cascade into a voltage collapse and a stall
condition as well as the possibility of contactors dropping out. In some
applications the motor rated terminal voltage is less than system nominal to allow
for inherent system voltage drops (e.g., 4,000 volts on a 4,160 volt bus). This
needs to be taken into consideration when evaluating the motor capability based
on reduced voltages. Additionally, adjustable speed drive motors should be
reviewed to ensure they will perform satisfactorily for system faults and
depressed voltage conditions.
 The loss of nuclear units during system disturbances is of great concern,

especially for system voltages above 85 percent of rated system voltage. Some
units start tripping auxiliaries at voltages from 90 percent to 95 percent. These
undervoltage settings were determined by engineering studies supporting the
nuclear plant and safe shutdown during the nuclear licensing procedure. As such,
they are not likely to be changed. Therefore, Transmission Owners, Transmission
Operators, Planning Coordinators and Reliability Coordinators should recognize
the undervoltage sensitivity of those units to tripping during voltage perturbations.
 The Generator Owner should consider auxiliary motor contactor low voltage drop
out points when reviewing undervoltage protection on the plant auxiliary systems.

3.3.2.4.1. Setting Procedure
Step 1 — Verify that the setting is set to prevent operation for voltage greater than
or equal to 85 percent of nominal voltage at the high-side of a system-connected
auxiliary transformer of the generator step-up transformer for generator-connected
auxiliary systems.
Step 2 — Verify that the timer setting is set long enough to prevent operation for
a transient condition on the order of two to three seconds or more.
Step 3 — Some nuclear power plants use an undervoltage function, commonly set
around 90 percent, on the safety related bus, based on their design basis to support
safe shutdown of the reactor.
3.3.2.4.2. Setting Considerations

 Undervoltage protection should not trip for a recoverable transmission
system event; that is a system voltage of 85 percent nominal during the
event.
 Undervoltage function calculation for a safety related bus in a nuclear

power plant needs to be completed based on IEEE 741; see section 2.3.2.1
for further details.
 NRC design basis studies are required to determine the undervoltage level
setpoints. (Standard IEEE 741 and 765) see section 2.3.2.1.
 IEEE Standard C37.96-2000 (IEEE Guide for AC Motor Protection)

suggests an undervoltage setting of 80 percent voltage, with a two to three
second time delay.
 Motor applications that cause voltage drops during starting that approach
80 percent may require a lower setting. This consideration should be
applied based on the specific application.
 In some cases undervoltage protection is not applied for auxiliary systems.

For further information on function 27 issues, see Sections 4.5.7 and A.2.13 of
C37.102-2006 (Guide for AC Generator Protection) and IEEE C37.96-2000
(IEEE Guide for AC Motor Protection) see Section 7.2.4.
NOTE: Caution should be used in setting function 27 for auxiliary tripping when
variable speed drives are used.
3.3.2.5. Examples
 Undervoltage function (27) calculation:
V27 = 80% of Vnominal = 0.8 x 120 V = 96 V and a time delay of two to

three seconds
 Avoid the loss of generating unit due to tripping of the auxiliary system
elements during a recoverable extreme system event. A recoverable
extreme system event is defined as a transmission system voltage at the
high-side of the generator transformer of 0.85 per unit.
 A time delay of two to three seconds should allow system protection to act
first to remove the adverse/fault condition.

Improper coordination would result from a threshold setting higher than 90
percent voltage at the auxiliary system bus and/or an inadequate time delay.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Protection Coordination Considerations

System Concerns
 Coordinate the auxiliary bus protection and
control when connected directly to the High
Voltage system
 Generator Owner to validate the proper
27 – Plant Auxiliary
21 operation of auxiliary system at 80‐85
Undervoltage
percent voltage. The undervoltage trip
27 if applicable
setting is preferred at 80 percent
If Tripping is used – the 87B
 Generator Owners validate the proper
correct setpoint and 87T
operation of auxiliary system at 0.8‐0.85 per
adequate time delay so 50BF
unit voltage
it does not trip for Longest time delay for
system faults and  Settings should be used for planning and
transmission system
recoverable extreme protection to clear a fault
system events

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Relay settings: Undervoltage Feedback on problems found in
setpoint if applicable , including Time delay of transmission system coordinating with stressed voltage
time delays, at the power plant protection condition studies, and if applicable,
auxiliary bus UVLS studies

3.3.3. Undervoltage Relays (Function 27) Applied at the
Point of Common Coupling
IEEE 1547–2003 — “Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric
Power Systems,” prescribes undervoltage protection at the point of common coupling
(PCC), i.e., the point of interconnection. The function of this function is to trip the
distributed resource on undervoltage if the distributed resource is islanded from the
interconnected distribution system along with local load or is measuring a prolonged
system fault. IEEE 1547 applies to generator of less than 10 MW and connected to
the distribution system.
Owners of some large generators connected to the transmission system have added this
function at the point of common coupling. It is possible that some interconnection
agreements include this protection as a requirement. IEEE 1547 does not apply to the
transmission system connection of generators as addressed in this NERC Technical
Reference Document. Anti-islanding protection is not recommended because the
isolation of the generator from the transmission system will not isolate the generator on
system load, nor will there likely be an undervoltage if the islanded generator is not
isolated with load that is greater than generation. Any isolation will be detected by
overspeed and overfrequency protection functions. An undervoltage function connected
to the high voltage side of the generator step-up at a generating station should not be used
unless it serves an alarm function. If an undervoltage function is used it should be
connected to the voltage transformers on the terminal of the generator in alarm mode.
See also Section 3.3.1.
Point of
Common
Coupling
System
G
GSU
27
Figure 3.3.3.1 — Undervoltage Relay Applied at the Point of Common Coupling

3.3.3.1. Purpose of the Function 27 at Point of Common
Coupling
The purpose of these functions is to alert the Generator Operator that an undervoltage
on the transmission system is occurring and that the operator should be on a
heightened state of awareness matching this alarm with others that may be occurring
within the plant. See section 3.3.1.

If an UVLS protection is deployed in the vicinity of the generator, the Generator
Operator should be cognizant of the UVLS program and its settings within the system
connected to the generator. The Generator Operator should be aware of all studies
that demonstrate the need for UVLS and should be trained on the impact of
transmission undervoltage on plant operation.
3.3.3.2.1. Faults
Undervoltage functions sensing transmission voltages can alarm for system faults.
Undervoltage functions may alarm for phase-ground faults and multi-phase faults.
The generator operator should then, upon alarm, focus attention on in-plant
alarms; especially per generator manufacturer recommended plant alarm
conditions.
PCC undervoltage functions should alarm for stressed system conditions. This
means that these functions should alarm for 0.85 per unit system voltage or less.
System studies may be performed to quantify and qualify the likely nature of the
system undervoltage function alarms to assert based on the severity of stressed
system conditions. Since this function should only alarm, it should be immune to
loadability tripping.

There should be no loss of generation due to system undervoltage alarms or operator
action during a system fault or a recoverable extreme system event. A recoverable
extreme system event is defined as a transmission system voltage at the high-side of

the generator transformer of 0.85 per unit. UVLS studies should include
undervoltage alarm setpoints so that the Transmission Owner can alert and provide
operator training input with regard to the studied changing voltages that can occur as
UVLS is performing the system return to planned voltage levels.

Step 1 — Generator Owner to provide settings, time delays, and protection output
alarm functions to the Transmission Owner and Planning Coordinator for both the
generator and generator step-up transformer.
Step 2 — The Transmission Owner and Planning Coordinator confirm that any UVLS
actions are conveyed to the Generator Owner.
Step 3 — The Generator Owner conveys and confirms operator actions steps to the
Transmission Owner and Planning Coordinator for their concurrence based on a joint
understanding of system study results.
3.3.3.4.1. Setting Considerations

If an alarm is used by Generator Owners
V27 = 85% of Vnominal = 0.85 x 120 V = 102 V with a coordinated time delay
Note: An 85 percent setpoint was chosen to allow for a reasonable margin for
extreme system contingencies.
3.3.3.5. Examples
In this example a stressed system condition is occurring. The Generator Operator
observes the condition and measures the PCC voltage. The Generator Operator
contacts the Transmission Operator requesting information and conveys the plant
PCC voltage value to the Transmission Operator. As per joint training, including
simulation training, the Generator Operator conveys plant status to the Transmission
Operator and both agree on the next step in plant operations based on all alarm and
status information both inside the plant and within the transmission system.

PCC undervoltage function is applied to alarm only. Both Generator Owner and
Transmission Owner share system and plant alarm, change in equipment status
and next step activities using three way communication and operational planning
studied results.

There is no improper coordination for an alarm-only function.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant HV System Side) Protection Coordination
Considerations
System Concerns
21 extreme system event with low voltage or
27 if applicable
27 – Plant High Voltage  UVLS setpoints and coordination if
87B
system‐side applicable
undervoltage 87T
50BF
transmission system


Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant HV System Side) Data to be Exchanged Between
Entities
Time delay of transmission coordinating with stressed
system protection voltage condition studies and if
time delays, at high‐side bus
applicable, UVLS studies
3.3.4. Nuclear Power Plants — Undervoltage Protection

and Control Requirements for Class 1E Safety
Related Auxiliaries Design Guidelines and
Preferred Power Supply (PPS)
The base standards for these nuclear requirements are NERC Standard NUC-001 —
Nuclear Plant Interface Requirements (NPIR), IEEE 741-2007, “IEEE Standard Criteria
for the Protection of Class 1E Power Systems and Equipment in Nuclear Power
Generating Stations,” and IEEE 765-2006, “IEEE Standard for Preferred Power Supply
(PPS) For Nuclear Power Generating Stations (NPGS).”
NERC Standard NUC-001 requires coordination between Nuclear Plant Generator
Operators and Transmission Entities for the purpose of ensuring nuclear plant safe
operation and shutdown.
Section B of NERC standard NUC-001 describes the requirements R1 – R9 that are
necessary to meet the intent of the interface between the nuclear generating plant and the
other entities.
Additionally, the IEEE Nuclear Committee guidelines for protection and control action
during degraded voltage conditions for Class 1E systems is found in Appendix A of IEEE
741, “Illustration of concepts associated with degraded voltage protection”.
As well, the guidelines for the types of transmission system studies and data requirements
to ensure voltage adequacy of preferred power supply based on the Nuclear Power
Generating Stations design basis are contained in informative Appendix B of IEEE 765.
The Transmission Owner must perform the transmission system studies that demonstrate
and validate the preferred power supply (PPS) performance and that it meets the post-
event voltage requirements for the design basis of the plant. This must be valid for all
reasonably expected system conditions; otherwise alternatives need to be investigated

(0.85 per unit transmission system voltage as an example for recoverable extreme system
event).
A strong communications tie between the nuclear plant owner and Transmission Owner
is critical.
The following information needs to be exchanged and agreed to by both parties:
A. Input data for models
B. Modeling methods
C. Design and licensing bases
D. Interpretation of study results
The minimum required steady-state post event grid voltage is to be based on the nuclear
unit maintaining acceptable requirements and possible continued operation.
A recognition and notification process for unacceptable PPS voltages at the Nuclear Plant
Substations must be in place from the Transmission Owner to the Nuclear Plant
Operations.
Please refer to NERC NUC-001, IEEE 741-2007, and IEEE 765-2006 for further details.
Backup
Power
Power Supply
Trasfer
Plant
Switch
Station
Service Auxiliary
GSU
System
G
27 27
SB1 SB2
Safety
Bus
Figure 3.3.4.1 — Nuclear Power Plant Auxiliary System Power Supply

Once the criteria and plan are established between the Generator Owner of the nuclear
plant and Transmission Owner, the Planning Coordinator must incorporate this strategy
into any analysis of recoverable extreme system events, including if the analysis deems
that the nuclear generating unit is tripped during the event. The Planning Coordinator
must then demonstrate the ability of the system to survive without the benefit of the
nuclear generating unit.

3.3.5. Comparison of Stressed Transmission System
Voltage Impact on Combustion Turbine Plants
with Auxiliaries Directly Fed from the
Transmission System versus Fed from the
Generator Bus via a Unit Auxiliary Transformer
With the substantial addition of combustion turbine generating units to the electric grid in
recent years, they are becoming a more significant part of the total generation. Due to
cost reduction in designs to maintain competiveness; some of these plants were designed
with transmission fed auxiliary system supply transformers in lieu of a unit auxiliary
transformer fed from the generator bus. For these systems the auxiliary loads do not
derive a direct benefit of field forcing (voltage boost) during system degraded voltage
events. This field forcing can represent a significant amount of voltage for a brief period
in time. The generator, depending on its MVA size as compared to the size and stiffness
of the system, can provide a voltage boost of a few percent or more on the generator bus
above the system voltage on the transmission high-side. This was demonstrated in the
Section 3.1 for the system backup protection with generator terminal voltages above the
system voltage. A few percent higher voltage can prove to be valuable during these types
of extreme reduced voltage events and may make the difference for continued operation
of the auxiliary system and thus the generating unit(s).
To illustrate this condition a hypothetical combustion turbine generating unit will be used
to show the difference between the two designs (system-fed and generator-fed auxiliary
systems). There are a number of other factors that can impact whether the auxiliary
system can survive during these extreme system events reduced voltage events and are
identified below. IEEE Standard 666 — “IEEE Design Guide for Electric Power Service
Systems for Generating Stations” provides detailed information and guidance pertaining
to these topics on auxiliary systems.
Some of these factors that have an impact are:
1. Motor rated voltage (e.g., 4,000 volt motors applied on 4,160 volt nominal
system).
2. Motor rated torque capability at rated voltage. Some motors have rated torque
capability at a reduced voltage to provide margin.
3. Utilization of no-load taps on the transformer.

Utilization of these techniques can help optimize the auxiliary system performance
during stressed system voltage events.
If a conservative five percent voltage drop is assumed for an auxiliary system to the
motor terminals, for the two examples:
 Unit auxiliary transformer fed auxiliary system — Degraded system voltage is 0.85
per unit, generator voltage is at 0.87 per unit due to field forcing, 0.05 per unit voltage
drop yields a 0.82 per unit voltage at the motor terminals. If the trip setting is at 0.80
per unit, the motors will not be tripped.
 Transmission system transformer fed auxiliary system — Degraded System Voltage

is 0.85 per unit, Transformer voltage is at 0.85 per unit, 0.05 per unit voltage drop
yields a 0.80 per unit voltage at the motor terminals. If the trip setting is at 0.80 per
unit, the motors will be tripped.
Figures 3.3.5.1 and 3.3.5.2 show the differences between the two supplies discussed in
this section.
27
Backup
Power
Power Supply
Trasfer
Plant
Switch
Station
Service Auxiliary
GSU
System
Figure 3.3.5.1 — Unit Auxiliary Transformer Supplied Scheme

27
Power
Trasfer
Plant System
Switch
Station
Service Auxiliary
GSU
System
G
Figure 3.3.5.2 — Transmission System Transformer Supplied Scheme

Design and application changes should be given consideration to benefit the reliability of
the auxiliary system voltage during stressed system conditions such as sourcing off the
generator bus or other methods less impacted by the transmission system. Please see
IEEE Standard 666 — “IEEE Design Guide for Electric Power Service Systems for
Generating Stations” for more background. The fact that units with auxiliaries fed
from the system (not the generator bus) could trip on undervoltage during system
events must be recognized in system studies.

3.4. Reverse Power Protection (Function 32)
3.4.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 32 — Anti-
Motoring Protection
Reverse power protection uses a measure of reverse power derived from the real
component of generator voltage times generator stator current times √3. Section 4.5.5 of
IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the
purpose of this protection as follows:
“Motoring of a generator occurs when the energy supply to the prime mover is
cut off while the generator is still online. When this occurs, the generator will
act as a synchronous motor and drive the prime mover. While this condition is
defined as generator motoring, the primary concern is the protection of the
prime mover that may be damaged during a motoring condition. In sequential
tripping schemes for steam turbine generators, a deliberate motoring period is
included in the control logic to prevent potential over-speeding of the unit (see
also 7.2.3.4). While some of the devices used in the control logic for sequential
tripping schemes are the same as those used in anti-motoring protection, the
two functions should not be confused. Anti-motoring protection should provide
backup protection for this control logic as well as for other possible motoring
conditions that would not be detected by the sequential tripping control logic
(such as inadvertent closure of governor valves or high system frequency
conditions). Intentional motoring conditions may be permitted on both gas
turbine and hydro applications, where the process is used to accelerate the
rotor during starting conditions or the installation is operated in a
pump/storage mode.”
Reverse power protection is applied to prevent mechanical damage (on turbine blades,
Reverse Power Flow
Normal Power Flow
GSU
32
shaft, gear box, etc.) in the event of failure of the prime mover.
Figure 3.4.1 — Reverse Power Flow Detection

System
3.4.2.1. Faults
In general, there are no loadability issues with this function.

The reverse power condition is undesired for generators. The power drawn by the
generator during motoring is equal to the mechanical losses and they can be very low for
large steam units (below 0.5 percent in some cases). Therefore, a reverse power function
typically is set very sensitive to prevent mechanical damage on turbine blades, shaft, gear
box, etc.
When setting this function it is important to note that some relays can be susceptible to
tripping during conditions when the unit is operated underexcited (leading) with high
reactive power (var) loading. In particular, this can occur when the active power (MW)
loading is low, such as when a unit is initially synchronizing to the grid.
The following must be considered:
 The time delay setting: a typical setting is 10 to 30 seconds or longer, depending on

the unit.
 The time delay should be set long enough that the unit will not trip for a system
transient condition or power swing condition where a momentary reverse power is
possible for short duration.
Further discussion is given in Section A.2.9 of C37.102-2006 (Guide for AC Generator
Protection).

Refer to C37.102-2006 for function 32 setting recommendations.

3.4.5. Examples
In general, there are no coordination issues with this function.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 32 Protection Coordination Consideration
System Concerns
 Some relays can be susceptible to
32 – Reverse Power None misoperation at high leading reactive power
(var) loading

None None None

3.5. Loss-of-Field Protection (LOF) — Function 40
3.5.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 40 — Loss-of-
Field Protection
Loss-of-field protection uses a measure of impedance derived from the quotient of
generator terminal voltage divided by generator stator current. Section 4.5.1 of IEEE
Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of
this protection as follows:
“The source of excitation for a generator may be completely or partially
removed through such incidents as accidental tripping of a field breaker, field
open circuit, field short circuit (flashover of the slip rings), voltage regulation
system failure, or the loss of supply to the excitation system. Whatever the cause,
a loss of excitation may present serious operating conditions for both the
generator and the system.
When a generator loses its excitation, it overspeeds and operates as an induction

generator. It continues to supply some power to the system and receives its
excitation from the system in the form of vars.
If the generator is operating at full load, stator currents can be in excess of 2 per
unit; and, because the generator has lost synchronism, high levels of slip-
frequency currents can be induced in the rotor. These high current levels can
cause dangerous overheating of the stator windings and cores of the rotor and
stator within a short time.
A loss of field condition causes devastating impact on the power system as a loss
of reactive power support from a generator as well as creating a substantial
reactive power drain from the system. On large generators this condition can
contribute to or trigger a wide area system voltage collapse.
Protection from Loss of field condition of the generator is provided: to prevent

machine damage due to large stator currents and to prevent large reactive drain
from the system resulting in voltage collapse and tripping of transmission lines.
When the excitation (field) is reduced or lost, the terminal voltage begins to
decrease and the stator current increases, resulting in a decrease in impedance
(Z=V/I) viewed from the generator terminals. Also, the power factor changes
from Lagging to Leading. The impedance moves into the fourth quadrant from
first quadrant due to the Var (reactive power) flow from the system into the
generator. For detecting this impedance change, there are two basic relaying
schemes as shown in figures 3.4.1 (dual offset mho characteristics type) and
3.4.2 (dual offset mho characteristics with directional element).
The LOF relays can misoperate during system disturbances and power swing
conditions if they are not set properly considering coordination with generator

parameters and system conditions. This is especially true if only single offset
mho characteristic is used with short or no time delay.
The purpose of section 3.4 is to describe the coordination issues with the setting
of Loss of Field relaying and certain system conditions which can cause
inadvertent tripping of the unit. The field current in the generator could also be
excessive.”
Figure 3.5.1 shows the problems associated where the swing results in a stable operating
point is outside the excitation capabilities of the machine, resulting in a necessary trip of
the loss-of-field function.
Heavy Load Light Load

pf=0.95 Lagging pf=0.99
Lagging
X
Machine
Zone‐1 Capability Curve
Minimum
Excitation
Limiter
Zone‐2
Figure 3.5.1 — (1) Locus of Swing Impedance during Light and Heavy
Loads for Loss-of-Field, and (2) Relationship between Minimum Excitation
Limiter (MEL) or Underexcitation Limiter (UEL)

System
3.5.2.1. Faults
Step 1 — The Transmission Owner provides the Planning Coordinator with the worst
case clearing time for each of the power system elements connected to the
transmission bus at which the generator is connected.
Step 2 — The Planning Coordinator determines the stability impedance trajectory for
the above conditions.
Step 3 — The Planning Coordinator provides these plots to the Generator Owner.
The Generator Owner utilizes these plots to demonstrate that these impedance
trajectories coordinate with the time delay setting of the loss-of-field function to
prevent misoperations by having adequate time delay.
A system stability study is required to evaluate the generator and system response to
power system faults. The response of the loss-of-field functions under these
conditions must be studied to see if they respond to power swing conditions as a
result of system faults. The Transmission Owner, Generator Owner, and Planning
Coordinator must share information on these studies and loss-of-field function
settings to prevent inadvertent tripping of generators for external fault conditions not
related to a loss-of-field condition. If there is an out-of-step protection installed it
should be coordinated with the loss-of-field protection.
Step 1 — The Generator Owners confirms that the loss-of-field function setting
coordinates with the generator reactive capability and the excitation system capability
to ensure that the loss-of-field function does not restrict operation of the generating
unit.
Step 2 — A light load system study is completed in which the generator is taking in
vars. A sufficient number of operating conditions and system contingencies are
evaluated to identify the worst case operating condition for coordination with the
loss-of-field function setting. The output of this study is provided to the Generator
Owner to evaluate whether the worst case operating load condition(s) lies outside the
loss-of-field characteristic.

Step 3 — For any case where the operating load point lies within a properly set loss-
of-field characteristic a mutually agreed upon solution must be applied, (i.e., shunt
reactor, turning off capacitor banks in the area, etc). Where the solution requires real-
time action by an operator the solution is incorporated into a system operating
procedure.
Coordination between Generator Owners, Transmission Owners, and Planning
Coordinators is necessary to prevent loadability considerations from restricting
system operations. This is typically not a problem when the generator is supplying
vars because the loss-of-field characteristics are set to operate in third and fourth
quadrant. However, when the generator is taking in vars due to light load and line
charging conditions or failure of a transmission capacitor bank to open due to control
failures, loss-of-field functions can misoperate if the apparent impedance enters the
relay characteristic in the fourth quadrant.

There are two hazards to be concerned with when operating a generator underexcited.
The first concern is the generator capability curve (GCC) limit. Operation of the
generator beyond the underexcited operating limit of the GCC can result in damage to the
unit. The primary protection for this is the underexcitation limiter (UEL) control on the
excitation system. Loss-of-field functions should be properly coordinated with the GCC
and UEL.
The other concern is the steady-state stability limit (SSSL). If the unit is operated with
too little excitation, it can go out-of-step. The loss-of-field function settings should also
properly coordinate with the SSSL.
Other considerations include operation of the generator as a synchronous condenser and
the generator absorbing reactive power from connected long transmission lines (line
charging) or large transmission capacitor banks near the generating plant. Procedures
such as closing the remote end of the transmission first before reclosing the generator
terminal of the line would minimize the effects of line charging causing misoperation of
the loss-of-field function.
The setting information for the loss-of-field function should be provided by the Generator
Owner to the Transmission Owner and the Planning Coordinator. The impedance
trajectory of most units with a lagging power factor (VARs into the power system) for

stable swings will pass into and back out of the first and second quadrants. It is
imperative that the loss-of-field function does not operate for stable power swings.
The loss-of-field function settings must be provided to the Planning Coordinator by the
Generator Owner so that the Planning Coordinator can determine if any stable swings
encroach long enough in the loss-of-field function trip zone to cause an inadvertent trip.
The Planning Coordinator has the responsibility to periodically verify that power system
modifications do not result in stable swings entering the trip zone(s) of the loss-of-field
function causing an inadvertent trip. If permanent modifications to the power system
cause the stable swing impedance trajectory to enter the loss-of-field characteristic, then
the Planning Coordinator must notify Generator Owner that new loss-of-field function
settings are required. The Planning Coordinator should provide the new stable swing
impedance trajectory so that the new loss-of-field settings will accommodate stable
swings with adequate time delay. The new settings must be provided to the Planning
Coordinator from the Generator Owner for future periodic monitoring.
In a limited number of cases, conditions may exist that coordination cannot be achieved
for every generating unit. In such cases coordination may be deemed acceptable if
tripping does not cascade and is limited to a small amount of generation (as a percentage
of the load in the affected portion of the system). Protection models must be added to
system models for any units for which coordination cannot be obtained.
3.5.4. Coordination Considerations

 The coordination requirements with generator controls are such that the loss-of-field
function must not operate before the UEL limit (with a margin) is reached. It is also
important to determine if the UEL in the excitation control allows the quick change of
reactive power (see figure 3.5.1) beyond the limit. If it does then the setting should
have an adequate margin between the UEL and loss-of-field setting to prevent
unnecessary operation of the loss-of-field function during this condition. The other
concern is the steady-state stability limit (SSSL), particularly when the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR) of the unit is operating in manual mode. If the unit is
operated with too little excitation, it can go out-of-step. Therefore the unit should be
tripped before a steady-state stability limit is reached.
 Some relay characteristics change with variation in frequency (this is especially true
for electromechanical and static relays). These characteristic changes during power
swing conditions (where the frequency can vary considerably from nominal values)

can cause unnecessary tripping of the generator by the loss-of-field function. These
characteristic changes need to be considered while setting the function for hydro
units, because hydro units can safely operate at speeds greater than 110 percent of
nominal while separated from the power system. At frequencies above 60 Hz, the
angle of maximum torque for some loss-of-field functions will shift farther into the
fourth quadrant and the circle diameter may increase by 200 percent to 300 percent.
With this shift and increase in characteristic it is possible for the function to operate
on the increased line charging current caused by the temporary overspeed and
overvoltage condition. Unnecessary operation of the loss-of-field relay schemes for
this condition may be prevented by supervising the schemes with either an
undervoltage function or an overfrequency function. The overfrequency function
would be set to pick up at 110 percent of rated frequency and would be connected to
block tripping when it is picked up and to permit tripping when it resets. An
undervoltage function would be set to pickup between 0.8 and 0.9 per unit of
generator rated voltage and is used with the impedance functions to detect a complete
loss of field condition where the system is not able to provide sufficient reactive
power to the generator. Typically, a 0.25 to 1.0 second time delay is used with this
function
 The protection scheme may use a single zone offset mho characteristic or a dual zone
offset mho characteristic. Dual zone offset mho characteristics are preferred
especially for steam and combustion turbine units where Xd typically is very large.
 The loss-of-field scheme should be provided with an adequate time delay for
providing security against operation during stable power swings.
 The relay timers should have a fast reset ratio for secure operation.
 The setting for loss-of-field should consider two system scenarios: the strongest
available system (all transmission facilities in services and all generation on), and the
weakest credible system (maximum transmission constraints and minimum
generation dispatch). Special considerations for loss-of-field setting may be
necessary for black start operation of the unit.

3.5.5. Example
The following describes how the typical loss of field function should be set. These
settings should be reflected in transmission system planning and operational planning
analyses.
Typical Loss-of-Field Relay setting calculation for a two-zone offset mho
characteristic.
Step-1 — Calculate the Base impedance = 17.56Ω/per unit
20,000V / VTR 3 20,000 / 166.67 69.28

Z base    =17.56Ω/per unit
14,202 A / CTR 14,202 / 3600 3.945
Step-2 — Convert X’d and X d in per unit to Ohms:
X 'd  (0.20577 pu )(17.56 / pu )  3.61 Ω

X d  (1.1888 pu )(17.56 / pu )  20.88 Ω
Step-3 — Function settings:
Offset = (50%) ( X 'd ) = (0.5) (3.61 Ω) = 1.8 Ω

Z1 = 1 pu = 17.6 Ω
Z2 = X d = 20.88 Ω
Step-4 — Plot various characteristics as shown in figure 3.5.1

Step-5 — Set the time delays for zone 1 and zone 2 functions.
Typical time delay settings are:
Zone 1: 0.1 sec
Zone 2: 0.5 sec
System stability studies should be conducted to see if the above time delays are
sufficient to prevent inadvertent tripping during stable power swings.
Figure 3.5.3 illustrates an alternate scheme where one of the offset mho relays is set
with a positive offset. Figure 3.5.3 also shows an example case of an apparent
impedance trajectory during a stable swing as a result of fault clearing. Response of
the loss-of-field relay during these types of swing characteristics need to be studied.

Step-6 — Set the undervoltage supervision (if appropriate):
V = 85% of Vno min al = 0.85 x 120V =102 V
Xs
System
Xt
Xd 40 Fault
Xd'
Figure 3.5.2 — Simplified System Configuration of Function 40 Relay and Fault

Locations
Figure 3.5.3 — “Two Zone Offset Mho with Directional Element” type Loss-of-
Field Relay Charactersitic
Figure 3.5.3 Notes:
 A — 0.9 lagging Power Factor 1.0 per unit Load Impedance
 B — Three Phase Fault Location
 C — Apparent Impedance immediately after fault is cleared
 A-B-C-D-E-F — Locus of Swing Impedance for lagging 0.9 power factor with fault
clearing at critical switching time

Figure 3.5.3 shows a stable swing incursion into the zone 1 of the loss-of-field
function. This would result in an undesirable operation of the loss-of-field function if
the zone 1 time delay is not sufficient.
When a dual offset Mho characteristic is used for loss-of-field protection, it should be
carefully studied for security to prevent operation for stable swings when the
generation is connected to a weak transmission system.
For further details and discussion regarding interaction of this protective function, the
excitation system controls and limiters please refer to Reference 8 (see Appendix A),
Coordination of Generator Protection with Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability.

Coordination
System Concerns
 Preventing encroachment on reactive
capability curve
 See details from sections 4.5.1 and A.2.1 of
C37.102‐2006
Settings used for planning  It is imperative that the LOF function does not
40 – Loss of Field (LOF)
and system studies operate for stable power swings – The impedance
trajectory of most units with a lagging power
factor (reactive power into the power system) for
stable swings will pass into and back out of the
first and second quadrants

in the above example.

Impedance trajectory from system
Relay settings: loss of field
The worst case clearing time for stability studies for the strongest
each of the power system elements and weakest available system
connected to the transmission bus
at which the generator is connected Feedback on problems found in
Generator reactive capability
coordination and stability studies

3.6. Negative Phase Sequence or Unbalanced
Overcurrent Protection (Function 46)
Negative Phase Sequence Overcurrent Protection
Negative sequence overcurrent protection uses a measure of negative sequence current
produced by the unbalanced conditions of the system to which the generator is connected.
Section 4.5.2 of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,”
describes the purpose of this protection as follows:
“There are a number of system conditions that may cause unbalanced three-
phase currents in a generator. The most common causes are system asymmetries
(untransposed lines), unbalanced loads, unbalanced system faults, and open
phases. These system conditions produce negative-phase-sequence components
of current that induce a double-frequency current in the surface of the rotor, the
retaining rings, the slot wedges, and to a smaller degree, in the field winding.
These rotor currents may cause high and possibly dangerous temperatures in a
very short time.
The ability of a generator to accommodate unbalanced currents is specified by

IEEE Std C50.12, IEEE Std C50.13, and IEC 60034-1 in terms of negative-
sequence current (I2). This guide specifies the continuous I2 capability of a
generator and the short time capability of a generator, specified in terms I22t =K,
as shown in Figure 4-39 (curve drawn using data from IEEE Std C50.13.”
The negative sequence component of current is similar to the positive sequence system,
except that the resulting reaction field rotates in the opposite direction to the dc field
system. Hence, a flux is produced which cuts the rotor at twice the rotational velocity,
thereby inducing double-frequency currents in the field system and in the rotor body.
The resulting eddy currents can be very large and cause severe heating of the rotor.
Negative Sequence Overcurrent protection often includes two settings: one very sensitive
setting that alarms for operator action, and a less-sensitive setting that results in tripping.

GSU
46
46
51T
G
51N
Figure 3.6.1 — Negative Phase Sequence Protection Coordination

System
3.6.2.1. Faults
Step 1 — The Transmission Owner determines longest clearing time including
breaker failure time for phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults.
Step 2 — The Transmission Owner and Generator Owner verify that the generator
negative sequence function time delay is properly coordinated with appropriate
margin with the time delays determined in Step 1.
The transmission system design and operation of protection must take into
consideration generator negative sequence concerns and capabilities:
Areas that need to be addressed by both the Transmission Owner and Generator
Owner are:
 Single-pole tripping (or other open-phase conditions such as single-phase

disconnect switch operation) on the transmission system will cause high short-
term negative sequence currents until balanced operation is restored.
 Unbalanced faults will result in negative sequence currents until the fault is
cleared.
 Open phases such as a pole on a circuit breaker

At maximum generator output, there should be no negative sequence alarm.

For further discussion of negative sequence current protection see Section A.2.8 of
C37.102-2006 — Guide for AC Generator Protection
The negative sequence protection function needs to be coordinated with all transmission
system unbalanced fault protection.
 If there is alarm, both the Transmission Owner and Generator Owner must work
together to resolve the alarm.
 Untransposed transmission lines can result in negative sequence current circulation on

the transmission system, which can be reflected into generators and thus cause
negative sequence overcurrent operation.

The following areas should be examined to provide proper protection against excessive
negative sequence current effects: short-time unbalanced current factor (K), and
continuous negative sequence current level (%).
Refer to ANSI C37.102-2006, clause 4.5.2, and C50.12-2005, clause 4.1.6.1.
3.6.5. Example
3.6.5.1. Proper coordination
The Generator Negative Sequence Protection when set according to the IEEE Guide
C37.102 will generally coordinate with system protection for unbalanced fault
conditions due to the setpoint time delay. Even at 100 percent negative sequence
current it will take seconds for the protection to trip the generator. The Generator
Owner and Transmission Owner need to discuss the magnitude of negative sequence
current resulting from open phases, untransposed lines and other operational
unbalances exhibited by the transmission system, and ensure that the generator

negative sequence function will not trip the generator for negative sequence currents
that are less than the allowable continuous negative sequence current ratings of the
machine.
Generator Name plate:
 Continuous negative sequence capability of the generator: 10%

 The K factor ( I 22t  K ): 30
Relay Settings:
Inverse Time Function
 Pick-up for the inverse time function ( I 22t  K ) - 29
 K = 29
Set Definite Time Function for Alarm

 Pickup = 5%
 Time delay = 30 seconds
3.6.5.2. Time Delay Coordination

As an example the following generator configuration is used to verify coordination
for a phase-to-phase fault at the high-side of the generator step-up transformer. This
fault location yields the highest negative sequence current and thus, the shortest
operating time.

Figure 3.6.2 — Sequence Diagram of a Phase-to-Phase Fault
The time delay of the inverse time function for 1.92 per unit negative sequence
current is:
t = K/ I 22 = 29/1.922 = 7.866 sec.
This time delay is much longer than the second zone transmission line phase-to-phase
fault protection time delay including the breaker failure time. The coordination is not
a concern.
3.6.5.3. Improper Coordination

Proper setting of the time delays associated with negative sequence functions will
inherently coordinate with system protection due to the wide disparity in time
constants between the two protection systems.

Coordination
System Concerns
 Should be coordinated with system
protection for unbalanced system faults
 Plant and system operations awareness
21 when experiencing an open‐pole on the
21G system
46  Transposition of transmission lines
67N  System studies, when it is required by
46 — Negative phase
51N system condition
sequence overcurrent
Longest time delay of  Open phase, single‐pole tripping
transmission system  Reclosing
protection including  If there is an alarm, Generator Owners must
breaker failure time provide I2 measurements to the
Transmission Owner and Planning
Coordinator and they must work together to
resolve the alarm


Relay settings: negative phase
sequence overcurrent protection
The time‐to‐operate curve for
system relays that respond to
unbalanced system faults. This None
Generator Owners must provide I2
would include the 51TG if the GSU is
measurements to the Transmission
owned by the Transmission Owner
Owner and Planning Coordinator for
resolution if significant unbalance is
observed

3.7. Inadvertent Energizing Protection (Function
50/27)
3.7.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 50/27 —
Inadvertent Energizing Protection
Inadvertent Energizing Protection uses a measure of both generator terminal voltage and
generator stator current to detect this condition. Section 5.4 of IEEE Standard C37.102-
2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this protection as
follows:
“Inadvertent or accidental energizing of off-line generators has occurred often enough to
warrant installation of dedicated protection to detect this condition. Operating errors,
breaker head flashovers (see 4.7.1), control circuit malfunctions, or a combination of
these causes has resulted in generators being accidentally energized while off-line. The
problem is particularly prevalent on large generators that are commonly connected
through a disconnect switch to either a ring bus or breaker-and-a-half bus configuration.
These bus configurations allow the high voltage generator breakers to be returned to
service as bus breakers, to close a ring bus or breaker-and-a-half bay when the machine
is off-line. The generator, under this condition, is isolated from the power system
through only the high-voltage disconnect switch. While interlocks are commonly used to
prevent accidental closure of this disconnect switch, a number of generators have been
damaged or completely destroyed when interlocks were inadvertently bypassed or failed
and the switch accidentally closed. When a generator on turning gear is energized from
the power system (three-phase source), it will accelerate like an induction motor. The
generator terminal voltage and the current are a function of the generator, transformer,
and system impedances. Depending on the system, this current may be as high as 3 pu to
4 pu and as low as 1 pu to 2 pu of the machine rating. While the machine is accelerating,
high currents induced into the rotor may cause significant damage in only a matter of
seconds. If the generator is accidentally back fed from the station auxiliary transformer,
the current may be as low as 0.1 pu to 0.2 pu. While this is of concern and has occurred,
there have not been reports of extensive generator damage from this type of energizing;
however, auxiliary transformers have failed.”
When a generator is off-line on turning gear and is inadvertently energized from the
power system, it will develop an inrush current (similar to an induction motor start) that
can be as high as 300 percent to 400 percent of the generator name plate (rating). This
inrush current subjects the turbine shaft and blades to large forces, and with rapid
overheating of the stator windings and potential for damage due to the excessive slip
frequency currents. The impedance of the transformer and the stiffness of the system
dictates the level of inrush current.
This protection is required when the unit is off-line and may or may not be armed when
the unit is in service and connected to the system.

A significant number of large machines have been severely damaged, and in some cases,
completely destroyed due to inadvertent energizing.
Figure 3.7.1 shows a typical inadvertent energizing protection scheme.
Reverse Power Flow

when breaker is
inadvertently closed
Normal Power Flow
System
GSU
50 27
INAD - trip circuit
Figure 3.7.1 — Inadvertent Energizing (INAD) Protection Scheme

System
3.7.2.1. Faults
Step 1 — Generator Owner verifies the voltage supervision pick-up is 50 percent or
less, as recommended by C37.102.
 It is highly desirable to remove the inadvertent energizing protection from service
when the unit is synchronized to the system, or at a minimum, be provided with
appropriate secure supervision, to assure that this function does not operate for
synchronized generators during system disturbances with reduced voltages.
 The inadvertent energizing protection must be in service when the generator is
out-of-service. If this function is not disarmed while the unit is in service, then in
addition to assuring an undervoltage setpoint of less than 50 percent nominal the
timer setting should be long enough to avoid undesired operations (two seconds or
greater).

In the August 14, 2003 disturbance, system voltage was depressed significantly.
During that event, seven units using inadvertent energizing schemes operated on
synchronized generators due to depressed voltage and unnecessarily removed those
units from the system. It is believed that these units had the undervoltage supervision
set higher than the recommended setpoint (i.e., the supervision was not set less than
50 percent of nominal voltage).
There are no loadability concerns with this protection function.

The undervoltage (27) supervision function must be set at 50 percent of the nominal
voltage level or lower. The setting should be developed based on the specific application
and engineering analysis.

3.7.4.1. Test Procedure for Validation
Check that the function 27 is set lower than 50 percent of the nominal voltage level or
lower based on the specific application and engineering analysis.
3.7.4.2. Setting Considerations

 The function 27 must be set lower than 50 percent of the nominal voltage level or
lower to avoid undesired operations.
 Instantaneous overcurrent (function 50) must be set sensitive enough to detect
inadvertent energizing (breaker closing).
3.7.5. Example
Undervoltage supervision settings of less than 50 percent of nominal voltage, or
lower, and more than two seconds of time delay will reduce the possibility of
undesired tripping. Note: Inadvertent Energizing schemes will be initiated when a

condition exists with (1) overcurrent (undesired unit energizing), and (2)
undervoltage (unit being off-line) with a delay time. Note that the time delay on the
undervoltage supervision does not delay tripping; rather, it delays arming of the
scheme.

Use of undervoltage supervision settings of greater than 50 percent nominal voltage,
or use of time delays of less than two seconds will greatly increase the possibility of
undesired tripping.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50 / 27 (Inadvertent Energization) Protection Coordination
Considerations
System Concerns
 The function 27 must be set at or below 50
percent of the nominal voltage
 Instantaneous overcurrent (function 50)
must be set sensitive enough to detect
inadvertent energizing (breaker closing)
50 / 27 — Inadvertent  Timer setting should be adequately long to
None
energizing avoid undesired operations due to transients
– at least 2 seconds
 Relay elements (27, 50 and timers) having
higher Dropout Ratio (ratio of dropout to
pickup of a relay) should be selected to
avoid undesired operations

between the entities to validate and document appropriate coordination.
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 50 / 27 (Inadvertent Energization) Data to be Exchanged Between

Entities
Undervoltage setting and current
Review method of disconnect and
detector settings pick‐up and time None
operating procedures
delay

3.8. Breaker Failure Protection (Function 50BF)
3.8.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 50BF —
Breaker Failure Protection
Breaker failure protection uses a measure of breaker current to detect this condition.
Section 4.7 of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,”
describes the purpose of this protection as follows (emphasis added):
“Functional diagrams (from the IEEE Guide) of two typical generator zone
breaker failure schemes are shown in Figure 4-52a and Figure 4-52b. Like all
such schemes, when the protective relays detect an internal fault or an abnormal
operating condition, they will attempt to trip the generator and at the same time
initiate the breaker-failure timer. If a breaker does not clear the fault or
abnormal condition in a specified time, the timer will trip the necessary breakers
to remove the generator from the system. As shown in Figure 4-52a, the breaker-
failure timer is initiated by the combination of a protective relay and either a
current detector (CD) or a breaker “a” switch, which indicates that the breaker
has failed to open. Figure 4-52b shows a variation of this scheme that times out
and then permits the CD to trip if current continues to flow. The reset time of the
CD need not enter into the setting of the BF timer. The breaker “a” switch is
used since there are faults and/or abnormal operating conditions such as stator
or bus ground faults, overexcitation (V/Hz), excessive negative sequence,
excessive underfrequency, reverse power flow, etc., that may not produce
sufficient current to operate the CDs. If each pole of the breaker operates
independently, breaker “a” switches from all three poles should be paralleled
and connected into the logic circuit.”
Breaker failure protection must be provided for large generators such that the generator is
isolated in the event its breakers fail to open subsequent to receiving a signal to trip.
When a generator unit breaker fails, it is required to initiate the tripping of backup
breaker(s) for isolation of the failed breaker. Figures 3.8.1 and 3.8.2 describe breaker
failure relaying as it relates to generator and transmission line breaker failures.

GSU
52-G 52-T 52-L
G
50BF-
G
52-G fail to trip or open
50BF-G 86T 52-T
52 – G
Trip Coil
Generator
86
62BF 86-T
50BF-G tpu
AND
OR 0
52a
Trip CB 52 - T
Figure 3.8.1 — Unit Breaker Failure Logic Diagram

GSU
52-G 52-T 52-L 52-R
G
50BF
(L)
52-L fail to trip or open
50BF-L 86B 52-T
86BF TT 52-R
52 – L
Trip Coil
Line
Protective
Relay
62BF 86BF
50BF-L tpu
AND
OR 0
52a
•Trip Adjacent
Circuit Breakers
•Initiate Line
Transfer Trip
Figure 3.8.2 — Line Breaker Failure Logic Diagram

System
3.8.2.1. Faults
The following coordination issues must be addressed:
The Transmission Owner and Generator Owner must, for each set of relay
coordination, verify that breaker failure time is accounted for properly.
For example,

 All generator unit backup relaying schemes are required to coordinate with
protective relays on the next zone of protection including breaker failure
relaying time.
 For obtaining the security and reliability of power system stability, the
Generator Owner and Transmission Owner(s) are required to coordinate, plan,
design, and test the scheme.
 There must be design coordination to assure that appropriate backup breakers
are tripped for breaker failure operation.
There are no loadability issues to be addressed.

All upstream (next level) protection settings and systems must be considered when
evaluating the performance of breaker failure functions associated with generators. Total
clearing time, which includes breaker failure time, of each breaker in the generation
station substation should coordinate with the critical clearing times associated with unit
stability.
BREAKER FAILURE DECLARE TIME

T1 50
PROTECTIVE RESET SAFETY FAULT
RELAY BREAKER INTERRUPT TIME TIME MARGIN
CLEARED
TIME TBK T50 TM
TIME
50 BREAKER FAILURE TIMER 86BF REMOTE BACKUP BREAKER
OPERATE INTERRUPT TIME
62BF
FAULT TRANSFER TRIP TIME
OCCURS
TOTAL FAULT CLEARING TIME
Figure 3.8.3 — Example of Breaker Failure Timing Chart3
3
This chart is excerpted from the IEEE Std. C37.119-2005 “Guide for Breaker Failure Protection of Power Circuit
Breakers.”

The following is an example of the breaker failure timer settings (62BF) of a breaker
failure scheme for typical three-cycle breakers:
Three-Cycle Breaker — Breaker Failure Timer = Breaker Interrupting Time +50 Reset
Time + Safety Margin
62BF = TBK + T50 + TM = 3.0 + 1.55 + 5.0 = 9.55 cycles or 159 milliseconds

 Total clearing time, which includes breaker failure time, of each breaker in the
generation station substation should coordinate with the critical clearing times
associated with unit stability. To provide proper Breaker Failure (BF) protection,
the following should be considered: See C37.119 “IEEE Guide for Breaker
Failure Protection of Power Circuit Breakers” for a well-designed breaker failure
scheme.
 Clearing time issues are addressed further in Sections 4.7 and A.2.11 of C37.102-
2006 — Guide for AC Generator Protection.
 Refer to Section 3.1 for coordination of upstream protective function 21 with the
breaker failure scheme.

3.8.5. Example
3.8.5.1. Proper Coordination – Critical Breaker Failure
Coordination
This example addresses coordination with line relaying and line breaker failure
conditions.
GSU
BF
G2
4 5
BF BF
BF
21
2 FAULT
GSU LOCATION
6
G1
3 1 Z1
BF BF 21 21
BF TT TT BF
21
Figure 3.8.6 — Breaker Failure Coordination

To detect a fault within the zone 1 reach of the line beyond breaker-1 in Figure 3.8.6,
the distance backup relaying (function 21) on generator G2 should be set far enough
to detect the fault, with the fault contribution from the line connected to breaker-5,
and the fault contribution from G1. Under minimum infeed, the reach of the G2 relay
may extend beyond the zone 1 reach of the relaying for the line beyond breaker-1. In
order to prevent misoperation, the time delay of the G2 relay must be set longer than
the total time associated with a failure of breaker-1 to clear the fault and the resultant
tripping of breaker-2. This time will be the summation of the breaker-1 line relaying
zone 2 operating time and delay, breaker failure time delay for breaker-1, BF lockout
time and breaker-2 clearing time.
In this example, G1 is lost whenever breaker-1 suffers a BF condition. However, the
G1 backup distance protection must be set with a time delay long enough to allow the
normal clearing of breaker-1 with some additional time coordination margin, or the
mirror image of this example for breaker-5 coordination.

In the example shown, a breaker-1 BF condition also sends direct transfer trip to
breaker-6 to speed remote clearing if this line does not have pilot protection and to
prevent breaker-6 from reclosing into the failed breaker.

Improper coordination results when upstream protective functions react faster than
the breaker failure function.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50BF Protection Coordination Considerations
System Concerns
 Check for single‐points‐of‐failure
 Overcurrent (fault detector) and 52a contact
considerations
 Critical clearing time
 Coordination with zone 2 and zone 3 timers
system studies
Protection on line(s) and  Line relay reach and time delay settings with
50BF – Breaker failure on
bus(es) that respond to respect to each generator zone.
generator
faults and conditions on  Bus differential relay (usually instantaneous)
interconnection
the generator side of the timing for HV bus faults including breaker
breaker(s)
interconnection breaker(s) failure on an adjacent bus.
 Line and bus breaker failure timers and line
zone 1 and zone 2 timers on all possible
faults.
 Single line diagram(s) including CTs and VTs
arrangement
 Power Circuit Breaker (PCB) test data
(interrupting time)

in the above examples.
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 50BF Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Times to operate of generator Times to operate, including timers, Provide critical clearing time or
protection of transmission system protection confirm total clearing time is less
Breaker failure relaying times Breaker failure relaying times than critical clearing time

3.9. Generator Step-Up Phase Overcurrent (Function
51T) and Ground Overcurrent (Function 51TG)
Protection
3.9.1. Purpose of the Generator Step-Up Function 51T
— Backup Phase and Function 51TG – Backup
Ground Overcurrent
3.9.1.1. Generator Step-Up Backup Phase Overcurrent
Protection — Function 51T
Neither IEEE C37.91 nor IEEE C37.102 supports the use of a phase overcurrent
function for backup protection for faults in both the generator step-up and generator,
or for system faults. This applies regardless of whether the phase overcurrent
protection applied is a discrete relay or an overcurrent function in a multi-function
protective relay, such as overcurrent phase functions associated with restraint inputs
on microprocessor differential relays.
Section 4.6.1.2 of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator
Protection,” describes the purpose of this protection as follows:
In general, a simple time-overcurrent relay cannot be properly set to provide
adequate backup protection. The pickup setting of this type of relay would
normally have to be set from 1.5 to 2 times the maximum generator rated full-load
current in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of the generator during some
emergency overload condition. The settings should be reviewed to ensure that the
relay will not operate during a system emergency, where the generator terminal
voltage will be depressed and the rotor currents will be higher.
With this pickup setting and with time delays exceeding 0.5 s, the simple time-
overcurrent relay may never operate since the generator fault current may have
decayed below relay pickup. After 0.5 s or more, generator fault current will be
determined by machine synchronous reactance and the current magnitude could
be well below generator rated full-load current, which would be below the relay
setting.
Figure 3.9.1 shows a multi-function transformer differential relay with the phase
overcurrent function associated with the high-side generator step-up restraint enabled.
However, these functions could be discrete relays also. As quoted above, IEEE

C37.102 indicates that 51T function pickup must be set from 1.5 to 2.0 of the
generator rated full-load current. Based on information concerning field forcing
found in section 3.1, this Technical Reference Document requires that pick up for the
51T must be at least 2.0 times the generator full-load rating. The use of 51T phase
overcurrent protection for the generator step-up transformer phase overcurrent
protection is STRONGLY discouraged due to coordination issues that are associated
with fault sensing requirements in the 0.5 second or longer time frame
Auxiliary RAT
Power
System
87T
GSU 51T
F1 F2
50/51
or
51TG 67I/T
50/51G
or
67GI/T
Figure 3.9.1 — Phase and Ground Backup Overcurrent Relays on Generator Step-
Up Transformer
3.9.1.2. Generator Step-Up Transformer Backup Ground
Overcurrent Protection — Function 51TG
The ground overcurrent function 51TG, as shown in Figure 3.9.1, is used to provide
generator and generator step-up ground backup overcurrent protection for uncleared
system ground faults. The ground backup overcurrent function 51TG is connected to
detect the ground current provided by the generator step-up transformer when
connected as a ground source. It has no loading requirements, so it can be set for
fault considerations. However, it should accommodate the worst-case system
imbalance anticipated at the generator step-up transformer. From a time/overcurrent
perspective, the 51TG needs to coordinate with the longest clearing time of the
transmission ground protection systems as required by its application and the
generator step-up transformer damage curve.

3.9.2. Generator Step-Up Transformer and
Transmission System Coordination for
Overcurrent Functions
3.9.2.1. Faults
Use of a generator step-up transformer phase overcurrent function (51T) for backup
protection is strongly discouraged. This document has two sections that describe
relay functions that are better designed for this function (see section 3.1) for the phase
distance function and see section 3.10 for the voltage supervised overcurrent
protection function. These sections describe the use and application of phase distance
and voltage supervised overcurrent relaying to provide the best phase backup
protection that can be coordinated between the protective relaying of a Generator
Owner and Transmission Owner. However, for completeness the issues required to
utilize the 51T backup overcurrent protection function will be covered in this section.
When used, the 51T function and associated settings need to consider the following:
 The 51T must be set to pickup for the worst-case fault on the transmission system
based on the application. See the loadability section for complete requirements to
determine 51T pickup.
 The 51T must have sufficient time delay with adequate margin to coordinate with
the worst-case clearing time of the transmission protection with breaker failure
clearing times included.
 The 51T must be set such that the generator has the ability to produce the fault
current long enough to complete the overcurrent backup function.
 The 51T must meet the loadability requirements outlined in section 3.9.2.2.
The 51TG is used to backup uncleared system faults and must meet the following
considerations for fault coordination:
 The 51TG must be set to pickup for the worst-case fault on the transmission
system based on the application. The pickup value for the 51TG must also be
capable of accommodating the greatest system imbalance with margin anticipated
at the generator step-up transformer.
 The 51TG must have sufficient time delay with adequate margin to coordinate
with the worst-case clearing time of the transmission protection with breaker
failure clearing times included.

The 51TG backup overcurrent provides backup and time delayed protection for
ground faults when primary relaying or equipment does not operate properly. Relay
failure and stuck breaker are two examples when the 51TG might be able to provide
protection of the generator step-up transformer. Great care must be used in
determining the sensitivity (pickup value) and selectivity (time to operate value) in
order to complete the backup function without causing any misoperation.
The 51T function has the following loadability requirement:
 The 51T must have as a minimum setting equal to 200 percent of the generator
MVA rating at rated power factor.
The above requirement allows a generator to remain online through extreme
operating system events, by allowing a generator to utilize it full capability of field
forcing.
Note: Any 51 function utilized from the generator or generator step-up transformer
multi-function protective relays must meet the above loadability requirement.
3.9.3. Considerations and Issues for Utilizing 51T and

51TG
As noted above concerning the 51T function, other protective functions are available to
provide this backup protection while providing better coordination with the transmission
and generator protections.
The 51TG backup overcurrent provides backup and time delayed protection for ground
faults when primary relaying or equipment does not operate properly. Relay failure
and/or stuck breaker are example(s) when the 51TG might be able to provide protection
for the generator step-up transformer. The value of 51TG is that it covers a potential
once-in-a-lifetime event where protective relaying and breaker failure relaying are unable
to clear a transmission line fault. Great care must be used in determining the sensitivity
(pickup value) and selectivity (time to operate value) in order to complete the backup
function without causing any misoperation.
Device 51TG should be set to detect and operate for non-cleared transmission bus and
line faults based on its application design requirements. When its application is for a

generating station and system configuration that are simple (see figure 3.9.1), it is
generally not difficult to obtain reasonable relay settings for the 51TG function.
Refer to IEEE C37.102 section 4.6 and all subsections 4.6.1 – 4.6.4 for recommendations
on setting the 21, 51V, and 51TG functions, and refer to the references in IEEE C37.102
that discourage the use of the 51T. The performance of these functions, during fault
conditions, must be coordinated with the system fault protection to assure that the
sensitivity and timing of the relaying results in tripping of the proper system elements,
while permitting the generator to stay on line during system stressed conditions. Once
the coordination is determined between the Generator Owner and Transmission Owner
for the 51T function, the Generator Owner must evaluate coordination between the 51T
function and the generator step-up transformer and generator protection for the fault
current available from the system to ensure complete coordination. Short-circuit studies
are required to determine fault values for which the overcurrent functions must operate
and coordinate.

3.9.4.1. Coordination of Function 51T
Function 51T must be set to the following requirements:
 The 51T must have a minimum current pickup of twice the generator MVA rating
at rated power factor.
 The 51T must operate slower with margin than the slowest transmission
protection system that it must coordinate with based on protection design
including breaker failure time.
 The 51T must sense the required fault based on the transmission protection design
with the fault current available from the generator in the time frame that it is set to
operate.
 The Generator Owner must determine the setting for the 51T that coordinates with
the transmission protection will also coordinate with the generator protection
systems for the fault current available from the transmission system.
3.9.4.2. Coordination of Function 51TG

Function 51TG must be set to the following requirements:

 The 51TG must have a current pickup with margin greater than the largest non-
fault system imbalance anticipated based on system design.
 The 51TG must operate slower with margin than the slowest transmission
protection system that it must coordinate with based on protection design
including breaker failure time.
3.9.5. Example
For the system shown in Figure 3.9.2 below, coordination of the generation and
transmission protection is described with the following assumptions. It will be
assumed for the system shown that the transmission protection systems are
overcurrent non-redundant schemes. It is also assumed that the line with fault
locations F1 and F2 presented the worst-case coordination requirements for the
generator backup protection. Also, the line used for a reserve auxiliary transformer
(RAT) for the unit is out of service during normal operation. The line shown without
a breaker termination at the remote terminal supplies a nearby load with no fault
contribution. Current transformer ratio for the HV side generator step-up transformer
and the line protection are 3Y-2000/5A (CTR=400:1), multi-ratio CTs. The generator
loadability requirement will be twice the unit MVA rating which is equal to twice the
generator step-up transformer rating.
Auxiliary RAT
Power
System
87T
GSU 51T
F1 F2
50/51
or
51TG 67I/T
50/51G
or
67GI/T
Figure 3.9.2 — Phase and Ground Backup Overcurrent Relays on Generator Step-
Up Transformer

3.9.5.1.1. Settings for Function 51T
425MVA
Step 1 — Rated current = = 1,778 A, primary = (1,778A/400)
138kV 3
= 4.445 A, secondary
Step 2 — Select a relay characteristic curve. [Note: Curve is typically chosen to
match the curve used by the Transmission Owner; e.g., a very-inverse curve.]
Step 3 — Tap Setting of 51T = 2 X I rated = (4.445A) X (2) = 8.89A;
choose Tap = 9.0A
Step 4 — From short-circuit studies; obtain the 3ф through-fault current for the
fault located on the generator bus shown as F1 in the diagram. I3ф=11,587-A,
primary through-fault current on generator step-up transformer. Relay current =
11,587 A, primary/400 = 28.96 A, secondary
Step 5 — Multiple = Relay current / Tap = 28.96A/9.0A = 3.21; choose a time
dial that results in an operating time equal to approximately 30 cycles more than
the slowest transmission overcurrent setting. The time delay setting with margin
will result in a time setting in the 60 – 90 cycles range. The 30 cycles margin will
accommodate breaker failure clearing timers up to 20 cycles with margin.
Step 6 — Ensure coordination with all appropriate transmission system protection
functions. If the overcurrent function will be used to backup the line protective
relays then the minimum end line contribution from the generator has to be
approximately 4,500 Amps or higher in the appropriate time range. Otherwise,
the 51T will fail to operate as a backup protective function for the reasons stated
throughout this section, resulting in the need to choose an overcurrent function
with appropriate supervision to provide the overcurrent backup protection
function. The 4,500 Amps was determined by taking the 51T function pickup
(400 x 9.0) x a margin of 1.25 as a minimum. This would be represented as F2 in
Figure 3.9.2.
Step 7 — The Generator Owner takes the information concerning the 51T
function in the plot and determines that it will coordinate with the other generator
protection for the available transmission system fault current for generator step-up
transformer and generator faults.

GSU Transformer
Damage Curve
Time in Seconds
Phase OC on GSU - 51GSU

CT= 400/1
TOC TAP= 10A
Time Dial= No 1.0
Curve= INVERSE
Phase OC on Line - 51 LINE

CT= 400/1
TOC TAP= 8A
Time Dial= No 0.5
Curve= INVERSE
Fault=11587.7A
INST TAP= 20A
Current in Amperes
Figure 3.9.3 — Function 51TGenerator Step-Up Transformer and 51LINE (G or N)

Overcurrent Relay Coordination Curves
3.9.5.1.2. Setting for the 51TG
Assumption: current transformer ratio for the neutral CT on the generator step-up
transformer is 1-600/5A (CTR=120:1), multi-ratio.
Step 1 — Obtain 3I0 current from short-circuit studies for fault location F2 (the
primary minimum fault current provided from the neutral of the generator step-up
transformer that must be detected by 51TG). F2 = 1930 Amperes primary.
Step 2 — Select a relay characteristic curve. [Note: Curve is typically chosen to
match the curve used by the Transmission Owner; e.g. a very inverse curve.]
Step 3 — Tap Setting of 51TG [Note: Tap is typically selected based on available
minimum short-circuit current (F2) and current transformer ratio on the neutral of
generator step-up transformer (120:1) such that two or higher times pickup is
available for the fault that represents the minimum ground current that the 51TG
is required to detect (provide backup protection for a fault at F2), while being set
above the worst case system imbalance.]. 51TG tap setting = (F2)/(2.0 margin
*CTR) = 1930 Amp/ (2.0 * 120) = 8.04, choose 8.0 tap.
Step 4 — From short-circuit studies obtain the 3I0 through-fault current for the
fault located on the generator bus shown as F1 in the diagram. 3I0 = 7,556-A,

primary from the neutral of generator step-up transformer. Relay current =
7,556A/120 = 62.96A, secondary
Step 5 — Multiple = Relay current / Tap = 62.96/8A = 7.87; choose a time dial
that provides an operating time approximately 30 cycles or more than the slowest
transmission overcurrent setting. The time delay setting with margin will result in
a time setting in the 60 – 90 cycles range. The 30 cycle margin will accommodate
GSU Transformer Damage Curve
Ground OC on GSU - 51GGSU

Time in Seconds
CT= 120/1
TOC TAP= 8A
Time Dial= No 2.25
Curve= VERY INVERSE
Ground OC on Line - 51LINE

CT= 400/1
TOC TAP= 2A
Time Dial= No 1.20
Curve= VERY INVERSE
INST TAP= 12A
A Phase-to-gnd
Fault= 7557.5A
Current in Amperes
breaker failure clearing timers up to 20 cycles with margin.

Figure 3.9.4 — Function 51TG Overcurrent Relay Characteristic Curve

The miscoordination between the 51GLINE (or 51NLINE) and the 51GGSU is due to the
selection of dissimilar curves for one-on-one coordination as was required in the
above example. 51GLINE is a very inverse curve and the 51GGSU is an inverse curve.
GSU Transformer Damage Curve

Time in Seconds
Ground OC on GSU - 51GGSU

CT= 120/1
TOC TAP= 8A
Time Dial= No 2.25
Curve= INVERSE
Ground OC on Line - 51LINE

CT= 400/1
TOC TAP= 2A
Time Dial= No 1.20
Curve= VERY INVERSE
INST TAP= 12A
Phase-to-gnd
Fault= 7557.5A
Current in Amperes
Use similar curves to fix the miscoordination.

Figure 3.9.5 — Miscoordination of 51GLINE and 51GGSU Settings

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 51T / 51TG Protection Coordination Data Exchange
Requirements
System Concerns
 Must have adequate margin over GSU
protection and nameplate rating
 51T not recommended, especially when the
51 Transmission Owner uses distance line
51T — Phase fault protection functions
67
backup overcurrent
51G  Open phase, single‐pole tripping and
reclosing
51N
51TG — Ground fault  Generator Owners(s) needs to get Relay
67N
backup overcurrent Data (functions 51, 67, 67N, etc) and Single
line diagram (including CT and PT
arrangement and ratings) from
Transmission Owner(s) for function 51T
coordination studies

Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 51T / 51TG Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Function 51T — Phase fault backup One line diagram of the
overcurrent transmission system up to one bus
None
Function 51TG — Ground fault away from the generator high‐side
backup overcurrent bus
Impedances of all transmission
Relay timer settings. elements connected to the
generator breakers
Total clearing times for all
Total clearing times for breaker
side bus
If Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restrained overcurrent function is used in place of the

51T see Section 3.10 for proper utilization and coordination (Function 51V).
If a distance function is used in place of the 51T see Section 3.1 for proper utilization
and coordination (Function 21).

3.10. Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restrained
Overcurrent Protection (Function 51V)
3.10.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 51V —
Voltage-Controlled or Voltage-Restrained
Overcurrent Protection
Voltage-Controlled and Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Protection uses a measure of
generator terminal voltage and generator stator current. Its function is to provide backup
protection for system faults when the power system to which the generator is connected is
protected by time-current coordinated protections. Note that Function 21 (Section 3.1.1)
is another method of providing backup for system faults, and it is never appropriate to
enable both Function 21 and Function 51V. Section 4.6.1.2 of IEEE Standard C37.102-
2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this protection as
follows (emphasis added):
“The type of overcurrent device generally used for system phase fault backup protection
is either a voltage–restrained or voltage-controlled time-overcurrent relay. Both types of
relays are designed to restrain operation under emergency overload conditions and still
provide adequate sensitivity for the detection of faults.
In the voltage-restrained relay, the current pickup varies as a function of the voltage
applied to relay. In one type of relay with zero voltage restraint, the current pickup is
25% of the pickup setting with 100% voltage restraint. On units that have a short,
short-circuit time constant, the 51V voltage-restrained overcurrent relay should be used.
In the voltage-controlled relay, a sensitive low pickup time-overcurrent relay is torque

controlled by a voltage relay. At normal and emergency operating voltage levels, the
voltage relay is picked up and the relay is restrained from operating. Under fault
conditions, the voltage relay will drop out, thereby permitting operation of the sensitive
time-overcurrent relay. If applied properly, the overcurrent pickup level in both types
of relays will be below the generator fault current level as determined by synchronous
reactance.
The 51V voltage element setting should be calculated such that under extreme
emergency conditions (the lowest expected system voltage), the 51V relay will not trip.
However, during faults, within the protection zone of the relay, the relay will be
enabled (51VC), or sensitized (51VR), to trip with the expected fault current level.
To provide system phase fault backup, three voltage-restrained or voltage-controlled

time-overcurrent relays are connected to receive currents and voltages in the same
manner as the distance relays illustrated in Figure 4.6-1 (IEEE C37.102). In some small
and medium size machine applications a single 51V relay is used, if a negative-sequence

overcurrent is included. The two together provide phase backup protection for all types
of external faults.”
System
G
GSU
51V
Figure 3.10.1 — Application of 51V System Backup Relays – Unit Generator-
Transformer Arrangement

System
3.10.2.1. Faults
The Generator Owner and Transmission Owner need to exchange the following data:
Generator Owner
 Unit ratings, subtransient, transient, and synchronous reactance and time constants
 Station one line diagrams
 51V- C or 51V-R relay type, CT ratio, VT ratio
 Relay settings and setting criteria
 Coordination curves for faults in the transmission system up to two buses away
from the generator high voltage bus
Transmission Owner
 Relay setting criteria
 Fault study values of current and voltage for all multi-phase faults up to two buses
away from the generator High Voltage bus. This includes voltages at the
generator terminals.

 Relay types and operate times for multi-phase faults up to two buses away from
the generator High Voltage bus.
3.10.2.1.1. 51V-C Setting Considerations

Under fault conditions, the voltage function will drop out, thereby permitting
operation of the sensitive time-overcurrent function. The overcurrent pickup level
will be below the generator fault current level as determined by synchronous
reactance. It is possible that the overcurrent pickup level for the voltage
controlled function, 51V-C, may be below load current.
The voltage function must be set such that it will not drop out below extreme
system contingencies. The 51V-C must be coordinated with the longest clearing
time, including breaker failure, for any of the transmission protection schemes
(functions 21, 51, 67, and 87B when the bus protection has an inverse time delay)
within the protected reach of the 51V-C function. A time margin of 0.5 seconds
is typically considered adequate.
3.10.2.1.2. 51V-R Setting Considerations

Under fault conditions, the depressed voltage will make the time-overcurrent
function more sensitive. The overcurrent pickup level must be set with a margin
above the generator full-load current.
The 51V-R must be coordinated with the longest clearing time, including breaker
failure, for any of the transmission protection schemes (functions 21, 51, 67, and
87B with the bus protection as inverse time delay) within the protected reach of
the 51V-R function. A time margin of 0.5 seconds is typically considered
adequate.
 For the 51V-C function, the voltage function must prevent operation for all
system loading conditions as the overcurrent function will be set less than
generator full load current. The voltage function setting should be calculated such
that under extreme emergency conditions (the lowest expected system voltage),
the 51V function will not trip. A voltage setting of 0.75 per unit or less is
acceptable.
 For the 51V-R function, the voltage function will not prevent operation for system
loading conditions. The overcurrent function must be set above generator full

load current. IEEE C37.102 recommends the overcurrent function to be set 150
percent above full load current.
 Coordinate with stator thermal capability curve (IEEE C50.13).
 Note that 51V functions are subject to misoperation for blown fuses that result in
loss of the voltage-control or voltage-restraint.

The bolded portions above from IEEE Standard C37.102 capture the salient points of the
application of the 51V function.
For trip dependability within the protected zone, the current portion of the function must
be set using fault currents obtained by modeling the generator reactance as its
synchronous reactance. This very well means that to set the current portion of the
function to detect faults within the protected zone, the minimum pickup of the current
function will be less than maximum machine load current. In the below setting example,
taken from C37.102 Appendix A, the current function of the 51V-C function is set 50
percent of the full load rating of the machine. The protected zone can be defined as:
The generator step-up transformer, the High Voltage bus, and a portion of a
faulted transmission line, which has not been isolated by primary system relaying
for a prolonged multi-phase fault.
The undervoltage function is the security aspect of the 51V-C function. C37.102 states
(emphasis added):
“The 51V voltage element setting should be calculated such that under extreme
emergency conditions (the lowest expected system voltage), the 51V relay will not trip.”
In C37.102 (see Appendix A reference), the undervoltage setting for the example is 75
percent of rated voltage. Seventy five percent of rated voltage is considered acceptable to
avoid generator tripping during extreme emergency conditions.
The transmission system is usually protected with phase distance (impedance) relays.
Time coordination is attained between distance relays using definite time settings. The
51V functions have varying time delays based on their time versus current time to operate
curves. Time coordinating a 51V and a 21 lends to longer clearing times at lower
currents. The 51V functions are often used effectively on generator connected to
distribution system where distribution feeders are protected with time inverse

characteristic relays. For these reasons, it is recommended that an impedance
function be used rather than a 51V function for generators connected to the
transmission system.
The voltage function of the 51V-C is set 0.75 per unit voltage or less to avoid operation
for extreme system contingencies. A fault study must be performed to assure that this
setting has reasonable margin for the faults that are to be cleared by the 51V. Backup
clearing of system faults is not totally dependent on a 51V function (or 21 function).
Clearing of unbalanced multi-phase faults can be achieved by the negative sequence
function. Clearing of three-phase faults can be achieved by the overfrequency and
overspeed tripping functions. The 51V function provides minimal transmission system
backup protection for relay failure. It must not be relied upon to operate to complete an
isolation of a system fault when a circuit breaker fails to operate as it does not have
enough sensitivity. The 51V has a very slow operating time for multi-phase faults. This
may lead to local system instability resulting in the tripping of generators in the area. A
“zone 1” impedance function would be recommended in its place to avoid instability as
stated in C37.102. Voltage functions must be set less than extreme system contingency
voltages or the voltage-controlled function will trip under load. The voltage-restrained
function time to operate is variable dependent on voltage. For generators connected to
the transmission system utilizing distance protection functions, the 21 function is
recommended over the 51V function. It is not necessary to have both functions enabled
in a multi-function relay. The 21 function can clearly define its zone of protection and
clearly define its time to operate and therefore coordinate better with transmission system
distance protection functions.
3.10.3.1. Special Considerations for Older Generators with

Low Power Factors and Rotating Exciters
Older low power factor machines that have slower-responding rotating exciters
present an additional susceptibility to tripping for the following reasons:
 The relatively low power factor (0.80 to 0.85) results in very high reactive current
components in response to the exciter trying to support the system voltage.
 The slower response of the rotating exciters in both increasing and decreasing
field current in those instances results in a longer time that the 51V function will
be picked up, which increases the chances for tripping by the 51V.

 If it is impractical to mitigate this susceptibility, Transmission Owners,
Transmission Operators, Planning Coordinators, and Reliability Coordinators
should recognize this generator tripping susceptibility in their system studies.

3.10.4.1. Test Procedure for Validation
3.10.4.1.1. Voltage-Controlled Overcurrent Function (51VC)
Figure 3.10.2 — Voltage Controlled Overcurrent Relay (51VC)

In the voltage-controlled function, a sensitive low pickup time-overcurrent
function is torque-controlled by a voltage function. At normal and emergency
operating voltage levels, the voltage function is picked up and the relay is
restrained from operating. Under fault conditions, the voltage function will drop
out, thereby permitting operation of the sensitive time-overcurrent function.
 The overcurrent pickup is usually set at 50 percent of generator full load

current as determined by maximum real power out and exciter at
maximum field forcing.
 The undervoltage function should be set to dropout (enable overcurrent

function) at 0.75 per unit generator terminal voltage or less.
 The overcurrent function should not start timing until the undervoltage
function drops out.
 Time coordination should be provided for all faults on the high-side of the
generator step-up transformer, including breaker failure time and an
agreed upon reasonable margin. Time coordination must also include the

time overcurrent protection for all elements connected to the generator
high-side bus for which the 51V function will operate.
 The Generator Owner’s required margin is typically 0.5 seconds over 51

and 67 and instantaneous protection for transmission system fault(s).
3.10.4.1.2. Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Function (51VR)
Figure 3.10.3 — Voltage Restrained OC Relay (51VR)

The characteristic of a voltage restrained overcurrent function allows for a
variable minimum pickup of the overcurrent function as determined by the
generator terminal voltage. As shown in the above figure, at 100 percent
generator terminal voltage the overcurrent function will pickup at 100 percent of
its pickup setting. The minimum pickup of the overcurrent function decreases
linearly with voltage until 25 percent or less when the minimum pickup of the
overcurrent function is 25 percent of its minimum pickup setting.
The 100 percent voltage level setting (see Figure 3.10.3) for the voltage restraint
must be at 0.75 per unit terminal voltage or less. Relay voltage margin for trip
dependability should be determined and agreed upon for a fault on the high-side
terminal of the generator step-up transformer.
Time coordination for all faults on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer must include breaker failure time and agreed upon margin. Time
coordination must also include the time overcurrent protection for all elements
connected to the generator high-side bus for which the 51V function will operate.

 For the 51V-C function, the voltage function must prevent operation for all
system loading conditions as the overcurrent function will be set less than
generator full load current. The voltage function setting should be calculated such
that under extreme emergency conditions (the lowest expected system voltage),
the 51V function will not trip. A voltage setting of 0.75 per unit or less is
acceptable.
 For the 51V-R function, the voltage function will not prevent operation for system
loading conditions. The overcurrent function must be set above generator full
load current. IEEE C37.102 recommends the overcurrent function to be set 150
percent above full load current.
3.10.5. Example
Proper Coordination (From C37.102 Appendix A: Sample Calculations for Settings of
Generator Protection Functions)
3.10.5.1. Voltage Controlled Overcurrent Function (51V-C)

492 MVA
 I Rate = = 14,202 A, primary=3.945 A, secondary
20kV 3
 Current pickup = 50% of I Rate = (0.5) (3.945-A) = 1.97 A ==> Use 2.0 A tap
 Undervoltage function pickup Vs = 75% of V Rate = (0.75) (120 V) = 90 V
 Select a relay characteristic curve shape (Inverse, Very Inverse, etc.)
 Coordination must be attained for a fault on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer cleared in high speed time + breaker failure time. Time coordination
must also include the time overcurrent protection for all elements connected to the
generator high-side bus for which the 51V function will operate. All coordination
must include reasonable margin, for example 0.5 seconds.
3.10.5.2. Voltage-Restrained Overcurrent Function (51V-R)

 Current pickup = 150% of I Rate = (1.5) (3.945 A) (Note that at 25 percent
voltage restraint this function will pickup at 25 percent of 150 percent or 0.375 pu

on the machine base when using a voltage-restrained overcurrent function with a
characteristic as shown above)
 Select a relay characteristic curve shape (Inverse, Very Inverse, etc.)
 Coordination must be attained for a fault on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer cleared in high speed time + breaker failure time. Time coordination
must also include the time overcurrent protection for all elements connected to the
generator high-side bus for which the 51V function will operate. All coordination
must include reasonable margin, for example 0.5 seconds.

In the following example a 51V-R protection is applied on the generator shown in
Figure 3.10.4.
Figure 3.10.4 — System One-Line for Setting Example

Figure 3.10.5 depicts coordination between the 51V-R function and the Transmission
or Distribution Owner’s line overcurrent relays including margin for breaker failure
clearing time. The characteristic (e.g. definite, inverse, very inverse, etc.) chosen for
the time overcurrent function of the 51V is selected to coordinate with the
Transmission or Distribution Owner’s relays. The relay in this example is set to
provide 0.5 s coordination margin for a close-in fault. The 51V-R characteristic is
coordinated with the 51 line protection and the generator withstand curve.
The 51V-R characteristic is shown as a cross-hatched area representing the variability
in pick up for the time dial setting selected as a function of the restraining voltage.

The left boundary of the shaded region is the time-current curve associated with
voltage less than or equal to 25 percent; i.e. the fastest possible operating time which
must be coordinated with the line protection. The right boundary is the time-current
curve associated with full voltage restraint; i.e. the slowest possible operating time
which must be coordinated with the generator physical capability.
Generator Short Time

Thermal Capability
Curve
51V-R operating
curve with ≤ 25%
voltage (fastest 51V-R
operating time) range of 51V-R operating
operation curve with full
from 100 voltage (slowest
to 25 % operating time)
voltage
restraint
Phase OC on
Line - 51LINE 0.5 s or
more
margin
Fault Current
on Line
Current in Amperes
Figure 3.10.5 — Proper Coordination

An example of improper time current coordination is provided in Section 3.9.5.2 and
Figure 3.9.5.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Function 51V Protection Coordination Considerations

System Concerns
 51V not recommended when Transmission
Owner uses distance line protection
functions
 Short circuit studies for time coordination
 Total clearing time
 Review voltage setting for extreme system
51 loading conditions
51V — Voltage
67  51V controlled function has only limited
controlled / restrained
87B system backup protection capability
monitoring voltage and current performance
at the relay location in the stability program
and applying engineering judgment

in the above example(s).
Table 3 Excerpt — Function 51V Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Provide settings for pickup and time
Times to operate, including timers,
delay (may need to provide relay
of transmission system protection
manual for proper interpretation of None
the voltage controlled/restrained
function)

3.11. Overvoltage Protection (Function 59)
Overvoltage Protection
Overvoltage protection uses the measurement of generator terminal voltage. Section
4.5.6 of the IEEE Standard C37.102 -2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,”
describes the purpose of this protection as follows:
“Generator overvoltage may occur without necessarily exceeding the V/Hz limits
of the machine. In general, this is a problem associated with hydro generators,
where upon load rejection, the overspeed may exceed 200% of normal. Under
this condition on a V/Hz basis, the overexcitation may not be excessive but the
sustained voltage magnitude may be above permissible limits. Generator V/Hz
relays will not detect this overvoltage condition and hence a separate
overvoltage protection is required. In general, this is not a problem with steam
and gas turbine generators because of the rapid response of the speed-control
system and voltage regulators.
Protection for generator overvoltage is provided with a frequency-compensated

(or frequency-insensitive) overvoltage relay. The relay should have both an
instantaneous unit and a time delay unit with an inverse time characteristic. The
instantaneous unit is generally set to pick up at 130% to 150% voltage while the
inverse time unit is set to pick up at about 110% of normal voltage. Two definite
time delay relays can also be applied.”
Overvoltage protection is used for preventing an insulation breakdown from a sustained

overvoltage. The generator insulation system is capable of operating at 105 percent
overvoltage continuously.
A sustained overvoltage condition beyond 105 percent normally should not occur for a
generator with a healthy voltage regulator, but it may be caused by the following
contingencies; (1) defective automatic voltage regulator (AVR) operation, (2) manual
operation without the voltage regulator in-service, and (3) sudden load loss.

59
GSU
Insulation of Surge
Stator Arrester
Windings
Surge
Capacitor
Figure 3.11.1 — Overvoltage Relay with Surge Devices Shown Connected to the
Stator Windings
GSU
59
59
Figure 3.11.2 — Location of Overvoltage Relays Requiring Coordination

System
3.11.2.1. Faults
There are no coordination requirements with the transmission protective relays for
system faults given the high voltage setpoint and long delay; tens of seconds or

longer. Additionally, most system fault conditions would cause a reduction in
voltage.
Function 59 protection is mainly provided for the generator stator winding insulation.
Surge arrestors protect the stator from overvoltages caused by lightning, impulses and
inrush. See the settings example below.
If a long-time setting of 1.1 per unit nominal voltage with significant time delay (as
an example 10 seconds or longer) is used to trip, coordination with recoverable
extreme system events with overvoltage should be considered. This suggests that for
credible contingencies where overvoltage may occur, that shunt reactors near the
generator should be placed in service and/or that capacitor banks near the generator
should be removed from service prior to the 10 second trip limit on the generator.

When the generator voltage regulator keeps the generator terminal voltage within 105
percent of nominal, there is not any system coordination issue. However, the Planning
Coordinator needs to understand the performance of both the voltage regulator and the 59
overvoltage function settings to study extended-time, overvoltage system conditions.

 Two types of relays (or functions) are commonly used on a generator protection;
one is an instantaneous (function 59I) and the other is a time delay (function 59T)
relay or function.
 “Generators shall operate successfully at rated kilovolts-amperes (kVA),

frequency, and power factor at any voltage not more than five percent above or
below rated voltage…” (By Clauses 4.1.5 of IEEE C50.12 and 4.1.7 of IEEE
C50.13-2005).
 “Generators shall be thermally capable of continuous operation within the

confines of their reactive capability curves over the ranges of ±5% in voltage and

±2% in frequency. Clauses 4.15 of IEEE Std C50.12 and 4.1.7 of IEEE Std
C50.13-2005.
3.11.5. Example
The following is an example of setting the 59T and 59I function time delays.
Step 1 — VNominal = (20,000V) (120/20,000) = 120V
Step 2 — 59T =105% of 110% of VNominal =1.05x 1.10 x 120V =139V (1.155 pu),
with a time delay of 10 seconds or longer.
Step 3 — 59I =105% of 130% of =1.05 x 1.30 x 120V =184V (=1.365 pu)
Figure 3.11.3 is a typical load rejection response curve of a voltage regulator for an
example of a hydro turbine generator. The regulator causes the generator to operate
back near nominal voltage in about two seconds, well before any action by the
overvoltage protection.
Figure 3.11.3 — Typical Example Load Rejection Data for Voltage Regulator
Response Time

Coordination
System Concerns
59 — Overvoltage 59 (when applicable)

Relay settings: setting and
characteristics, including time delay Pickup and time delay information
setting or inverse time of each 59 function applied for None
characteristic, at the generator system protection
terminals

3.12. Stator Ground Protection (Function
59GN/27TH)
3.12.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 59GN/27TH —
Stator Ground Relay
Stator ground fault protection uses a measurement of zero sequence generator neutral
voltage to detect generator system ground faults. Section 4.3.3 of IEEE Standard
C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this
protection as follows:
“Protective schemes that are designed to detect three-phase and phase-to-phase stator
faults are not intended to provide protection for phase-to-ground faults in the generator
zone. The degree of ground fault protection provided by these schemes is directly related
to how the generator is grounded and, therefore, to the magnitude of the ground fault
current available. The maximum phase-to-ground fault current available at the
generator terminals may vary from three-phase fault current levels or higher to almost
zero. In addition, the magnitude of stator ground fault current decreases almost linearly
as the fault location moves from the stator terminals toward the neutral of the generator.
For a ground fault near the neutral of a wye-connected generator, the available phase-
to-ground fault current becomes small regardless of the grounding method.
As noted in the preceding sub-clause, differential relaying will not provide ground fault
protection on high impedance-grounded machines where primary fault current levels are
limited to 3 A to 25 A. Differential relaying schemes may detect some stator phase-to-
ground faults depending upon how the generator is grounded. Figure 4-18 illustrates the
approximate relationship between available ground fault current and the percent of the
stator winding protected by a current-differential scheme. When the ground fault current
level is limited below generator rated load current, a large portion of the generator may
be unprotected.”
“Generator faults are always considered to be serious since they may cause severe and
costly damage to insulation, windings, and the core; they may also produce severe
mechanical torsional shock to shafts and couplings. Moreover, fault currents in a
generator do not cease to flow when the generator is tripped from the system and the
field disconnected. Fault current may continue to flow for many seconds because of
trapped flux within the machine, thereby increasing the amount of fault damage.”
“High-impedance grounding is standard for unit generators and is used in industrial

systems. The discussion here centers on the common high-resistance grounding, where
the fault current is limited to about 3 A to 25 A primary. This limit iron burning in the
generator, to avoid very costly repairs.”
The stator ground function 59GN is intended to detect a ground fault on the stator
windings of a generator connected to a delta-connected winding on the generator step-up
transformer.

Figure 3.12.1 — Stator Ground Protection

System
3.12.2.1. Faults
Step 1 — Transmission Owner determines worst case clearing time for close-in
phase-to-phase-to-ground or phase-to-ground faults on the system with breaker
failure and total clearing times accounted for.
Step 2 — Generator Owner must ensure that the timer on the 59GN is longer than
worst case provided above by the Transmission Owner with appropriate margin.
The performance of these functions, during fault conditions, must be coordinated with
the system fault protection to assure that the overall sensitivity and timing of the
relaying results in tripping of the proper system elements. Proper time delay is used
such that protection does not trip due to inter-winding capacitance issues or
instrument secondary grounds.
There are no loadability issues with this protection function.

As stated in the purpose of this section, the 59GN function is intended to detect a ground
fault (phase-to-phase-to-ground or phase-to-ground) on the stator windings of a generator
connected to a delta-connected winding on the generator step-up transformer.

3.12.4. Coordination Procedure and Considerations
Time delay settings for the 59GN/27TH function must be coordinated with the worst case
clearing time for phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase-to-ground close-in faults, including
the breaker failure time. This is done to avoid tripping this function for system ground or
unbalanced faults.
3.12.5. Example
Examples are not necessary for function 59GN/27TH because coordination is
accomplished with time delay of 5 seconds or greater on the 59GN/27TH function.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 59GN / 27TH Protection Coordination Considerations
System Concerns
 Ensure that proper time delay is used such
that protection does not trip due to inter‐
59GN/27TH — winding capacitance issues or instrument
21N
Generator Stator secondary grounds
51N
Ground  Ensure that there is sufficient time delay to
ride through the longest clearing time of the
transmission line protection

Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 59GN / 27TH Data to be Exchanged Between Entities
Provide worst case clearing time for
Provide time delay setting of the phase‐to‐ground or phase‐to‐
None
59GN/27TH phase‐to‐ground close‐in faults,
including the breaker failure time.

3.13. Out-of-Step or Loss-of-Synchronism
Protection (Function 78)
3.13.1. Purpose of the Generator Function 78 — Loss of
Synchronism Protection
Application of out-of-step protection is not
The application of an out-of- normally required by the Planning
step protective function to Coordinator unless stability studies, described
protect the turbine-generator in this section, determine that the protection
should be based on a specific function is necessary for the generator. The
need determined by detailed Planning Coordinator must also determine if
stability studies and analysis. there is a need for transmission line out-of-
step blocking/tripping related to the
generator, and if applied, that function must also be coordinated with the Transmission Owner
Our-of-step protection 78 uses a measure of apparent impedance derived from the quotient of
generator terminal voltage divided by generator stator current. Section 4.5.3.1 of the IEEE
Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this
“The protection normally applied in the generator zone, such as
differential relaying, time-delay system backup, etc., will not detect loss of
synchronism. The loss-of-excitation relay may provide some degree of
protection but cannot be relied on to detect generator loss of synchronism
under all system conditions. Therefore, if during a loss of synchronism the
electrical center is located in the region from the high-voltage terminals of
the GSU transformer down into the generator; separate out-of-step
relaying should be provided to protect the machine. This is generally
required for larger machines that are connected to EHV systems.
On large machines the swing travels through either the generator or the
main transformer. This protection may also be required even if the
electrical center is out in the system and the system relaying is slow or
cannot detect a loss of synchronism. Transmission line pilot-wire
relaying, current-differential relaying, or phase comparison relaying will
not detect a loss of synchronism. For generators connected to lower
voltage systems, overcurrent relaying may not be sensitive enough to
operate on loss of synchronism.”

A B C
Figure 3.13.1 — Loci of Swing by Eg/Es

Figures 3.13.1A and 3.13.1B illustrate a simple representation of two (2) systems, Es (the
power system) and Eg (a generator), connected through a generator step-up transformer.
Figure 3.13.1C shows typical power swing loci which are dependent on the ratio of Eg /
Es. When Eg is less than Es, which may occur when the generator is underexcited, the
power swing loci will appear electrically “closer” to the generator than the power system.
Due to the variability of the apparent impedance trajectory it is desirable to base out-of-
step protection settings on transient stability simulations.
The point at which the apparent impedance swing crosses the impedance line between the
generator and the system is referred to as the electrical center of the swing and represents
the point at which zero voltage occurs when the generator and the system are 180 degrees
out-of-phase. During pole slipping the voltage magnitude between the generator and the
system reaches two per unit when the angle difference reaches 180 degrees, which can
result in high currents that cause mechanical forces in the generator stator windings and
undesired transient shaft torques. It is possible for the resulting torques to be of sufficient
magnitude to cause the shaft to snap or damage turbine blades.
Figure 3.13.2 shows relay CT and VT connections for the out-of-step function.
An out-of-step condition can also cause excessive overheating and shorting at the ends of
the stator core. Out-of-step (pole-slip) operation can cause damaging transient forces in
the windings of the generator step-up transformer as well.

System
G
GSU
78
Figure 3.13.2 — Generator Out-of-Step Relay Connection

System
3.13.2.1. Faults
There are no coordination issues for system faults for this function, although the
apparent impedance swings for which out-of-step protection must be coordinated
often occur as the result of system faults.

 A generator may pole-slip (out-of-step or loss-of-synchronism) or fall out-of-
synchronism with the power system for a number of reasons. The primary causes
are: prolonged clearance of a low-impedance fault on the power system, generator
operation at a high load angle close to its stability limit, or partial or complete loss
of excitation.
 To properly apply this protection function stability studies must be performed

involving extensive coordination between the Planning Coordinator, Transmission
Owner, and Generator Owner. The stability studies, which usually are conducted
by the Planning Coordinator, evaluate a wide variety of system contingency
conditions. Out-of-step protection should not be applied unless stability studies
indicate that it is needed and should be applied in accordance with the results of

those studies. The protection function application must be reviewed as system
conditions change.
 Studies must be used to verify that the out-of-step protection operates only for
unstable conditions and that it does not operate for load conditions or stable swing
conditions. The critical conditions for setting the function are the marginal
condition representing the unstable swing that is closest to a stable condition and
the fastest swing typically resulting from the most severe system condition.
 Typically the out-of-step settings are developed by calculating initial settings for
blinders, time delay, etc. using a graphical approach. The settings are then refined
as necessary based on transient stability simulations to ensure dependable tripping
for unstable swings and secure operation for stable swings. This process requires
an exchange of information between the Transmission Owner, the Generator
Owners, and the Planning Coordinator.

Stability studies must be performed to validate that the out-of-step protection will provide
dependable operation for unstable swings and will not trip for stable system conditions
and stable swings.

The out-of-step protection characteristic using a single blinder scheme is shown in figure
3.13.3.
The mho supervisory characteristic restricts the operation area to swings that pass
through or near the generator and its step-up transformer. Faults that occur between
blinders A and B will cause both characteristics to pick up; thus, no tripping will be
initiated. For operation of the blinder scheme there must be a time differential between
operation of the two blinders such that the swing originates outside the mho characteristic
and progresses from one blinder to the other over a period of a few cycles.
The settings of the 78 function can be carried out with the procedure presented here.
Figure 3.13.3 helps to illustrate the impedance settings.

X
D
A B
SYSTEM
X maxSG1
O
1.5 X TG
TRANS

XTG
P
R
O
M
Swing Locus
GEN
X´d MHO
2X´d ELEMENT
d
A B
ELEMENT ELEMENT
PICK-UP PICK-UP
C
BLINDER
ELEMENTS
Figure 3.13.3 — Out-of-Step Protection Characteristic

Using a Single Blinder Scheme
1. Model the overall system and carry out transient stability simulations for
representative operating conditions. The modeling of the generators should include
the voltage regulator, generator governor, and power system stabilizer (PSS), if in
service.
2. Determine values of generator transient reactance (X’d), unit transformer reactance
(XTG) and system impedance under maximum generation (XmaxSG1).
3. Set the mho unit to limit the reach to 1.5 times the transformer impedance in the
system direction. In the generator direction the reach is typically set at twice
generator transient reactance. Therefore the diameter of the mho characteristic is
2 X’d + 1.5 XTG.
4. Determine the critical angle δ between the generator and the system by means of
transient stability simulations. This is the angle corresponding to fault clearing just
greater than the critical clearing time.
5. Determine the blinder distance d, which is calculated with the following expression:
  X ´  X TG  X max SG1  
d    d  x tan (90   / 2) 

 2 
  

6. Determine the time for the impedance trajectory to travel from the position
corresponding to the critical angle δ to that corresponding to 180°. This time is
obtained from the rotor angle versus time curve which is generated by the transient
stability study for the transmission fault when the system experiences the first slip.
7. The time delay of the 78 function should be set equal to the value obtained from the
transient stability study in step 6. This value is equal to half the time for the apparent
impedance to travel between the two blinders and provides adequate margin to permit
tripping for faster swings, while providing security against operation for fault
conditions.
A setting example is provided in section 3.13.5.1.1 which provides a step-by-step
procedure. A stability study example is provided in Appendix F which illustrates the
process for refining the time delay setting and critical angle δ from the calculated initial
settings developed using a graphical approach.
3.13.4.1.1. Generators Connected to a Single Transmission
Line
For a generator directly connected to a transmission line a determination is made
whether existing clearing times on the adjacent transmission lines are adequate to
assure stability of the generation. In some cases, relaying (for example, an
existing stepped distance scheme) may have to be replaced with a
communication-assisted scheme to improve the clearing speed and to assure
stability. Faults and clearing times on the line to which the generator is connected
are of no consequence in terms of impacting the stability of the generator, because
for a fault on the transmission line the generation will be disconnected from the
system.
3.13.4.1.2. Check List

 The direct axis transient reactance (Xd’) used in the setting calculation should
be on the generator base.
 The generator step-up transformer reactance (Xt) used in the setting

calculation should be on the generator base.
 The reverse reach (toward the system) should be greater than the generator
step-up transformer reactance (Xt).

 A proper angular separation δ between the generator and the system should be
used to set the blinders (as determined by a transient stability study).
 A power system stability study should be performed for the relay time delay
setting.
3.13.5. Examples
Several types of out-of-step algorithms and relay characteristics exist and details for
developing settings are specific to the particular relay used. The following example
illustrates the setting details associated with one particular relay type and provides an
overview of the process used to ensure proper coordination.
3.13.5.1.1. Example of Calculation for Mho Element and Blinder

Settings
The following data is used to illustrate the setting calculations for out of step (78)
function:
Generator
492 MVA (MVAG), 20 kV, 14202 A, 0.77 pf
Direct axis transient reactance ( X d' ) = 0.20577 pu
VT ratio = 20000/120 = 166.67 and CT ratio = 18000/5 = 3600

Unit transformer
425 MVA (MVAT), 145 kV/19 kV, Y-ground/Δ
Leakage reactance X T = 0.1111pu on 425 MVA base.
Power system
Positive sequence impedance during maximum generation on 100 MVA (MVAS)
and 138kV base:
Z max S1 = 0.000511+j0.010033 pu
To calculate the setting we will convert all data to the generator base.

The generator step-up transformer reactance on the generator base is given by:
MVAG kVT2
X TG = X T = 0.11607 pu
MVAT kVG2
Since the system base voltage is different from the transformer base voltage, it is
necessary to first convert the system impedance values to the transformer base
and then to the generator base. The resulting calculated system impedance is:
Z max SG1 = 0.002055+j0.040352pu

The setting calculations will be simplified if the voltage, current and impedances
are converted to relay quantities (CT and VT secondary) as follows:
The generator VT primary base voltage line-to-ground is:
20,000 / √3 = 11547 V.
The base voltage for the relay (or generator VT secondary) is:
VLN _ B _ relay : = VT primary voltage/VT ratio = 11547/166.6 = 69.28 V.
The generator CT primary line base current is 14202.8 A. Thus, the base current
for the relay (or CT secondary) is given by:
I B _ relay
= CT primary current/CT ratio = 14202.8/3600 = 3.945 A.
The base impedance based on the relay secondary quantities is given by:
V LN _ B _ relay
Z B _ relay = = 69.28 V/3.95 A = 17.56 Ω
I B _ relay
Converting all reactances to CT and VT secondary quantities gives:
X d' = 0.20577 x 17.56 Ω = 3.613 Ω = 0.11607 x 17.56 Ω = 2.04 Ω
X max SG1 = 0.04035 x 17.56 Ω = 0.7086 Ω
The impedance angle of the mho unit, β = 90˚
The blinder distance (d) = (( X d' + X TG + X max SG1 )/2) x tan (90-(δ/2)),
where δ is the angular separation between the generator and the system at which
the relay determines instability. If a stability study is not available, this angle is
typically set at 120˚.

If we use the critical angle obtained in Appendix F, δ = 140°, then the blinder
distance d = 1.16 Ω
The diameter of the mho unit is (2 x X d' + 1.5 x X TG ) = 10.3 Ω and the
impedance angle of the mho unit is 90˚. The resulting out of step relay
characteristic is shown in Figure 3.13.5.
The time delay for the out of step function based on the simulation results in
Appendix F can be set as 250 msec.
D
A B
System
XmaxSG1
1.5 XTG =3.1 

Transformer
XTG
P

R
O
M
Swing Locus
Generator
(X'd )
Mho
Element
2 X d' =7.2  C
1.16 
(d)
Blinder
Elements
Figure 3.13.5 — Out of step relay settings

3.13.5.1.2. Example of Verifying Proper Coordination
 These initial settings are modeled in transient stability simulations to verify
secure operation for stable swings and dependable operation for unstable
swings.

 The limiting transmission fault identified by the Planning Coordinator should
be simulated with the fault clearing equal to the critical clearing time to ensure
secure operation. The swing for this fault represents the furthest the apparent
impedance should swing toward the out-of-step relay characteristic.
 The limiting transmission fault identified by the Planning Coordinator should

be simulated with the fault clearing just greater than the critical clearing time
to ensure dependable operation. The swing for this fault represents the
slowest unstable swing.
 The most severe transmission fault should be simulated to verify dependable

operation. The swing for this fault represents the fastest unstable swing which
must be differentiated from a change in apparent impedance associated with
application of a fault.
 The timing of the trip output from the relay should be verified for the unstable
swings to ensure that the circuit breaker is not opened when the generator is
180 degrees out-of-phase with the transmission system.
If the above simulations do not result in both secure and dependable operation the
relay characteristic and trip timer settings should be adjusted to obtain the desired
operation. The simulations listed above represent a minimal set of simulations.
The degree of confidence in the relay settings is improved by running more
simulations which may be based on other contingencies and sensitivity to
parameters such as fault type, fault impedance, system load level, and pre-fault
generator loading.

 Marginally Stable Swing
   Marginally Unstable Swing
 Worst Case (Fastest) Unstable Swing
Notes: Time between markers (◄) is 100 ms
Scale is apparent impedance
in secondary ohms
Figure 3.13.6 — Sample Apparent Impedance Swings

Sample apparent impedance swings are presented in Figure 3.13.6 for a dual lens
characteristic out-of-step function. In this figure the time interval between markers is
100 ms (6 cycles) such that the faster swings have greater distance between markers.
The three traces represent marginally stable and unstable swings for fault clearing at
and just beyond the critical clearing time, and a trace for the worst credible
contingency representing the fastest unstable swing.
3.13.5.2. Power Swing Detection

In order to detect a power swing, the rate of change of the impedance vector is used.
The rate-of-change may be calculated directly or determined indirectly by measuring

the time it takes the apparent impedance to pass between two blinders. Power swings
are distinguished by the following characteristics:
 Stable swings have slow oscillations where the angles between two voltage
sources vary, usually less than 1 Hz, with 0.5 Hz to 0.8 Hz being common
(greater than 1-s period of oscillation)
 Unstable swings typically result in minimal oscillations and a monotonic increase

in the angle until the voltage collapses at the electrical center of the swing and the
relay operates
 Many power swings are caused by short circuits, auto-reclosures, line switching,
and large changes in load(s)
A swing causes voltage phase shift between the system (Es) and generator voltage
(Eg) as defined previously in Figure 3.13.6. Consequences of the swing include
variation in system frequency, voltage, and power flow. Heavy load transfers in a
power network can contribute to portions of the system losing stability.
X
Restrain Operate Operate Restrain
B
C
BLINDER BLINDER
Figure 3.13.7 — “Mho”-Type Out-Of-Step Detector with a Single Blinder
Notes on Figure 3.13.7:

A — Z moves into OS zone and leaves slowly-Stable Swing
B — Z moves into OS and Trip zone and leaves slowly – Stable Swing
C — Z moves across the OS and trip zone and the generator slips a pole – Unstable
Swing
Figure 3.13.7 shows three different types of swing characteristics for the apparent
impedance measured at the terminals of the generator.

If the load impedance vector enters and remains within a distance function protection
zone, tripping may occur. Tripping during the power swing may be inhibited by the
so-called power swing blocking function (or a blinder).
During a power swing, the impedance vector exhibits a steady progression rather than
rapid change that might indicate a fault. By measurement of rate-of-change of
impedance and comparison with thresholds it is possible to distinguish between short-
circuits and power swings.
When the criteria for power swing detection are not met and when out-of-step
tripping is selected, a mho characteristic zone of the function is blocked temporarily,
in order to prevent premature tripping. When impedance vector “Z” leaves the power
swing area, the vector is checked by its “R” component. If the “R” component still
has the same sign as at the point of entry, the power swing is in the process of
stabilizing. Otherwise, the vector has passed through the Mho characteristic (trace
“C” in Figure 3.13.7) indicating loss-of-synchronism (or slipping poles).
Stability studies should be performed for the specific application of the generator out-
of-step protection to validate that it will not trip for stable swings described above.

Coordination
System Concerns
 System studies are required
21 (including coordination  Settings should be used for planning and
of OOS blocking and system studies either through explicit
78 — Out‐of‐Step modeling of the function, or through
tripping)
78 (if applicable)

in the above example(s).

generator out‐of‐step protection

Relay settings, time delays and Provide relay settings, time delays
transmission line out‐of‐step
characteristics for out‐of‐step and characteristics for the out‐of‐
tripping/blocking related to the
tripping and blocking step tripping and blocking if used
generator
Feedback on coordination problems

found in stability studies.

3.14. Overfrequency and Underfrequency
Protection (Function 81)
Overfrequency and Underfrequency Protection
Overfrequency and underfrequency protection uses the measurement of voltage
frequency to detect overfrequency and underfrequency conditions. Section 4.5.8 of IEEE
Standard C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of
this protection as follows:
“The operation of generators at abnormal frequencies (either
overfrequency or underfrequency) can result from load rejection or
mismatch between system loading and generation. Full- or partial-load
rejection may be caused by clearing of system faults or by over-shedding
of load during a major system disturbance. Load rejection will cause the
generator to overspeed and operate at some frequency above normal. In
general, the overfrequency condition does not pose serious problems since
operator and/or control action may be used to quickly restore generator
speed and frequency to normal without the need for tripping the
generator.
Mismatch between load and generation may be caused by a variety of

system disturbances and/or operating conditions. However, of primary
concern is the system disturbance caused by a major loss of generation
that produces system separation and severe overloading on the remaining
system generators. Under this condition, the system frequency will decay
and the generators may be subjected to prolonged operation at reduced
frequency. While load shedding schemes are designed to arrest the
frequency decay and to restore frequency to normal during such
disturbances, it is possible that under-shedding of load may occur. This
may cause an extremely slow return of frequency to normal or the
bottoming out of system frequency at some level below normal. In either
case, there exists the possibility of operation at reduced frequency for
sufficient time to damage steam or gas turbine generators. In general,
underfrequency operation of a turbine generator is more critical than
overfrequency operation since the operator does not have the option of
control action.”
Overfrequency and underfrequency conditions occur as a result of a mismatch between

load and generation. Typical levels of overfrequency and underfrequency resulting from
tripping of generation or load, or sudden increases in load, do not pose a threat to

equipment and are corrected through Automatic Generation Control (AGC) or operator
action. Serious abnormal underfrequency and overfrequency conditions may occur as a
result of conditions on the power system that result in a significant mismatch between
load and generation. The amount by which frequency deviates from nominal is a
function of the percentage mismatch, thus, the most significant frequency deviations
typically occur when a portion of the system becomes isolated from the rest of the
interconnection.
The governor controlling the prime mover normally limits overfrequency conditions
below the operating thresholds of the generator frequency protection. The governor may
also be capable of limiting underfrequency conditions depending on the operating mode
and pre-disturbance output level of the generator. The overfrequency and
underfrequency protective functions primarily provide protection for the prime mover
(turbine, etc.) rather than electrical protection for the generator itself. It is important to
note when applying these protective functions that damage due to off-nominal frequency
operation tends to be cumulative.
Steam turbine blades are designed and tuned for efficient operation at rated frequency of
rotation. Operation with load at different frequencies can result in blade resonance and
fatigue damage in the long blades in the turbine low-pressure unit. Transiently passing
through a low frequency is not a problem; it is when a low frequency is sustained at a
particular point that there could be a problem for a given turbine.
Figure 3.14.1 — Typical Location of Generator Frequency Relays and Load

Shedding Relays Requiring Coordination

System
3.14.2.1. Faults

Coordination between generating plant overfrequency and underfrequency protection
and the transmission system is necessary for off-nominal frequency events during
which system frequency declines low enough to initiate operation of the
underfrequency load shedding (UFLS) program. In most interconnections frequency
can decline low enough to initiate UFLS operation only during an island condition.
However, adequate frequency decline may occur to initiate UFLS operation as a
result of tripping generators or tie lines on smaller interconnections or on weakly
connected portions of interconnections.
Coordination is necessary to ensure that the UFLS program can operate to restore a
balance between generation and load to recover and stabilize frequency at a
sustainable operating condition. Without coordination, generation may trip by
operation of underfrequency protection to exacerbate the unbalance between load and
generation resulting in tripping of more load than necessary, or in the worst case,
resulting in system collapse if the resulting imbalance exceeds the design basis of the
UFLS program. Coordination also is necessary to ensure that overfrequency
protection does not operate if frequency temporarily overshoots 60 Hz subsequent to
UFLS operation and prior to frequency stabilizing at a sustainable operating
condition. It is important to note that the coordination is not a relay-to-relay
coordination in the traditional sense; rather it is coordination between the generator
prime mover capabilities, the overfrequency and underfrequency protection, and the
UFLS program and transmission system design.
A UFLS program that is designed properly and operates for a condition within its
design parameters (typically for a generation deficiency of up to 25 – 30 percent of
load) will recover frequency to nearly 60 Hz. For conditions that exceed the design

parameters of the UFLS program, or for cases in which the amount of load shed is
nearly equal to the initial generation deficiency, it is possible that frequency recovery
will ‘stall’ and settle at a lower than normal frequency. If it is necessary to apply
underfrequency protection, turbine limits that account for both frequency and time at
frequency, must be obtained from the turbine manufacturer in order to properly set
protection functions. The UFLS program always should be allowed to take action
well before tripping a generating unit for turbine protection. If this is not possible,
most regions require accounting for unit tripping in UFLS design assessments and
require UFLS program modifications such as arming additional "compensating" load
shedding equal to the capacity of the unit.

Turbine limits must be obtained from the turbine manufacturer in order to properly set the
overfrequency and underfrequency protection functions. The limits typically are
expressed as the cumulative amount of time that the turbine can operate at off-nominal
frequencies. IEEE Standard C50.13 (IEEE Std for Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous
Generators Rated 10 MVA and Above) requires that generators shall be thermally
capable of continuous operation within the confines of their reactive capability curves
over the ranges of ±5% in voltage and ±2% in frequency, as defined by the shaded area of
Figure 3.14.2 (Figure 1 in C50.13).
Figure 3.14.2 — Generator Operation Ranges

Details for setting the protection functions are provided in Section 4.58 and Figure 4.48
of IEEE Standard C37.102-2006 (Guide for AC Generator Protection). Generator off-
nominal frequency protection should be coordinated with the governor settings to ensure
that the protection does not trip the unit for a condition from which the governor could
restore the unit to an acceptable operating condition.

In order to provide reliable, coordinated protection the overfrequency and
underfrequency protection functions must have adequate pickup setting range (usually
55-65 Hz) and adequate time delay to coordinate with the UFLS program. It also is
important to have adequate operating range in terms of system frequency for the
protection. Most relays are designed to operate in a range of 40 – 70 Hz which is
adequate. It is important to understand the protection function limitations as some relays
are blocked automatically if the system frequency or voltage is outside the range of relay
specifications, while other relays remain in-service but are subject to misoperations.
Proper load shedding on the power system is crucial to minimizing the impacts of
underfrequency and overfrequency issues on steam and gas turbine generators. Reduced
frequency operation may cause thermal damage and turbine blade resonance and fatigue
in the long blades in the turbine low-pressure steam or gas turbine generators.
The generator underfrequency protection settings must be recognized in the development
or evaluation of any UFLS system. Underfrequency tripping of generators should not
occur before completion of the underfrequency load shedding, as defined by regional
requirements. Properly planned UFLS programs, validated by system studies, are critical
to the reliability of the transmission system. Selection of generation underfrequency
performance specifications and protection settings for new generators should be matched
to the existing regional UFLS programs. Further details are provided in IEEE Standard
C37.106 (Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection for Power Generating Plants).

Step 1 — Planning Coordinator provides the regional underfrequency load shedding and
generator off-nominal frequency protection setting criteria.
Step 2 — Generator Owner obtains equipment limits from the manufacturer.
Step 3 — Generator Owner and Planning Coordinator verify that the generator off-
nominal frequency protection is set to coordinate with the regional UFLS program design
and generator off-nominal frequency protection setting criteria.
Step 4 — If coordination cannot be achieved without compromising protection of the
generating unit, the Planning Coordinator performs studies to assess the impact on the
UFLS program design and identify modifications, if necessary, to accommodate the
generator protection setting while ensuring the UFLS program continues to meet its
design objectives.

3.14.4.1. Setting Validation for Coordination
Step 1 — Plot the generator and turbine capabilities on a graph of frequency versus
time similar to the graph shown in Figure 3.14.3.
Step 2 — Plot the applicable NERC and regional requirements for setting
overfrequency and underfrequency protection on generating units on the same graph.
These requirements are coordinated with the UFLS program design and provide some
margin between the performance characteristics to which the regional UFLS program
is designed and the frequency-time requirements for setting generator protection.
Note that the generator protection is not coordinated directly with the UFLS relay
settings because subsequent to the UFLS program operating to shed load, a time delay
will exist before frequency decline is arrested and recovery begins. This time delay,
as well as the rate at which frequency recovers, is a function of the physical
characteristics of the system including types of load, generating unit inertia, and
governing response.
Step 3 — Plot the protection settings on the same graph. Note that for some plant
designs, critical station service load may be supplied from a motor-generator (M-G)
set. When an overfrequency or underfrequency protection is located on the load side
of the M-G set, the protection function trip setting must be adjusted to account for any
frequency difference between the system and the load.
Step 4 — Verify whether the protection function settings coordinate with the
generator and turbine capability and the regional requirements. If coordination
cannot be achieved, set the protection based on the generator and turbine capability
and follow the applicable processes to report the relay setting so the generator
protection can be modeled by the Planning Coordinator in system studies.
3.14.5. Example
The following Figure 3.14.3 illustrates an example of how generator protection
settings are coordinated with the turbine capability and the underfrequency protection
setting limits for generating units. In this example the protection setting must be set
above the green curve which defines the turbine capability provided by the
manufacturer and on or below the red curve that defines the applicable generator
underfrequency protection setting limits. In this example the protection is set with an

instantaneous trip threshold at 57.7 Hz and a time delayed threshold setting at 58.5 Hz
with a definite time delay of 60 seconds. Both settings coordinate in this example.
60
59.5
59
Frequency (Hz)
58.5
58
57.5
57
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time (sec)
Generator Capability Generator UF Protection Limit Generator Protection Setting-Inst Generator Protection Setting-TD
Figure 3.14.3 — Generator Underfrequency Protection Coordination Example

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 81U / 81O Protection Coordination Considerations
System Concerns
 Coordination with system UFLS setpoints
and time delay (typically achieved through
compliance with regional frequency
standards for generators)
81U  Meet underfrequency overfrequency
81O requirements
81U – Underfrequency  Auto‐restart of distributed generation such
Note: UFLS design is as wind generation during overfrequency
81O — Overfrequency generally the responsibility conditions
of the Planning  Settings should be used for planning and
Coordinator system studies either through explicit
monitoring frequency performance at the
relay location in the stability program and

in the above example(s). Whenever a miscoordination between the underfrequency
setting of a generator and the UFLS program cannot be resolved, the UFLS program may
have to be redesigned to compensate for the loss of that generation in order to be fully
coordinated.
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 81U / 81O Data to be Exchanged Between Entities

Feedback on problems found
Relay settings and time delays None between underfrequency settings
and UFLS programs

3.15. Generator Differential (Function 87G),
Transformer Differential (Function 87T), and
Overall Differential (Function 87U) Protection
3.15.1. Purpose
3.15.1.1. Function 87G — Generator Differential Protection
Generator differential protection (function 87G) is used for phase-fault protection of
generator stator windings. Differential relaying will detect three-phase faults, phase-
to-phase faults, phase-to-phase-to-ground faults and some phase-to-ground faults
depending upon how the generator is grounded. Section 4.3 of IEEE Standard
C37.102-2006, “Guide for AC Generator Protection,” describes the purpose of this
“Some form of high-speed differential relaying is generally used for phase fault
protection of generator stator windings. Differential relaying will detect three-
phase faults, phase-to-phase faults, double-phase-to-ground faults, and some
single-phase-to-ground faults, depending upon how the generator is grounded.
Differential relaying will not detect turn-to-turn faults in the same phase since
there is no difference in the current entering and leaving the phase winding.
Where applicable, separate turn fault protection may be provided with the split-
phase relaying scheme. This scheme will be discussed subsequently. Differential
relaying will not detect stator ground faults on high-impedance grounded
generators. The high impedance normally limits the fault current to levels
considerably below the practical sensitivity of the differential relaying. Three
types of high-speed differential relays are used for stator phase fault detection:
percentage differential, high-impedance differential, and self-balancing
differential.”
3.15.1.2. Function 87T — Transformer Differential Protection

Transformer differential protection (function 87T) is used solely for protection of the
generator step-up transformer.
3.15.1.3. Function 87U — Overall Differential Protection

Overall differential protection usually is applied on the unit generator-transformer
arrangement with or without a low voltage generator unit breaker as shown in the

figures 3.15.1 and 3.15.2. The advantage of this scheme is to provide redundant
generator and generator step-up transformer differential protection.
Figure 3.15.1 — Overall Differential, Transformer Differential , and Generator

Differential Relays without Unit Circuit Breaker
87U
87T
GSU
87G
Figure 3.15.2 — Overall Differential, Transformer Differential, and Generator

Differential Relays with Unit Circuit Breaker

System
3.15.2.1. Faults
There are no fault considerations for this protective function.
There are no loadability issues with this protection function.

The Transmission Owner and Generator Owner should verify proper overlap of
differential zones.
3.15.4. Coordination Procedure and Considerations

The setting procedure for the 87G generator differential protection is discussed in
C37.102 – 2006, section 4.3, Stator Fault Protection. The 87U overall unit differential
protection is discussed in C37.91 – 2008, “IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Application
to Power Transformers,” Section 14.1. The 87T generator step-up transformer
differential protection is discussed in C37.91 – 2008, “IEEE Guide for Protective Relay
Application to Power Transformers,” Appendix C.1.
3.15.5. Example
No coordination required.

No coordination required.

Coordination
Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 87T / 87G / 87U Protection Coordination Data Exchange
Requirements
System Concerns
87G — Generator None
Differential
Proper overlap of the overall differential zone

87T — Transformer None
and bus differential zone, etc., should be
Differential
verified.
87U — Overall None

Differential

No Coordination Required
Table 3 Excerpt — Functions 87T / 87G / 87U Data to be Exchanged Between Entities
Function 87G — Generator
Differential None None
Function 87T — Transformer

Differential None None
Function 87U — Overall Differential None None

Appendix A — References
1. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, page 1650-1662, Vol. 19, No. 4, October
2004
2. IEEE Std 421.1-2007 IEEE Standard Definitions for Excitation Systems
3. IEEE Std 421.5-2006 IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models
4. IEEE Std C50.12-2005 IEEE Std for Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator/Motors for
Hydraulic Turbine Applications Rated 5 MVA and Above
5. IEEE Std C50.13-2005 IEEE Std for Cylindrical-Rotor Synchronous Generators
Rated 10 MVA and Above
6. IEEE Std 67-2005 IEEE Guide for Operation and Maintenance of Turbine Generators
7. IEEE C37.102-2006 IEEE Guide for AC Generator Protection
8. IEEE C37.106-2003 IEEE Guide for Abnormal Frequency Protection for Power
Generating Plants
9. IEEE C37.96-2000 IEEE Guide for AC Motor Protection
10. Coordination of Generator Protection with Generator Excitation Control and
Generator Capability, IEEE/PSRC WG J-5 Paper/ Power Engineering Society
General Meeting, 2007. IEEE, Publication Date: 24-28 June 2007, On page(s): 1-17,
Location: Tampa, FL, USA, ISSN: 1932-5517, ISBN: 1-4244-1298-6, Digital Object
Identifier: 10.1109 /PES.2007.386034, Posted online: 2007-07-23 09:42:51.0
11. Performance of Generator Protection during Major System Disturbances, IEEE
Paper No. TPWRD-00370-2003, Working Group J6 of the Rotating Machinery
Protection Subcommittee, Power System Relaying Committee, 2003.
12. Final Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the United States and Canada:
Causes and Recommendations, U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force, April
2004.
13. August 14, 2003 Blackout: NERC Actions to Prevent and Mitigate the Impacts of
Future Cascading Blackouts, approved by the NERC Board of Trustees, February 10,
2003
14. Network Protection & Automation, by ALSTOM T&D Energy Automation &
Information, first edition, July 2002
15. Protective Relaying – Principles and Applications, by J. Lewis Blackburn and
Thomas J Domin, third edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2007
16. The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, by General Electric Company, C.
Russell Mason, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London,
1956
17. Applied Protective Relaying, by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 1982

18. Electric Machinery, by A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Stephen D. Umans,
McGraw-Hill Science Engineering, Sixth Edition, New York, July 2002.
19. Section 11, “System Backup Protection” by P.W. Powell, IEEE Tutorial on the
Protection of Synchronous Generators, IEEE catalog No. 95 TP 102
20. IEEE Std C37.91-2008, (Guide for Protecting Power Transformers) Appendix C.1
21. IEEE/PSRC Working Group Report, “Sequential Tripping of Steam Turbine
Generators,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 14, No. 1, January 1999,
pp. 132–141.
22. IEEE Std 741-2007, IEEE Standard Criteria for the Protection of Class 1E Power
Systems and Equipment in Nuclear Power Generating Stations
23. IEEE 765-2006, IEEE Standard for Preferred Power Supply (PPS) For Nuclear Power
Generating Stations (NPGS)
24. NERC Standard NUC-001-1 — Nuclear Plant Interface Coordination, Approved by
Board of Trustees: May 2, 2007
25. Draft NERC Standard PRC-024-2 — Generator Performance During Frequency and
Voltage Excursions
26. IEEE/PSRC , Working Group Report C12 – Performance of Relaying during Wide-
Area Stressed Conditions, May 14, 2008

Appendix B — Step Response of Load Rejection Test
on Hydro Generator
An Example of Load Rejection Test Result (100.5 MW, -4.5 MVAR)
Record No: 0003
Time of Record: 06 Mar 00 11:52:12
Record size: 29127 samples Record window: 2.43 min
Pre-Trigger: 2912 samples Post-trigger: 26215 samples
Playback time base: 200.00 ms/mm (or 1 sec/5 mm)
Play back window: 3361-14624 samples
Ch Range Offset Dc/Gnd Note

01 20.000 V 119.10 V dc Stator Voltage (Vn=13.8 KV)
02 10.000 V 5.00 V dc Stator Current
03 02.000 V 119.10 V dc 5V Full Scale=200 RPM, Rated=120 RPM
04 150.00 V 119.10 V dc Field Breaker (41)
Figure B-1
Figure B-2

Appendix C — TR-22 Generator Backup Protection
Responses in Cohesive Generation Groups
Observation
Generators that are electrically close to one another can behave as cohesive group, such as when
islanded from the rest of the Interconnection. Generators can also remain in synchronism with
each other within a zone and slip in frequency together with respect to the rest of the
Interconnection when weakly tied to the Interconnection. Such was the case in southeast
Michigan. In either case, protective relay functions can and did respond differently under such
conditions.
The cohesive generator group can experience lower voltage, underfrequency, and large power
flows brought on by large angles across its ties to the Interconnection. In the cascade, a number
of relaying schemes intended to trip generators for their own protection operated. Examples
include: inadvertent energization protection, volts/hertz overexcitation, voltage restrained
overcurrent, undervoltage, and loss of excitation relays. The operations of these relays are
sensitive to abnormal voltages and frequencies.
A number of generators reported tripping operations from these devices:
Number of
Initiating Tripping Relay Generators
Tripped
Inadvertent energizing 6
Volts/Hertz 10
Voltage restrained overcurrent 4
Undervoltage 25
Overcurrent 15
Loss of excitation 11
Discussion
Inadvertent energizing is a protection scheme intended to detect an accidental energizing of a
unit at standstill or a unit not yet synchronized to the power system. Two schemes used to detect
inadvertent energizing are frequency supervised overcurrent and voltage supervised overcurrent.
In frequency supervised overcurrent schemes, the underfrequency relays are set to close their
contacts when the frequency falls below a setting, which is in the range of 48 – 55 Hz, thus
enabling the overcurrent relay. Voltage supervised overcurrent schemes use under and
overvoltage relays with pick-up and dropout time delays to supervise instantaneous overcurrent
tripping relays. The undervoltage detectors automatically arm the overcurrent relays when its
generation is taken off-line. Overvoltage relays disable the scheme when the machine is put
back in service.
Volts/Hertz relays are used for overexcitation protection of generators. These relays become
more prone to operation as frequency declines, given a particular voltage.

Voltage restrained time-overcurrent relaying is remote backup protection used to protect
generators for distant faults, and is not intended to trip on load.
Undervoltage relays respond to system conditions especially when connected to transmission

level voltage transformers. Overcurrent relays respond to faults and to some non-fault conditions
such as system swings.
The loss of excitation relay protects a generator in the event of an exciter failure. As with the
Volts/Hertz relay, the loss of excitation relay should coordinate with generator excitation
controls when these controls are functioning properly and exciter failures have not occurred.
51V Voltage Controlled Overcurrent protection is backup protection to use when overcurrent
does not provide adequate sensitivity. It can discriminate between load current and steady state
fault current. The latter can be smaller than full load current due to the large Xd and AVR
constraints. It is susceptible to operation for sustained undervoltage conditions as confirmed
during pre-blackout disturbance.
Recommendation TR–22
TR-22. NERC should evaluate these protection schemes and their settings for appropriateness
including coordination of protection and controls when operating within a coherent
generation weakly connected to an interconnection or in as an electrical island.
Generators directly connected to the transmission system using a 51V should consider
the use of an impedance relay instead.

Appendix D — Conversion Between P-Q And R-X
1 – From R-X to P-Q:
X R
Sin  Cos 
R X
2 2
R X2
2
R
Figure D-1 — R-X Diagram
VLL2 , prim VLL2 , prim  CTR  1 

MVAprim    VLL2 , prim  
Z prim  VTR 
Z sec   VTR  Z sec 

 CTR 
 CTR  1  R 

=
 Pprim  MVAprim cos   VLL2 , prim   
 VTR  Z sec  R 2  X 2 

 CTR  1 

R 
 = VLL2 , prim 
CTR  R 
= VLL2 , prim      2 2 
 VTR  R  X  R  X 
2 2 2 2
 VTR  R  X 
 CTR  1  X 

=
 Q prim  MVAprim sin   VLL2 , prim   
 VTR  Z sec  R  X 
 2 2
 CTR  1 

X 
 = VLL2 , prim 
CTR  X 
= VLL2 , prim      2 
 VTR  R  X 
2
 VTR  R  X  R  X 
2 2 2 2

2 – From P-Q to R-X:
Q P
Sin  Cos 
P2  Q2 P2  Q2
2
2+ Q
Q P
P
Figure D-2 — P-Q Diagram
VLL2 , prim VLL2 , prim  CTR  1 

MVAprim    VLL2 , prim  
Z prim  VTR   VTR  Z sec 
Z sec  
 CTR 
VLL2 , prim VLL2 , prim
Z prim  
MVAprim P2  Q2
 CTR  VLL2 , prim  CTR 

Also, Z sec  Z prim    
 VTR  P 2  Q 2  VTR 
VLL2 , prim  CTR  P 

=
 Rsec  Z sec cos    
P 2  Q 2  VTR  P 2  Q 2 

 CTR  1 
 P 
 =V 2  CTR  P 
= VLL2 , prim   LL , prim   2 
 VTR  P 2  Q 2  P 2  Q 2   VTR  P  Q 2 
 
VLL2 , prim  CTR  Q 

=
 X sec  Z sec sin    
P  Q  VTR  P  Q 2
2 2 2 

 CTR  1 
 Q 
 =V 2  CTR  Q 
= VLL2 , prim   LL , prim   
 VTR  P  Q 2
2  P  Q 2
2   VTR  P 2  Q 2 
 

Appendix E — Supporting Calculations and Example
Details for Section 3.1
Appendix E provides details in the form of equations and graphs to support the conclusions
presented in Section 3.1 - Phase Distance Protection (Function 21). Section 3.1 describes two
ways Function 21 can be set.
One approach is to set the function focusing on thermal protection of the generator for a
transmission fault that is not cleared by transmission relays. Often this approach leads to
setting the function at about 150 percent to 200 percent of the generator MVA rating at its rated
power factor. A method for loadability testing of this setting is presented using an example
unit.
The second approach to setting Function 21 is to provide generator trip dependability for
transmission faults that are not cleared on all elements connected to the generator step-up
transformer high-side bus. An example is provided to demonstrate the impact of infeed from
other lines (apparent impedance) when setting Function 21. The desired setting is much larger
than the relay characteristic based on 0.50-0.66 per unit impedance on the machine base. The
same loadability test is applied to this example to determine if the setting will trip the unit for
stressed system conditions. Alternatives are discussed for modifying the relay characteristic
when necessary to meet the loadability requirement.
The following equations are used to model a generating unit connected to a power system
undergoing stress. Stress will be defined as a degraded transmission voltage at the terminals of
the unit step-up transformer. Referring to Figure E-1 below:
I
S12
jXs jXTR
EG V1 V2
Figure E-1 — Generator and Generator Step-up Transformer Impedance Model

The basic equations4 apply to the above circuit:
2
*  * * * *
    V 1 V 2  V 1V 1  V 1V 2 V 1 z  V 1 V 2 z  
S  V 1 I 1*  V 1  V 1 V 2   V 1     12
12
 Z   Z *  Z * Z Z
 
In this equation θ12 is the angle across the step up transformer. If V2 is assumed to have the
reference angle of 0 degrees then θ12 can be expressed as θ1 and it is an unknown in the equation.
4
Power System Analysis, Hadi Sadat, McGraw Hill Publishing, pp 26 - 28

Substituting θ1 for θ12 and 90º for z , the equation can be simplified as follows:
2
 V 1 I 1* 
V1 90 
VV 1 2
90   1
S 12
X TR X TR
V2 will have a magnitude of 0.85 per unit and V1  1 will be calculated based on the two
generator load conditions with the stressed system.
Using the above equation an iterative process can be developed to calculate the following
parameters: generator terminal voltage, V1 and its corresponding angle, θ1. From these quantities
the generator phase current, I1 and the apparent impedance, Z that is presented to the relay for the
stressed system condition can be calculated algebraically. This process is delineated in the
following equations, beginning with the equation above that defines the quantities in Figure E-1.
2
 V 1 I 1* 
V1 90 
VV1 2
90   1
Eq. (1) S 12
X TR X TR
Starting from equation (1), we can derive two equations: one for the real components and one for
the imaginary components.
90   1]   cos90   1  sin  1

 Re[
VV1 2 VV1 2 VV1 2
Eq. (2) P 12
X TR X TR X TR
2 2 2
 Im[ j
V1 
VV 1 2
90   1] 
V1 
VV
1 2
sin 90   1 
V1 
VV
1 2
cos 1
Eq. (3) Q 12
X TR X TR X TR X TR XTR X TR
Multiplying both sides of equation (3) by XTR yields:
 V 1  V 1 V 2 cos 1
2
Eq. (4) Q X 12 TR
Subtracting Q12XTR from both sides of equation (4) yields a quadratic equation for V1:
0  V 1  V 1 V 2 cos 1  Q
2
Eq. (5) X TR
12

Solving equation (2) for Θ1 and equation (5) for V1 yields
P X 
 12 
Eq. (6)  1
 arcsin

TR

 V1V 2 
cos 1  cos 2  1  4 Q
2

V 2 V 2 12 X TR
Eq. (7) V 1
2
Note: By inspection, the solution of V1 formed by the sum is the desired root of the
quadratic equation (the sum will be near unity and the difference will be near
zero).
The known values of P12, Q12, V2, and XTR and an initial guess for a value of V1 (e.g. 1.0) can be
used to solve equation (6) for Θ1 The calculated value of Θ1 can then be used to solve equation
7 for V1. The calculated value of V1 can be used as the next guess for V1 in equation (6) and this
process may be repeated until the value of V1 calculated from equation (7) is the same as the
previous guess. This process typically converges in two to three iterations.
Once V1 and Θ1 are calculated, calculation of the generator phase current, I1 and the apparent
impedance, Z are straight-forward using equations (8) and (9):
V1  V2
Eq. (8) I1 
jX TR
V1
Eq. (9) Z
I1
This mathematical process will be used to calculate the stressed system condition apparent
impedance operating points necessary to validate coordination for method 1.
Example 1: Given a hypothetical Function 21 setting on an actual generator rated 904

MVA at 0.85 power factor, perform a loadability test. The hypothetical Function 21 in this
example is set at 0.50 per unit ohms on the machine base and at rated power factor.
Function 21 that are set at 0.5 – 0.66 per unit ohms on the machine base at rated power factor are
strictly set from a stator thermal rating perspective. Loadability calculations should be
performed to assure the relays will not trip during stressed system conditions when the unit is not
thermally stressed. As stated in section 3.1.2, the two points used with the Method 1 calculation
in this example are operating points calculated based on (1) rated MW and a Mvar value of 150
percent times rated MW output, and (2) a declared low active power operating limit and a Mvar
value of 175 percent times rated MW output. In this example, 40 percent of rated MW is used as

the declared low active power operating limit . In both cases the generator terminal voltage is
calculated based on the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on the high-side of the
generator step-up transformer.
Machine Data:
 904 MVA unit at 0.85 power factor
 Operating Condition (1) - Generator at rated MW and a Mvar value of 150 percent
times rated MW output; (768 MW + j1152 Mvar); with the stressed system
condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer.
 Operating Condition (2) - Generator at 40 percent of rated MW and a Mvar value of
175 percent times rated MW output; (307 MW + j1344 Mvar); with the stressed
system condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on the high-side of the generator step-up
transformer.
 XS, the synchronous reactance is 1.725 per unit on the generator base
 XTR, the generator step up transformer reactance is 0.1 per unit on the generator
base.
Calculate the impedance measured by a function 21 set at 0.50 per unit during a stressed system
condition to assure that the relay as set will not trip the unit.
The test applies 0.85 per unit steady state voltage on the terminals of the generator step-up
transformer and then calculates Vrelay/Irelay, where Vrelay equals the generator terminal voltage and
Irelay equals the generator stator current. The stator current is calculated based on the two
operating conditions: (1) generator at rated MW and a Mvar value of 150 percent times rated
MW output (768 MW + j1152 Mvar), and (2) generator at 40 percent of rated MW and a Mvar
value of 175 percent times rated MW output (307 MW + j1344 Mvar). In both cases the
generator terminal voltage is based on the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit voltage on
the high-side of the generator step-up transformer.

Figure E-2 — Example 1: Model of a Generator Connected to a Stressed System
Operating Condition 1
Given:
1. SRated = PRated + j QRated = 768 + j477 MVA = 90431.8 MVA (pf = 0.85)
2. System stressed such that VHI = 293-kV = 0.85 pu (Vrated = 345 kV)
3. Unit at stressed level output = 768 + j1152 MVA = 1384.556.31 MVA (pf = 0.555) =
1.53256.31 MVA
Given:
1. SRated = PRated + j QRated = 768 + j477 MVA = 90431.8 MVA (pf = 0.85)
2. System stressed such that VHI = 293-kV = 0.85 pu (Vrated = 345 kV)
3. Unit at stressed level output = 307+ j1344MVA = 1378.677.13 MVA (pf = 0.223) =
1.52577.13 MVA
Using the above mathematical process, 1 and V1 can be solved iteratively and will then result in
the solution of I1 and Z.
Solving iteratively,
1 = 5.88º
│V1│ = 0.9761

I1 = 1.570  -50.43 º
As a check, S12=V1I*=0.9761  5.88º x 1.570  50.43º= 1.532  56.31º

Having determined V1 and I1 the apparent impedance measured by a backup impedance relay on
the terminals of the machine becomes:
V1 .97615.88
Z   .621756.31 pu
I 1 1.570  50.43
Solving iteratively,
1 = 2.30º
│V1│ = 0.9983
I1 = 1.528  -74.82º
As a check, S12=V1I*=0.9983  2.2963º x 1.528  74.83º= 1.525  77.12º

Having determined V1 and I1 the apparent impedance measured by a backup impedance relay on
the terminals of the machine becomes:
V1 .99832.2963
Z   .653377.12 pu
I 1 1.5280  74.8248
Figure E-3 plots the apparent impedance for the two operating points calculated for the stressed
system condition defined in the example above against a mho circle with a maximum torque
angle of 85º and a reach of 0.50 pu at the machine rated power factor angle (31.8º), set per the
IEEE recommended range for the maximum reach for a backup impedance relay. It also plots
the reduced reach characteristic required to meet the restriction of the calculated operating points
with margin.
The equation below adjusts the reach at the rated power factor angle to the calculated apparent
impedance (load) angle. The cosine term in the denominator converts the reach at the rated
power factor angle to the reach at the maximum torque angle, and the cosine term in the
numerator converts the reach from the maximum torque angle to the apparent impedance angle.
cos( MTA  LoadAngle)
Z  Z RatedPF
cos( MTA  RatedPFAngle)
The relay reach at the generator load angle calculated for operating condition (1), 768 + j1152
MVA = 1384.5356.31 MVA, is 0.7322 per unit.

0.50 cos(85  56.31)
Z  0.732256.31 pu
cos(85  31.8)
The relay reach at the generator load angle calculated for operating condition (2), 307+
j1344MVA = 1378.6277.13 MVA, is 0.8268 per unit.
0.50 cos(85  77.12)

Z  0.826877.12 pu
cos(85  31.8)
Both of the calculated apparent impedances in this example fall within the relay characteristic.
The relay characteristic must be modified to coordinate with the loadability requirements
calculated above and include adequate margin. Therefore the more restrictive load operating
point must be determined. This will be accomplished by calculating the reach of a mho
characteristic at 85° that passes through each of these operating points to determine which is
more restrictive.
Operating point (1): Z85 = 0.6217/(cos(85º - 56.31º)) = 0.7087 85º pu
Operating point (2): Z85 = 0.6533/(cos(85º - 77.12º)) = 0.6595 85º pu
Based on this comparison at the common 85 degree angle operating point (2) is more restrictive.
The reach of the distance relay at 85 degrees, the maximum torque angle(MTA), needs to be
adjusted to this point plus margin, e.g. 15 percent margin or 0.85 times this value.
ZReach at MTA = 0.85 x 0.6595 = 0.5606 85º pu
To calculate the reach at rated power factor use:
ZRated Power Factor = 0.5606 (cos (85º -31.8º) = 0.3358 31.8º pu
With the revised setting the calculated apparent impedance is outside the relay characteristic and
provides 15 percent margin, as illustrated in Figure E-3.
A typical time delay setting for this element would be similar to the zone 3 remote backup
element time delay used for transmission relays. This provides time coordination between the
generator phase distance backup protection and the protection systems on the transmission lines
connected to the generator step-up transformer high-side bus, including breaker failure. In this
example, a 1.5 second setting is selected.

Maximum Torque Angle = 85º
1.0
Initial Relay Setting:
Provides 0.5 pu Reach at
Rated Power Factor
Low Operating Limit

Stressed System
Operating Point
Full Load
Stressed System
Operating Point
Revised Relay Setting:

0.5 Provides 0.336 pu Reach at
Rated Power Factor
Rated Power Factor Angle = 31.8º (0.85 pf)
0.5 1.0
Figure E-3- — Example 1: Two Calculated Apparent Impedance Load Points

Plotted against Desired and Reduced Reach Phase Distance Backup
Characteristics to Meet the Restriction of the Calculated Operating Points
Example 2: Given a hypothetical Function 21 setting on the same generator as Example 1
(904 MVA at 0.85 power factor) perform a loadability test. In this example the hypothetical
Function 21 desired reach is 1.883 per unit on the generator base at the transmission fault
impedance angle to provide relay failure back up for transmission line faults (set at 120 percent
of the longest line connected to the high-side bus and accounting for infeed).
Set the Function 21 including the impacts of infeed from other sources of fault current.
In this example, the phase distance protection is set to protect the generator by providing
generator trip dependability for transmission system faults.

Figure E-4 — Example 2: 904 MVA Generator Connected to a 345-kV System by
Three Lines
The longest line, 60 ohms, is faulted, three phase, at its Bus B end. The Bus B circuit breaker for
the line has opened. The backup relay for the generator must see this fault in the presence of
infeed from Bus A and Bus C via their two 40 ohm lines.

Bus A
XSystem Bus A = 0.1519 pu XL1 = 0.3038 pu
3 phase fault
XSystem Bus C = 0.1519 pu XL2 = 0.3038 pu

0.4557 pu
Bus C
Bus B
X’d = 0.415pu XTR = 0.1pu
V relay
1.0 pu
Figure E-5 — Example 2: Symmetrical Component Sequence Network

All system elements, generator transient reactance, transformer impedance, lines and equivalent
impedances behind the buses A and C are given in per unit on the generator base (904 MVA).
The relay reach in per unit on the generator base at the fault impedance angle that is necessary to
reliably detect the line-end fault with 20 percent margin is 1.883 per unit.
From the results above in Example 1, with the stator current calculated based on the generator at
rated MW and a Mvar value of 150 percent times rated MW output (e.g. 768 MW + j1152 Mvar)
and the generator terminal voltage based on the stressed system condition of 0.85 per unit
voltage on the high-side of the generator step-up transformer, the resulting apparent impedance
measured by the backup impedance relay on the terminals of the machine is 0 .621756.31 per
unit.
If the angle of maximum relay reach is 85º, then the reach at the angle of the full load stressed
system condition operating point (56.31º) is:
Z reachat 56.31
 Z max reachangle cos( max reach  56.31)  1.883 cos(85  56.31)  1.652 pu
The calculated apparent impedance at the full load operating point in this example is well inside
the relay characteristic. Similarly, for the low operating limit the resulting apparent impedance

measured by the backup impedance relay on the terminals of the machine is 0 .653277.12 per
unit.
The reach at angle of the low operating limit stressed system condition operating point (77.12°)
is:
Z reachat 77.12
 Z max reachangle cos( max reach  77.12)  1.883 cos(85  77.12)  1.865 pu
The calculated apparent impedance at the low operating limit operating point in this example
also is well inside the relay characteristic. The relay characteristic must be modified to
coordinate with the loadability requirements. The modification applied above for the relay set to
provide generator protection only in Example 1 cannot be applied in this case because reducing
the reach of the relay will not provide trip dependability for faults on all elements connected to
the generator step-up transformer high-side bus.
Given that the desired relay setting does not meet the relay loadability requirement, the
Generator Owner has a number of options. The first option is to set the relay to provide only
thermal protection for the generator as described above in Example 1. The second option is to
modify the relay characteristic. In this example it is assumed that the Generator Owner desires
to provide trip dependability for uncleared transmission system faults and elects to modify the
relay characteristic. With this option the Generator Owner has the choice to modify the relay
characteristic to meet the conservative operating points defined in Method 1 or to utilize Method
2 to determine generator specific operating points from dynamic modeling of the apparent
impedance trajectory during simulated events. The simulations should model the effect of
stressed system conditions that results in 0.85 per unit voltage on the high-side of the generator
step-up transformer prior to field forcing. An example utilizing this process is described below.
Section 3.1.5.1.5 provides a number of methods that could be applied to modify the relay
characteristic in a manner that meets the loadability requirement while maintaining the reach
necessary for system relay failure backup coverage. Some methods are better suited to
improving loadability around a specific operating point, while others improve loadability for a
wider area of potential operating points in the R-X plane. The operating point for a stressed
system condition can vary due to the pre-event system conditions, severity of the initiating event,
and generator characteristics such as reactive power support capability (field forcing). For this
reason, adding blinders or reshaping the characteristic provide greater security than load
encroachment or off-setting the zone 2 mho characteristic.
In this example the Generator Owner elects to utilize blinders to modify the relay characteristic.
If the Generator Owner utilizes Method 1 two potential concerns would be identified. The first
is that setting the blinders to meet the loadability operating points calculated above would result
in narrow blinder settings. Providing some reasonable margin from the loadability operating
point, for example 15 percent, would result in a resistance setting of 0.075 per unit on the
generator base as shown in Figure E-6. The second potential concern is that with only one zone
of protection the backup clearing time for generator step-up transformer faults and high-side bus
faults would be relatively long; typically on the order of 1.5 seconds. This is because time
coordination must be provided between the generator phase distance protection and the
protection systems on the transmission lines connected to the generator step-up transformer high-

side bus, including breaker failure. The clearing time may not be a concern depending on the
level of protection redundancy provided.
Figure E-6- — Example 2: Method 1 Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 2

Function with Blinders
To address these concerns the Generator Owner in this example desires two zones of phase
distance backup protection. One zone would be set with a shorter reach and a shorter time delay
to provide faster clearing for nearby faults. The second zone would be set with a longer reach
with blinders to provide the desired trip dependability coverage for transmission system faults .
In this example the Generator Owner elects to utilize Method 2 to identify whether a less
restrictive limit for setting the blinders can be derived.
Figure E-7 plots the simulated apparent impedance trajectories for operation at full load and at
the low operating limit against a mho characteristic with the desired reach calculated above
(1.883 per unit). In this example the apparent impedance was simulated by switching a reactor
on the transmission system to lower the generator step-up transformer high-side voltage to 0.85
per unit prior to field forcing. The resulting step change in voltage is similar to the sudden
voltage depression observed in parts of the system on August 14, 2003. In response to the
reduced voltage, the generator excitation system goes into field-forcing to provide increased

reactive power to support voltage. For reference, the Method 1 apparent impedances also are
shown on the plot. In this example the simulations in Method 2 result in less conservative
operating points for evaluating security of the phase distance protection settings. The full load
and low operating limit (LOL) operating points for evaluating relay loadability derived through
Method 2 are:
ZFull Load = 0 .826446.35
ZLOL = 0 .981271.65
In this example, the zone 1 reach is set based on not overreaching the zone 1 protection settings
on the transmission lines connected to the generator step-up transformer high-side bus. In this
example zone 1 is set to reach 80 percent of the reach of the zone 1 relay on the shortest line.
The effect of infeed is not included to ensure the relay does not overreach for conditions with
transmission lines out-of-service. Neglecting infeed for the zone 1 reach provides the most
conservative setting. Assuming that the zone 1 relays on each line are set to reach 80 percent of
the line length, the reach of the generator zone 1 relay would be set at:
Z1 = 0.8 x (XTR +0.8 (Xline)) = 0.8 x (0.1 + (0.8)(0.3038)) = 0.274 per unit
This figure illustrates there still is a need to modify the zone 2 relay characteristic to maintain the
desired reach while meeting the loadability requirement. In this example blinders are applied to
improve the loadability. The blinders are set at ± 0.15 per unit at an angle of 85˚and are set to
provide 15 percent margin from the apparent impedance trajectory. The settling point in the
simulation did not model the effect of an overexcitation limiter which would move the apparent
impedance away from the relay characteristic. This is because the response time of the limiter is
longer than the time delay setting of the phase distance backup protection. The response time of
the limiter is on the order of 10 seconds or longer depending on the level of field forcing.
Typical time delay settings for zone 1 and zone 2 would be similar to the zone 2 and zone 3
remote backup element time delay used for transmission relays. This provides time coordination
between the generator phase distance backup protection and the protection systems on the
transmission lines connected to the generator step-up transformer high-side bus, including
breaker failure. In this example a 0.5 second timer setting is selected for zone 1 and a 1.5 second
timer setting is selected for zone 2.

1.883 pu at Maximum
Torque Angle = 85º
Method 2 Operating Points
Generator Capability Determined by Simulation
Curve Translated to
R-X Plane

0.274 pu at Maximum
Rated Power Factor
Torque Angle = 85º
Angle = 31.8º
Method 1
Operating Points
Zone 2 Blinders
Set at ± 0.15 pu
Figure E-7- — Example 2: Method 1 (Calculated) and Method 2 (Simulated)

Apparent Impedance Plotted against Zone 1 and Zone 2 with Blinders
It is important to note that even though the zone 2 setting with blinders provides security for the
two operating points used to assess relay loadability, the setting still encroaches on the generator
capability curve. Figure E-7 includes the generator capability curve in the R-X plane overlaid on
the phase distance protection settings and operating points derived in this example. In this
figure, the area above the generator capability curve represents the region in which the generator
is operating within its capability. This figure illustrates that under certain operating conditions
the generator apparent impedance may enter inside the blinders of the zone 2 operating
characteristic. This condition would occur with the generator operating at a low active power
(MW) level and high reactive power (Mvar) level. In this particular example the apparent
impedance would enter this region of the R-X plane when operating below the generator low
operating limit. Thus, for this particular example the risk of tripping the generator is limited to
unit startup and shutdown while the generator is ramping up or down below its low operating
limit. Nonetheless, the generator is at risk of tripping unless the Generator Operator is aware of
this potential and operation of the unit is limited to avoid the portion of the generator capability
curve that is encroached on by the zone 2 setting.
The only way to ensure full security for the phase distance protection is to pull the reach back to
be inside the generator capability curve. In fact, the reach must be pulled back even within the

steady state capability curve in order to provide security for generator dynamic response during
field forcing, as illustrated by inclusion of the operating points derived by Method 2. In the
limiting case, if the generator may be operated as a synchronous condenser the low operating
limit is 0 MW and the only alternative is to pull back the zone 2 relay reach. Figure E-8 provides
an alternate solution, in which the zone 2 reach is pulled back to ensure security for all steady-
state operating conditions and to meet the relay loadability requirements for the operating points
derived through Method 2. In this example the zone 2 reach is reduced to 0.814 per unit
compared to the desired reach of 1.883 per unit.
Figure E-8- — Example 2: Method 2 (Simulated) Apparent Impedance Plotted

against Zone 1 and Zone 2 with Reduced Reach

Appendix F — Setting Example For Out-Of-Step
Protection
Consider the power system in Figure F-1, corresponding to Example 14.9 from the book
Elements of Power System Analysis by William D. Stevenson. This case is used to illustrate the
procedure to determine the critical clearing time and the traveling time within the blinders of an
out-of-step relay by means of a transient stability study. The other settings of the relay are rather
straightforward as they depend on the reactances of the elements and will not be illustrated here.
The transient stability analysis will be carried out for a three-phase fault on line L_4-5, close to
bus 4.
Figure F-1 — Example Power System

A. Considerations
The following considerations are used in the stability study:
 The fault inception will be considered at t = 0.5 seconds

 Clearing times starting at t = 90 ms (approx. 5 cycles) will be used in consecutive
steps of 10 ms.
 For simplicity, the fault is removed with the consequent outage of the line.
 The voltage regulator is IEEE type ST1 Excitation System. This voltage regulator is
of static excitation type where the rectifiers provide enough dc current to feed the
generator field. The model represents a system with the excitation power supplied
from a transformer fed from the generator terminals or from the auxiliary services
and is regulated by controlled rectifiers.
 The turbine-governor is IEEE type 1 Speed Governing Model. This model
represents the system of speed control (Mechanical-Hydraulic) and steam turbine.
 For this machine a power system stabilizer is not available.
The models for the voltage regulator and governor are shown in the figures F-2 and F-3.
Figure F-2 — IEEE Type ST1 Excitation System
Figure F-3 — IEEE Type 1 Speed Governing Model

B. Critical Clearing Time
Determining the critical clearing time is perhaps the most elaborate part of the entire setting
process. To achieve this, several simulations of the transient stability study have to be done to
determine when the system loses synchronism or has the first slip.
C. Results
The transient stability analysis is simulated for a three-phase fault on line L_4-5, near bus 4. The
solution can be obtained by using any commercially available software package.
Numerous cases were simulated with clearing times starting at t = 90 ms with increments of 10
ms in an iterative process until stability was lost. The results of three representative cases were
analyzed and correspond to the critical clearing times obtained that are shown in the following
table:
Table F‐1 — Case Summary

Case Fault Clearance Time (ms)
1 90
2 180
3 190
Several plots from the transient stability runs can be obtained for a myriad of applications. For
setting out-of-step functions the most important information is the plots of Rotor Angle vs. Time
and R + j X vs. Time. From the respective plots it can be observed that in Case 1, with a clearing
time of 90 milliseconds, the system remains in synchronism. In Case 2, G1 and the system are
still in synchronism with a clearing time of 180 milliseconds. For case 3, G1 loses synchronism
with a clearing time of 190 ms. From the above it is evident that the critical time to clear the
fault is equal to 180 ms after fault inception.
The rotor angles for the three cases are shown in Figure F-4, from which it can be seen that the
critical angle is approximately 140°. The time for the swing locus to travel from the critical
angle to 180° is approximately 250 milliseconds. Therefore the time delay setting should be set
to 250 milliseconds. The most severe transmission fault should be simulated to verify
dependable operation. The swing for this fault represents the fastest unstable swing which must
be differentiated from a change in apparent impedance associated with application of a fault.
This figure also illustrates the benefit of having voltage regulator and voltage governor responses
which are shown with the continuous lines. Under these conditions, the performance of the
system is much better than that of the case when there are no controls or the controls in manual
mode.

It can be observed that when there are no controls, the excursions of the rotor angles are higher
especially from the second oscillation upwards and also that the system tends to stabilize faster.
Angle (degree) Rotor Angle Generator G_1

260
240 Case1 (tc=90 ms), with controls
180
Case1 (tc=90 ms), without controls
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
-40
Time (s)
Figure F-4 — Rotor Angle vs Time from the Three Cases Considered
R vs. X diagrams for the three cases show the trajectory followed by the impedance seen by the
relay during the disturbances. When there is an oscillation in the generator which is stable, the
swing locus does not cross the impedance line.
When generator goes out-of-step, the transient swing crosses the system impedance line each
time a slip is completed and the relay should trip the generator. Figures F-5.1 through F-5.3
show the diagram R vs. X for cases 1, 2, and 3. In the first two cases it is clear that the load
point does not cross the system impedance line. For case 3, the load point crosses the system
impedance line indicating that the synchronism is lost and therefore out-of-step tripping must be
allowed. Figure F-6 shows the diagrams for all the three cases.

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
X (Ohm)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Generator Impedance Line

-0.5
R (Ohm)
Figure F-5.1 — Diagram R vs X for Case 1

4.0
2.0
0.0
-10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0
-2.0
-4.0
X (Ohm)
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
-12.0
-14.0

-16.0
R (Ohm)
0.5
0.0
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5
X (Ohm)
-1.0
-1.5

-2.0
R (Ohm)

4.0
2.0
0.0
-10.0 -8.0 -6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
-2.0
-4.0
X (Ohm)
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
-12.0
-14.0
-16.0
R (Ohm)
G1, tc=90 ms G1, tc=180 ms G1, tc=190 ms Impedance Line
Figure F-6 — Diagram R vs X for cases 1, 2 and 3

Appendix G — System Protection and Controls
Subcommittee Roster
Jonathan Sykes Sungsoo Kim
Chairman Canada Provincial
Manager of System Protection Senior Protection Engineer
Pacific Gas and Electric Company Ontario Power Generation Inc.
William J. Miller Michael J. McDonald
Vice-Chairman Investor-Owned Utility
Principal Engineer Principal Engineer, System Protection
Exelon Corporation Ameren Services Company
John Mulhausen Charles W. Rogers
RE – FRCC Transmission Dependent Utility
Manager, Design and Standards Principal Engineer
Florida Power & Light Co. Consumers Energy Co.
Richard Quest Joe T. Uchiyama
RE – MRO U.S. Federal
Engineer Senior Electrical Engineer
Xcel Energy, Inc. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
Daniel Jesberg Joshua L. Wooten
RE – MRO – Alternate U.S. Federal
Engineer Manager of System Protection and Analysis
Midwest Reliability Organization Tennessee Valley Authority
Bryan J. Gwyn Daniel McNeely
RE – NPCC U.S. Federal – Alternate
Manager, Protection Standards and Support Engineer - System Protection and Analysis
National Grid USA Tennessee Valley Authority
Jeff Iler Philip J. Tatro
RE – RFC NERC Staff Coordinator
Senior Engineer Senior Performance and Analysis Engineer
American Electric Power NERC
Philip B. Winston Robert W. Cummings
RE – SERC NERC Staff
Chief Engineer, Protection and Control Director of System Analysis and Reliability Initiatives
Southern Company NERC
Lynn Schroeder Jonathan D. Gardell
RE – SPP Subject Matter Expert – NERC Consultant
Manager – Substation Protection and Control Associate Consultant – Quanta Technology
Westar Energy President – Gardell Power Consulting, Inc.
Samuel Francis Jim Ingleson
RE – TRE Subject Matter Expert
System Protection Specialist RLC Engineering
Oncor Electric Delivery
Baj Agrawal Eric A Udren
RE – WECC Subject Matter Expert
Principal Engineer Executive Advisor
Arizona Public Service Company Quanta Technology
John L. Ciufo Tom Wiedman
Canada Provincial Subject Matter Expert – NERC Consultant
Manager, P&C Strategies and Standards President
Hydro One, Inc. Wiedman Power System Consulting, Ltd.

Murty Yalla Jeanne Harshbarger
Subject Matter Expert Correspondent
President System Protection Engineer
Beckwith Electric Company Inc. Puget Sound Energy, Inc.
W. O. (Bill) Kennedy Fred Ipock
Canada Member-at-Large Correspondent
Principal Senior Engineer - Substations & Protection
b7kennedy & Associates Inc. City Utilities of Springfield, Missouri
Forrest Brock Lorissa Jones
Observer Correspondent
Supervisor, Technical Services Bonneville Power Administration
Western Farmers Electric Coop.
Mark Fidrych Mark Lauby
Manager of Performance Reviews and Metrics Director, Reliability Assessment and Performance Analysis
North American Transmission Forum NERC
Joe Spencer Lynn Oelker
Manager of Planning and Engineering EON-US
SERC Reliability Corporation
David Angell James Roberts
Correspondent Correspondent
T&D Planning Engineering Leader Transmission Planning
Idaho Power Company Tennessee Valley Authority
Hasnain Ashrafi Mahmood Safi
Engineer Omaha Public Power District
Sargent & Lundy
Deven Bhan Saurabh Sauksena
Electrical Engineer National Grid
Western Area Power Administration
Larry Brusseau Dean Sikes
Standards Manager Manager, Transmission Protection, Apparatus, and
Midwest Reliability Organization Metering
Cleco Power, LLC
Dac-Phuoc Bui Evan T. Sage
Engineer, System Protection Consulting Engineer
Hydro-Québec TransÉnergie Potomac Electric Power Company
Sara Filling Bob Stuart
Director, System Protection & Automation Senior Director – Transmission
Baltimore Gas & Electric Company BrightSource Energy, Inc.
Guy Zito
Correspondent
Assistant Vice President of Standards
NPCC

Appendix H — Revision History
Version Date Modification(s)

0 December 9, 2009 Initial Document
1 July 30, 2010 Section 1: Added a reference to generator auxiliary system undervoltage
protection; added additional explanation of Table 1.
Section 3: Added additional explanation of references to Functional
Model entities.
Section 3.1 and Appendix E: Phase distance protection methodology and
examples modified to provide more comprehensive guidance on
generator relay loadability.
Sections 3.3.2.2.1 and 3.3.2.3: Added discussion of the need for
undervoltage protection and adjustable speed drives to ride through
voltage depressions associated with transmission system faults.
Section 3.10: Added a description of boundary conditions for
coordinating voltage‐restrained overcurrent in the text and annotation
of Figure 3.10.5; updated coordination examples.
Section 3.5: Updated Figures 3.5.1 and 3.5.3.
Section 3.13: Updated coordination examples.
General: Modifications to achieve common usage of terms; removed
discrepancies between and among Tables 2 and 3 and the excerpts from
these tables; corrected formatting problems.


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Technical Reference Document

Power Plant and

NERC System Protection and Control Subcommittee

Revision 1 – July 2010

2. Coordination and Data Exchange Summary .................................................................................................... 7

3. Discussion of Specific Protection Functions ................................................................................................... 17

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and i

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and ii

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and iii

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and iv

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and v

Appendix A — References ...................................................................................................................................... 158

Appendix D — Conversion Between P-Q And R-X .............................................................................................. 163

Appendix F — Setting Example For Out-Of-Step Protection ............................................................................. 180

Appendix G — System Protection and Controls Subcommittee Roster ............................................................. 187

Appendix H — Revision History ............................................................................................................................ 189

Table 1 — 2003 Blackout Generation Protection Trips ........................................................................................... 1

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and vi

Table 3 — Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ................................................................................................ 13

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 21 Protection Coordination Considerations ........................................................... 38

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 21 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................................ 39

Table 3.2.1 – Example V/Hz Withstand Capability of GSU Transformer ........................................................... 44

Table 3.2.2 – Example V/Hz withstand Capability of Generator .......................................................................... 44

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 24 Protection Coordination Considerations ........................................................... 46

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Gen. Prot.) Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................... 53

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Protection Coordination Considerations ..................................... 59

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 27 (Plant Aux.) Data to be Exchanged Between Entities....................................... 59

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 32 Protection Coordination Consideration ............................................................ 71

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 32 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................................ 71

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 40 Protection Coordination Considerations ........................................................... 80

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 40 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................................ 81

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 46 Protection Coordination Considerations ........................................................... 87

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 46 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities ............................................................ 87

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50 / 27 (Inadvertent Energization) Protection Coordination Considerations ..... 91

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 50BF Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................................... 99

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 51V Protection Coordination Considerations ...................................................... 123

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and vii

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 59 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities .......................................................... 128

Table 2 Excerpt — Functions 59GN / 27TH Protection Coordination Considerations..................................... 131

Table 2 Excerpt — Function 78 Protection Coordination Considerations ......................................................... 144

Table 3 Excerpt — Function 78 Data to be Exchanged Between Entities .......................................................... 145

Table F-1 — Case Summary ................................................................................................................................... 182

Figure 1.1 — Relay Configuration ............................................................................................................... 2

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and viii

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and ix

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and x

Table 1 — 2003 Blackout Generation Protection Trips

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 1

Figure 1.1 — Relay Configuration

1.1. Goal of this Report

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 2

1.3. Coordination Definition

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 3

1.5. Assumed System Stressed Voltage Level

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 4

1.6. Modeling Considerations

NERC Technical Reference on Power Plant and 5

Gen Controls System