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Trajectories are the classical way of thinking about the controlled object, thus it is only natural to
extend the notion to quantum mechanical systems. Although feedback experiments need not rely on
measurement, they often will, making a physically derived trajectory model the realistic description.
On timescales large compared to the Larmor frequency, the average of this effect is indeed zero
(according to the rotating wave approximation of the previous section). To one side of the cross is the
valved cesium source, to the other the ion pump, and below the cell is an antireflection (AR) coated
window from (MDC, 2.75” CFF) to allow for vertical probing Page 213. The probe beam can also
be reduced in size with an iris to further improve the alignment. The frequency was swept over 0.5
ms to give the trace shown at fixed spin andoptical polarization positions. Using the definition of the
superoperator inversion (on arbitrary X) we Page 88. A better (trivial) approach would be to keep the
squeezing ellipse perpendicular to the local oscillator axis such that it stays squeezed for longer. In
chapter 14 and appendix D, we discuss applying an x-field that destroys the QND nature of a
continuous measurement. In the experiment, the atoms are trapped, then released, and then probed as
they diffuse and fall out of the probe beam (without further trapping). This still requires that the
probe beam is sufficiently weak (to avoid too much decay) and the rotation is sufficiently small (such
that the measurement is linear in the angle). However, if we perform an experiment to measure the
correlation function of the system with feedback, the trajectory picture becomes a practical necessity.
The experimental results have been published in a prestigious Nature Communications journal.
However, with these cesium sources the MOT loading is much more efficient if a direct line of sight
can be established between the MOT and the dispenser. Because the SME works under the QND
approximation of negligible absorption (i.e., the large detuning dispersive limit), no angular
momentum will be exchanged between the probe beam and the ensemble. This includes imperfect
photo-detection and reformatting the output beams to give different unravellings of the
unconditional dynamics. Off-Diagonal Long Range Order Analysis on the one-particle level
Coherence in BEC: ODLRO Off-Diagonal Long Range Order Without field-theoretical means, the
coherence of the condensate may be studied using the one-particle density matrix. To observe a
particular frequency with the atoms, a holding field is placed along the spins and motion of the spin-
state off of the holding field is only possible given a near-resonant, perpendicular AC field. Page
311. We introduce quantum fields and introduce the concept of the order parameter. Using the
Heisenberg form of the operators in the no-measurement picture, we could now include delays in the
feedback loop. In addition to the rule for updating each ??(t), we also need to find a rule for
updating p(?, t) according to the measurement record. Just as the mirrors leak information at the rates
?i, this provides another output channel and its effect on the dynamics will be described shortly. As a
result, neither the unpumped background gas (nor any other element) will create a response signal at
the expected Larmor frequency of the cold atoms. However, to retain the QND nature of the
measurement the probe light has to be strobed at twice the Larmor frequency. Second, the detector
should be optical shotnoise limited for all frequencies from DC to the maximal bandwidth. Instead of
imposing the full projection at once, this measurement allows us to acquire information slowly such
that the state diffusively and gradually projects onto an entangled subspace. If given sufficient time
to act and ideal experimental circumstances, this dephasing should eventually lead to rephasing and
hence an echo in the observed decay signal. Fortunately, using precise control can make the
estimation process relatively robust to such spin number fluctuations. 10.6.2 Controlled Ignorance:
Steady-State Performance We first analyze how the estimator designed with F. Some cesium atoms
collided with the rubidium atoms, exchanging kinetic energy in a process called thermalization,
while others flew right through the cloud. We discuss its properties in more detail in chapter 9. Page
139. Fortunately, we can use a Gaussian description of Page 67. These points can also be seen by
ignoring the measurement parameters and writing out the stochastic differential equations (SDEs) for
the state parameters.
While there are currently few experimental systems even in the strong coupling regime, we expect
this very strong coupling regime to eventually be reached for moderate numbers of atoms. With this
attitude we continue to focus on the long-time limit of the pure dispersive SME in the interest of
understanding the idealized limits of continuous projective measurement. If the spins are initially
fully polarized along x then, by using the evolution equation for the x-component, we can show
?Fx?(t). We discuss its properties in more detail in chapter 9. Page 139. The observed atomic noise is
technical in origin and the size is expected from a measurement of the nonzeroed, deterministic
signal resulting from misalignment, combined with expected atom number fluctuations of around
10%. In effect, whether or not the state is Gaussian, feedback can be used to direct the state
diffusion caused by measurement. Second, as discussed in chapter 10, feedback can make the
quantum parameter estimation procedure robust to classical model uncertainties in other parameters
describing the model. The difference indicates the degree that the detectors are opticalshotnoise
limited. (B) The value of the previous components for different powers at thedecay time ?sc. We then
detail the tensor Hamiltonian induced complications that occur if the system is not very precisely
aligned. Why study atomic gases?. - low density, low temperature - well understood microscopics
unique experimental tools. For example, the necessity of a holding field along a quantization axis
can be determined given an assumed background field uncertainty or noise. There are 4 parameters
to monitor (2 complex numbers) and, depending on the game we want to play, we may allow
ourselves knowledge of some with the goal of measuring the others. While our proposed feedback
laws are nonoptimal, they demonstrate the adequacy of intuitive controllers with finite gain for
directing the diffusion of the quantum state towards desirable regions of Hilbert space with Page
148. In practice, this is achieved through minimizing the observed oscillation signal (possibly closer
to resonance than usual to amplify the signal) by adjusting the input waveplates that determine the
polarization of the probe beam. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study or
research, no. When plotting the timescale ratio we see that close to resonance (less than 300 MHz as
discussed in chapter 6) the ratio for the cesium D2 line is nearly an order of magnitude higher than
far-off resonance. (The perpendicular polarization case displays similar behavior but exhibits a higher
overall ratio.) The reason for this behavior is that all of the excited level contributions to ?sc are the
same sign (positive), while the contributions to ?ss are alternating in sign. Despite the nonoptimality
of these simple estimators, they perform well enough to resolve the discretization of the Dicke levels
at long times. Here the corner mirrorshave been made reflective and the clicks on detectors 3 and 4
are shown. Different elements have atoms that differ in mass. 4. Atoms are indestructible and
chemical. For measuring the vector spectrum, the input light is polarized along x, the spins are Page
258. One limitation of the technique, says Jorg Schmiedmayer of the Vienna University of
Technology, is that the experiment must be repeated many times to make a single temperature
measurement, because so few cesium atoms are involved. The physical unravelling that is chosen in
the lab will obviously have important consequences for the conditional dynamics. Page 330. Instead
of making ? a function of I let us now assume that. These points can also be seen by ignoring the
measurement parameters and writing out the stochastic differential equations (SDEs) for the state
parameters. Remarkably, one way to create an entangled SSS from the coherent state above is
through a collective measurement of the spin-state. Teflon and Kevlar are among the nonmetallic
materials with adequate structural and thermal properties. John Dalton. 1806. 1. Matter consists of
indivisible atoms. All atoms of a given element have identical properties. This is fine if the number of
detection events expected in the time dt is very small (see appendix B), however often we use
another high power beam as a local oscillator in our measurement scheme. Using the point of view of
matter wave, a turbulent cloud of atomic superfluid present properties that are equivalent to a
propagating speckle field of light. Clearly, if there is low frequency technical noise on the balanced
polarimeter detector of a nonatomic origin, this noise will mimic and hence obscure any underlying
quantum fluctuation. This is the same as with any meaningful relationship in life, quantum
mechanical, personal, or otherwise.
Just as the driving fields are coherent states, we also imagine all input states to beam splitters to be
coherent states (possibly vacuum) uncorrelated to anything else. Then we describe the ex- pected
noise characteristics for the sine and cosine quadratures of the measurement record under
stroboscopic and constant measurement conditions. Short of full-scale feedback, given stable AC
noise, one can use precision timing (line-locking) to significantly reduce the effects of that noise. The
black curve is the noisy absorption measurement and the bluecurve the fit. At a critical temperature,
atoms begin to coalesce, overlap and become synchronized like dancers in a chorus line.
Themeasurements referred to in the text are the peaks of these curves. However, we proceeded with
the na?ve QND model working at an arbitrary set of probe parameters. The simulations are useful
because they allow one to calculate the speed and efficiency of a particular pumping scheme. Also, if
the system Hamiltonian does not commute with the measured observable, the measurement will not
be QND. Then the fit radius of the cloud as a function of time is used to extract the temperature (as
in section 12.5.4). 11.6 Probe Laser and Polarimeter The probe laser beam is derived from a New
Focus Vortex External-Cavity Diode Laser (Model 6017, with Vortex 6000 Laser Controller), which
offers 17 mW at 852 nm with a short term (50 ms) linewidth of less than 300 kHz. The optical
pumping beam is similarly aligned, but along the horizontal x-axis, as opposed to the z-axis of the
probe. This particular filter can be implemented with analog circuitry with minimal delay and
complexity. This is not often done because, among other problems, it limits optical access to the
sample. Even for larger diode detec- tors, there may be native polarization fluctuations or pointing
noise that gets translated into polarization fluctuations. We start at time ti, just as a slice of laser
light of width dt, with state ?L,i begins to pass over the collective atomic sample with initial state
?A(ti). In the next section, the advantages of the high-frequency scheme are considered, and
experimental noise cancellation demonstrated. This could lead to the discovery of interesting and
novel quantum phenomena,” Thompson said. The two atomic spectra look remarkably different for
similar OD0 because the cesium hyperfine levels are much farther apart in frequency than the sodium
levels. 12.5.8 Measuring OD with Faraday Rotation The optical depth can also be measured by
observing the Faraday rotation of the probe beam (described at length in previous sections and
experimentally in coming chapters) and using the OD as the only free parameter. In this
configuration, they were able to generate and store a single atomic excitation, as in a quantum
memory, and subsequently read it out in the form of a guided single photon. In turn, the final term is
to cancel that term when the average evolution is taken such that the unconditional master equation
is obtained. Here we describe the interaction of the field modes with the environment field modes.
Among many methods of encoding information about single photons in a quantum memory the
spatial multiplexing aided by a single-photon sensitive camera stands out as an effective way to
obtain high capacity at low cost. At the same time, we can measure the resulting fluorescence with a
detector off the axis of the initial beam, which should match the in-line absorption measurement by
energy conservation. The code can also be easily adapted to the D1 transition, which may allow for
more efficient pumping schemes in some cases. The optical polarization rotation is
measured(nominally proportional to ?Fz?). In practice, the noise generally decreases at higher
frequencies, although there are spikes at particular frequencies due to equipment sources. Rather, I
was happy to assume the theory and use it to do something of practical use. Indeed, there be a more
clever or practical means of avoiding low frequency noise sources than is discussed in this section.
Feedback can also enhance the measurement of magnetic fields. I became less interested nontestable
philosophical questions and even in testable questions that aim to confirm the theory, many of which
have been examined in landmark experiments over the last century.
What else have we identified as a basic unit of structure and function?. Element. This beam is then
telescopically expanded to fill standard one-inch diameter optics. The stochastic master equation
(SME) describing the conditional evolution of the collec- tive spin-state due to a polarimetry
measurement of the probe light is introduced in chapter 8. First consider the situation for a two-level
atom, which is valid at large detunings. This model contains the basic idea for the rest of this thesis,
yet it is different from our experiment in several respects. When we deal with an ensemble of more
than a billion spins, there is no hope of using the full state space in our description. And in chapter 8
we related this idealized theory to our physical Faraday rotation experiment with multilevel cesium
atoms, deriving the relevant signal-to-noise ratio that predicts the expected degree of squeezing. The
two atomic spectra look remarkably different for similar OD0 because the cesium hyperfine levels are
much farther apart in frequency than the sodium levels. 12.5.8 Measuring OD with Faraday Rotation
The optical depth can also be measured by observing the Faraday rotation of the probe beam
(described at length in previous sections and experimentally in coming chapters) and using the OD as
the only free parameter. Because of this effect the density of the cloud becomes independent of the
number of atoms in the cloud (or the radius goes as the cube root of N). For the first, we consider
performing the measurement in an explicitly non-QND way, with a holding field but with a constant
probe intensity. This is a particularly intuitive way of thinking about the squeezing spectrum. In other
words, the cross and excited components reach equilibrium on a timescale much faster than the
ground state component. Although it is often difficult to distinguish, these can be divided into two
rough categories, fields due to people and fields due to natural processes (which, for example, could
be measured at similar lev- els in the middle of a desert). At our MOT settings, the OD at the
trapping detuning is approaching order unity. The appendices consist of several research projects that
either supplement the body of this thesis or did not fit coherently in the primary story-line. Finally,
these papers do not address at all the possibility of unconditional evolution of the Page 279. Taking
the input probe field to be in an x-polarized optical coherent state, and consid- ering the small. With
the symmetry restriction, on the other hand, the state grows only linearly with number. The highest
suppression obtained with multilayer mu-metal cans is a few hundred (as in the Kirschvink lab at
Caltech). This is a small field when compared to typical ambient laboratory DC fields (around 1 G)
as well as AC fields (approximately 1 mG at 60 Hz and 0.1 mG at sub-Hz frequencies). This is a
single-atom dephasing effect that is purely Hamiltonian and reversible in principle. This includes
imperfect photo-detection and reformatting the output beams to give different unravellings of the
unconditional dynamics. The details of experimental techniques to measure and predict various
parameters of interest (fluorescence number, background pressures, OD, atom temperature) are then
discussed. Now we consider the same basic scheme but without time-varying fields and with a focus
Page 280. Note that the second-order cumulant equation (d?2) contains a deterministic Riccati term
(??22dt) but also an initially small stochastic term (?3dW ). Despite the nonoptimality of these
simple estimators, they perform well enough to resolve the discretization of the Dicke levels at long
times. At the same time, we can measure the resulting fluorescence with a detector off the axis of the
initial beam, which should match the in-line absorption measurement by energy conservation. At
times it is advantageous to strobe the measurement strength (probe power) sinu- soidally. The
currents from each of the two photodiodes in a detector are subtracted prior to a transimpedance
amplifier such that in unbalanced configuration the detector can only take so much power before the
amplifier rails, whereas in nearly balanced configuration (with nearly equal powers on each detector)
the nominal signal is zero and the detector can take much more power. The mean or Fz (i.e., Jz) and
theentanglements of formation are all independently normalized by their own maximum in thetime
period shown.