Tutorial 1

Course: State in Medieval India-II: Evolution of Institutional Structure and Governance

Submitted by,
Name: Harshita Dubey
Enrollment No: 22/61/HH/025
Semester: 4th (M. A. Modern history)

Write an essay critically analysing the inter-relationship between religion and state
during Medieval India.
“The Medieval Indian State was a theocracy.”
Prof. Ashirbadi Lal Shrivastava
The interrelationship between religion and state during Medieval India is a complex and
fascinating topic, marked by periods of both cooperation and conflict. This relationship was
shaped by the blend of political, social, and cultural dynamics. Medieval India, spanning
roughly from the 8th to the 18th century, witnessed the rise and fall of numerous dynasties
and empires, each with its own approach to religion and governance. The fusion of religion
and politics in the medieval Indian state was a fundamental aspect of governance, wherein
rulers derived legitimacy and authority from their perceived divine mandate.
Medieval Indian state is defined as theocracy. Theocratic state is “that constitution of a state
in which the Almighty is regarded as the sole sovereign and the laws of the realm as divine
commands rather than human ordinances—the priesthood necessarily becoming the officers
of the invisible ruler. "1 It is a form of government where religious institutions hold
significant influence or directly govern the state. In such systems, religious laws or doctrines
often play a central role in shaping governance, legislation, and societal norms. The
priesthood or religious leaders serve as intermediaries between the divine and the people,
administering the laws and guiding the society according to religious doctrine. H. A. R. Gibb,
prominent scholar of Islamic history, argued that Islamic state was not theocratic but
theocentric. In a theocentric state, religious beliefs and values play a central role in shaping
the laws, social norms, and government structure, while religious scholars do not directly
hold political power. Despite not holding political power directly, religious scholars (Ulama)
advise leaders, interpret religious texts, and influence public opinion.
Scholars, such as Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi represents a critical viewpoint regarding the
categorization of Islamic governance as theocratic as words like theocracy imply religious
dominance. He stated that the supremacy of the shar’ has misled some into thinking that the
Sultanate was a theocracy.2 The claim sparks an intriguing discussion about the nature of

1
Shrivastav, A. L. Medieval Indian Culture, Agra, 1964, pg. 1
2
ibid., 3.
Sultanate period in Muslim history, particularly in relation to Sharia's function and how well
it fits with the idea of a theocracy. In contrast to conventional theocratic states, when
religious leaders have considerable authority over diverse facets of residents' life, the
Sultanate's influence was frequently less widespread. The Sultanate's governance can be seen
as a hybrid system that incorporated elements of Islamic principles, local customs,
administrative structures inherited from previous regimes, and innovations developed by the
ruling elite. Hence, it is not right to call the Sultanate a "Muslim state" as Islamic law was
never considered to bind the rulers in the exercise of their authority.3 This deviates from some
definitions of a "Muslim state" where religious law holds supreme authority. Even though the
Sultanate rulers did not follow all the rules of Sharia for being an Islamic state, one rule that
they did follow was that there was no religious tolerance for Hindus.
The transition from the Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent represents
a significant shift in both political and religious dynamics. This transition depicted continuity
and change at the same time. Along with continuities, the Mughals, perticularly Akbar
brought unique religious dynamics compared to the diverse Sultanates. Babar and Humayun
inherited the religious policy of the sultans of Delhi and, therefore, extended no toleration to
Hinduism.4 In order to confrom strictly to the Muslim law he absolved Muslims from paying
stamp duties thus, confining tax to Hindus alone.5 His successor Humanyun had not much
chance that he could have formulate his unique religious policy, but his later rule represent
that he tolerated heresy to a greater extent than his predecessor, as he placed shia muslims in
his service. He made a grant of 300 acres of land in Mirzapur district in the Uttar Pradesh for
the maintenance of Jangamvadi Math of Banaras.6
The period of Akbar served as a demarcation between the traditional and new approaches to
governance. He introduced many liberal policies some because of his inquisitive nature and
some political incentives. The liberal outlook of Akbar, based on the concept that different
religions were different paths to the same God, and his non-sectarian approach based on sulh
kul were broadly endorsed by the Chishti and Qadiri Sufis.7 The most significant
accomplishment of Akbar's religious policies was the abolition of Jizya. During the Jizya era,
Muslims were the only true citizens in the Muslim state, while Hindus were granted certain
rights due to their obligation to pay the Jizya. With its abolition, Akbar created a common
citizenship for all his subjects, and provided Hindus and Muslims equal status in empire. A.
L. Shrivastav defined this step of Akbar as watershed moment of medieval Indian history.
Next, he began to admit talent to the top state services, both military and civil, and filled
important positions solely on the basis of merit, without regard to a person's race, caste, or
creed. The policy of religious tolerance aided Akbar win rajput loyalty and making a firm
empire. Later ruler Jahngir and Shah Jahan continued the policies of Akbar. Though, they did

3
Sharma, Sri Ram The Religious Policy of The Mughal Emperor, Asia Publishing House, 1972 pg. 18
4
Shrivastav, A. L. Medieval Indian Culture, Agra, 1964, pg. 38
5
Sharma, Sri Ram The Religious Policy of The Mughal Emperor, Asia Publishing House, 1972 pg. 24
6
ibid. 26.
7
Chandra, Satish Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India, Har-Anand Publications,
1996 pg.145
not continued the rules in the same way as they orignally made and some modifications came
in existence concerning as islamic state. For instance, Jahangir is said to have converted some
non-Muslims to Islam. Shah Jahan was an orthodox Muslim. He abolished Some of the non-
Islamic ceremonies and practices at the court example, restored the Hijra Era to the national
calendar, and revived some of the Muslim festivals like Shab-j-barat and Id-i-milad, which
had been given up by Akbar and Jahangir. However, the policy of religious tolerance lasted
till the accession of Aurangzeb in 1658.
The accession of Aurangzeb, began an era of change in Sunni religious Musalman policy and
of the Mughal empire. He was an orthodox who aimed of re-establishing the Islamic empire.
Jadunath Sarkar viewed Aurangzeb as a religious zealot and thought that his dedication to a
specific sort of Islam spelled utter catastrophe for the empire.8 Aurangzeb's policy on
religious tolerance reflects the implementation of strict interpretations of Islamic law (Sharia)
during. His approach to religious policies was indeed marked by a reiteration of limited
toleration, as outlined in Sharia, with a focus on restricting the construction of new non-
Muslim places of worship while permitting the repair of existing ones. Even as a prince
Aurangzeb had given proof of his religious orthodoxy, and, while governor of Gujarat, he had
destroyed several temples in that province.9 However, Aurangzeb's alleged order for the
general destruction of temples is a matter of historical controversy and debate. Scholars like
Sarkar and S.R. Sharma have suggested that Aurangzeb issued such an order, pointing to
accounts by Saqi Mustaid Khan, a historian who wrote several years after Aurangzeb's death.
On the contrary, historical records indicate instances where Aurangzeb continued to grant
land and other favors to non-Muslim places of worship. For example, the famous temples of
Vrindavan, sacred to Hinduism, continued to receive imperial patronage during Aurangzeb's
reign. Similarly, Sikh shrines, such as those in Dehra Dun, were granted land and other
resources by Aurangzeb, demonstrating a degree of tolerance and accommodation towards
non-Muslim religious communities.
The instances of Aurangzeb ordering the demolition of Hindu temples, such as the
Vishvanatha Temple in Benares (Varanasi) in 1669 and the Keshava Deva Temple in Mathura
in 1670, are often cited as examples of his use of religious coercion for political ends. These
events occurred in the context of Aurangzeb's efforts to assert Mughal authority and enforce
obedience to the central government. In both instances Aurangzeb sought to punish political
missteps by temple associates and ensure future submission to the Mughal state.10 The revival
of Jaziya after a century on the ground of wajib (Compulsory), according to sharia portrayed
him as a religious bigot. Sarkar, argued that Aurangzeb played a significant role in the
breakdown of the Mughal Empire via his policies of religious discrimination, expansionism,
and economic strain.
The Mughal emperors' strategy of maintaining a delicate balance among various ethnic,
religious, and regional groups within the nobility was a key aspect of their governance.
Mughal Empire was ethnically and culturally diverse, comprising people from different

8
Truschke, Audrey Aurangzeb: The Man and The Myth, Random House India, 2018 pg. 90
9
Shrivastav, A. L. Medieval Indian Culture, Agra, 1964, pg. 41
10
Truschke, Audrey Aurangzeb: The Man and The Myth, Random House India, 2018 pg. 74
religious backgrounds, linguistic groups, and regions. To govern such a vast and diverse
empire effectively, Mughal emperors adopted a policy of inclusivity within the nobility. One
of the political functions of a Muslim State is "protection of the Dhimmis." This protection in
the liberal sense of the term includes freedom of religious observances as enjoined by the
Qur'an.11 The transition from Aurangzeb's efforts to revive a more orthodox Islamic state to
Shah Jahan's compromise, which emphasized inclusivity and accommodation, marked a
significant evolution in the ideological aspect of the Mughal state. The secularist type of
state, based on equal respect to all religions, did not find acceptance during the 17th century.
The critical analysis of the relationship between religion and the state in medieval India
underscores the complexity of historical processes and the interplay of diverse factors
shaping the socio-political landscape. Throughout this period, various rulers and dynasties
grappled with the challenge of reconciling religious principles with the imperatives of
governance, often shaping the trajectory of Indian history in profound ways. One of the
defining features of medieval Indian polities was the prevalence of religiously pluralistic
societies, where multiple faiths coexisted and interacted with each other. This diversity
presented both opportunities for cultural exchange and cooperation, as well as challenges
related to religious tension and conflict. At times, rulers sought to legitimize their authority
by aligning themselves closely with religious institutions and ideologies, thereby intertwining
the affairs of the state with religious doctrines and practices. This fusion of religious and
political authority often resulted in the establishment of theocratic states, where religious
leaders wielded significant influence over governance and decision-making. However, the
relationship between religion and the state was not static or uniform across medieval India.

11
Chaudhary, M. N. Hindu Muslin Relation During the Mughal Period 1526-1707 A.D., Proceedings
of the Indian History Congress , 1946, Vol. 9 (1946), pp. 282-296, Indian History Congress pg. 287
Bibliography:
Shrivastav, A. L. Medieval Indian Culture, Agra, 1964
Sharma, Sri Ram The Religious Policy of The Mughal Emperor, Asia Publishing House, 1972
Chandra, Satish Historiography, Religion and State in Medieval India, Har-Anand
Publications, 1996
Truschke, Audrey Aurangzeb: The Man and The Myth, Random House India, 2018
Chaudhary, M. N. Hindu Muslin Relation During the Mughal Period 1526-1707 A.D.,
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , 1946, Vol. 9 (1946), pp. 282-296, Indian
History Congress