Motivation

• Psychological forces that determine the direction of one's behavior in

an organization, one's level of effort and one's level of persistence.
• Effort refers to how hard people work.
• Persistence refers to whether, when faced with roadblocks and
obstacles people keep trying to give up.
• Motivation is central to management because it explains why people
behave the way they do in organizations.
• It also explains why a waiter is polite or rude; why a nursery school
teacher really tries to get children to enjoy learning or just goes through
the motions, and why some workers put forth twice effort of others.
• Motivation can come from intrinsic or extrinsic sources.
• Intrinsically motivated behavior is behavior that is performed for its own
sake.
• The source of motivation is actually performing the behavior and
motivation comes from doing the work itself.
• Extrinsically motivated behavior is avoid punishment; the source of
motivation is the consequences of the behavior; not the behavior itself.
• Many theories of motivation exist that managers can use to improve
their understanding of why people behave as they do.
• However none provides a universally accepted explanation of human
behavior.
• Theories allows us to introduce ideas that managers can use to
develop their own motivational approaches.
• The two most discussed groups of theories are content theories and
processes theories.
• Content Theories
• Content theories are concerned with identifying what it is within an
individual or the work environment that energize and sustain behavior.
That is, what specific things motivate people?

• Process Theories
• On the other hand process theories try to explain and describe the
process of how behavior is energized, directed, sustained and finally
stopped.
• First, two content theories-Maslow’s need hierarchy and Herzberg’s
two factor theories- are discussed.
• Second, two process theories-expectancy and reinforcement-are
introduced.
• After each theory is explained, we show how it can be applied by
managers.
• Content Theories Of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow’s need hierarchy theory has enjoyed widespread
acceptance since it was introduced. His theory of motivation
stresses two fundamental premises:
• We are wanting animals whose needs depend on what we already
have. Only needs not yet satisfied can influence behavior. In other
words, a satisfied need is not a motivator.
• Our needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance. Once one
need is satisfied, another emerges and demands satisfaction.

• Maslow’s hypothesized five levels of needs(1) physiological,(2 ) safety,

(3) social, (4) esteem and (5) self-actualization.
• He placed them in a framework referred to as the hierarchy of needs
because of the different levels of importance.
• Maslow’s states that, if all of one's needs are unsatisfied at a particular
time, satisfaction of the more predominant needs is more pressing than
the others.
• Those that come first must be satisfied before a higher-level need
comes into play. Let us briefly examine each need level.
• Management and Organizational Behavior
• Physiological Needs:
• This category consists of the human body’s primary needs, such as
food, water, and sex.
• Physiological needs dominate when they are unsatisfied, and no other
needs serve as a basis for motivation.
• “A person would hunger for food, safety, love and esteem probably
would hunger for food more strongly than for anything else” Maslow

Safety Needs:
• When physical needs are adequately met, the next higher level need
assumes importance. Safety needs include protection from physical
harm, ill health, economic disaster, and the unexpected. From a
 managerial standpoint, safety needs show up in an employee’s
attempts to ensure job safety and fringe benefits.
• Job security has become a serious issue as more and more people are
laid off. The management focus emphasizes that job cutbacks have hit
almost every industry. There are no safe havens from the realities of
job layoff.

Social Needs:
• These needs are related to the social nature of people and their need
for companionship.
• Here, the hierarchy departs from the physical or quasi-physical needs
of the two previous levels.
• Non-satisfaction of this level of need may affect the mental health of
the individual.
• Esteem Needs:
• The need for both awareness of importance to others and actual
esteem from others must also be felt as warranted and deserved.
Satisfaction of these needs leads to a feeling of self-confidence and
prestige.
• An example of enhancing the self-esteem of employees is the
motivational work done at Hilton Hotel Abuja. The employees
frequently receive items, such as T-shirts and mugs, to tell them they
are good. The company continually tells the employees they are
needed, valued, and important. A T-shirt that proclaims, “You are the
best!” and a mug with a statement that, “We like your efforts” are forms
of motivational feedback. They are also statement that the employee is
important to others.
• Self Actualization Needs:
• Maslow defines these needs as the “desire to become more and more
what one is, to become everything one is capable of becoming."
• This means that the individual will realize fully the potentialities of
talents and capabilities.
• Obviously, as the role of an individual varies, so will the external
aspect of self-actualization.
• In other words, whether the person is a college professor, corporate
manager, parent, or athlete, the need is to be effective in that particular
role.
• Maslow assumes that satisfaction of the self-actualization needs is
possible only after the satisfaction of all the self actualization needs
tend to increase the strength of those needs.
• Thus, when people are able to achieve self-actualization, they tend to
be motivated by increased opportunities to satisfy that need.
• Applying Maslow’s Theory In Management
• The need hierarchy theory is widely accepted and referred to by
practicing managers.
• Although it does not provide a complete understanding of human
motivation or the means to motivate people, it does provide an
excellent starting point for students of management.
• It is easy to comprehend, has a great deal of commonsense appeal,
and points out some of the factors that motivate people in business
and other types of organization.
• Criticism Of Maslow’s Theory
• Maslow’s theory is often presented as being universally accepted as
accurate. However, people in various firms, positions, or countries
differ.
• Individual differences certainly exist. An accountant in Budapest,
Hungary, working for the Hungarian Credit Bank may be concerned
about a comfortable work area, a salary to help support her family,
and receiving some time off during the summer months.
• However, an accountant of chase Manhattan Bank in New York may
have extensive self-actualization needs and not be overly concerned
with physiological and security needs.
• Through wages or salary, individuals are able to satisfy their needs
and their families’ physiological needs.
• Organizations also help to satisfy most security or safety needs
through both salary and fringe benefit programs.
• Finally, they aid in satisfying social needs by allowing interaction and
association with others on the job. Some work-related examples that
managers can influence under each of the five need categories are
presented in the table 23.1.
• Another criticism of the need hierarchy is that needs overlap and
can fit in more than one, even all of the categories.
• And equitably salary, may satisfy needs in all five categories; the
salary received by a person has an impact on many different
needs.
• Critics also state the needs’ hierarchy is static.
 • Needs change over time, in various situations, and when people
make comparison about their satisfaction and the satisfaction of
others.
• A 22-year old recent college graduate perceives, experiences,
and copes with needs differently than a 62-year old preparing for
retirement and leisure activities.
• Herzeberg’s Two-factor Theory
• Another content explanation of motivation was advanced by Fredrick
Herzberg in 1959.
• He based his theory on a study of need satisfaction and on the
reported motivational effects of these satisfactions on 200 engineers
and accountants.
• The theory is referred to as the two-factor theory of motivation.
• In the study of engineers and accountants, Herzberg and his
associates asked the subjects to think of times both when they felt
especially good and when they felt especially bad about their jobs.
• Each employee was then asked to describe the conditions that led to
these particular feelings.
• The employees named different kinds of conditions as causes of each
of the feelings.
• For example, if recognition led to a good feeling about the job, the lack
of recognition was seldom indicated as a cause of bad feelings.
• Based on the study, Herzberg reached two conclusions:
• Some conditions of a job operate primarily to dissatisfy employees
when they are not present.
However, the presence of these conditions does not build strong
motivation.
Herzberg calls these maintenance factors, since they are necessary
to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction.
He also notes that many of these have often been perceived by
managers as factors that can motivate subordinates but that they
are, infact, more potent as dissatisfies when they are absent.
He names 10 maintenance factors:
• Maintenance Factors
• Company policy and administration
• Technical supervision
• Interpersonal relation with supervisor
• Interpersonal relation with peers
• Interpersonal relation with subordinates
• Salary
• Job security
• Personal life
• Work conditions
• Status
• Satisfiers
ii) Some job conditions build high levels of motivation and job satisfaction.
However, if these conditions are not present, they do not prove highly
dissatisfying.
Hertzberg described of these motivational factors, or satisfiers:
• Achievement
• Recognition
• Advancement
• The work itself
• The possibility of personal growth
• Responsibility
• In summary, the maintenance factors cause much dissatisfaction when
they are not present but do not provide strong motivation when they
are present.
• On the other hand, the factors in the second group lead to strong
motivation and satisfaction when they are absent.
• Hertzberg's study of engineers and accountants suggested to him the
opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction but simply “no
satisfaction”.
• Note that Herzberg’s motivational factors are job centered, that is they
relate directly to the job itself, the individual’s performance, the job’s
responsibilities, and the growth and recognition obtained from it.
• Maintenance factors are peripheral to the job itself and more related to
the external environment of work.
• Another important finding of the study is that when employees are
highly motivated, they have a high tolerance for dissatisfaction arising
from the maintenance factors.
• However, the reverse is not true.
• The distinction between motivational and maintenance factors is
similar to what psychologists have described as intrinsic and extrinsic
motivators.
• Intrinsic motivators are part of the job and occur when the employee
performs the work.
• The opportunity to perform job with intrinsic motivational potential is
motivating because the work is being performed.
• Pay is a good example of what Herzberg classified as a maintenance
factor and what some psychologists call an extrinsic motivator.
• Applying Herzberg’s Theory In Management.
• Herzberg certainly has extended Maslow’s ideas and made them more
applicable to the work situation.
• He has drawn attention to the critical importance, in work motivation, of
job-centered factors previously given little attention by behavioral
scientists.
• The insight has resulted in an increased interest in job enrichment, an
effort to restructure jobs to increase worker satisfaction.
• Herzberg’s response to motivation problems is an important one.
• Traditionally, managers would respond to motivation problems with
more money, increased fringe benefits, and improved working
conditions.
• Often, the result of such actions was still no more effort to work harder.
Herzberg’s theory offers an explanation for this phenomenon.
• If managers focus only on maintenance factors, motivation will not
occur. The motivators must be built into the job to improve motivation.
• A survey of two hundred human resources executives by Goodrich &
Sherwood indicates that Herzberg’s view, which was first stated in
1959, still has validity today.
• The factors that the executives listed as extremely important for
employee motivation were responsibility and autonomy, respect and
recognition from superiors, a sense of well-being on the job, and the
opportunity to have one’s ideas adopted. These are motivational
factors.
• Criticisms Of Herzberg’s Theory
• One limitation of Herzberg’s original study and conclusions is that the
subject consisted of engineers and accountants.
• Individuals in such positions had the motivation to seek advanced
education and expected to be rewarded.
• The same may not hold true for the nonprofessional worker. In fact,
some testing of Herzberg’s model on blue-collar workers showed that
certain factors considered maintenance factors by Herzberg (pay and
job security) are considered by blue-collar workers to be motivational
factors.
• Some critics believe that Herzberg’s inference concerning differences
between stated sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction in
 Herzberg’s study may be the result of defensive processes within
those responding.
• Detractors point out that people are apt to attribute their dissatisfaction
more to obstacles presented by company policies or superior than to
their own deficiencies.
• Other critics believe that the two-factor theory is an oversimplification
of the true relationship between motivation and dissatisfaction as well
as between the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
• Reviews of several studies show that one factor can cause job
satisfaction for one person and job dissatisfaction for another.
• Herzberg assumes that there is a strong relationship between
satisfaction and productivity.
• But his research only examined satisfaction, not productivity.
• Other researches have questioned the conclusion that satisfaction and
productivity are highly and positively related.
• Since his original work, Herzberg has cited numerous replications of
the original study that support his position.
• These subsequent studies were conducted on professional women,
hospital maintenance personnel, agricultural administrators, nurse,
food handlers, manufacturing supervisors, engineers, scientists,
military officers, managers ready for retirement, teachers, technicians,
and assemblers.
• And some were conducted in other cultural settings: Finland, Hungary,
Russia and Yugoslavia. However, some researchers have used the
same research methods employed by Herzberg and obtained results
different from what his theory would predict, while several using
different methods have also obtained contradictory results.
• Comparing Herzberg’s And Maslow’s Models
• There is much between Herzberg’s and Maslow’s models.
• A close examination of Herzberg’s ideas indicates that what he actually
is saying is that some employees may have achieved a level of social
and economic progress such that the higher level needs of Maslow
(esteem and self actualization) are the primary motivators.
• However, they still must satisfy the lower-level needs for the
maintenance of their current state.
• Thus, money might still be a motivator for non-management workers
(particularly those at a low wage level) and for some managerial
employees.
• In addition, Herzberg’s model adds to Maslow’s model because it
breaks down the five need levels into two job-oriented categories.
Maintenance and motivational.
• Process Theories Of Motivation
• In contrast to the two content theories, Maslow’s need hierarchy and
Herzberg’s two-factor model, expectancy theory and reinforcement

theory are process theories.

• They concentrate on how motivation occurs, that is, how behavior is
initiated, directed, sustained, and stopped.
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• The expectancy theory of motivation as initially presented in 1964 by
psychologist Victor Vroom view motivation as a process governing
choices.
• Vroom suggests that individuals are motivated at work to make choices
among different behaviors for example, intensities of work effort.
• A person may choose to work at a moderate rate or an accelerated
rate. The choice is made by the individual.
• If a person believes that his or her work effort will be adequately
rewarded, there will be motivated effort: a choice will be made to work
so that a preferred reward is received.
• The logic of expectancy motivation is that individuals exert work effort
to achieve performance that result in preferred rewards.
• Three primary variables in the expectancy theory of motivation are
choices, expectancy, and preference.
• Choice designates the individual’s freedom to select from a number of
alternative behaviors. E.g. one's work may be fast or slow, hard or
moderate, the employee may stay home or come to work.
• Working fast may lead to more pay if compensation is based on the
number of units produced.
• Expectancy is the belief that a particular behavior will or will not be
successful. It is a subject probability.
• Expectancy would be zero if a person believed that it was impossible
to produce, say 50 units a day; it would equal one if a person felt
certain of being able to produce 22 units a day.
• Preferences (valences) are the values a person attaches to various
outcomes (reward or punishment).
• Instrumentality - the probability that a person assigns to the
performance outcome link. It is the probability that a particular
performance level will lead to a specific outcome.
• The work oriented example is presented to show the theory can be
applied.
• To predict whether a person will select path A and B, you need to
examine the interrelationships of the variables in the model.
• The motivation to work is expressed as:
M=E×I×P
• This is motivation to work (M) results from expectancy (E) times
instrumentality (I) times preference (P).
• Because this is a multiplicative interrelationship, think about the
consequences if E,P,or I approaches zero in value.
• Suppose that the work example in the figure applies to Helen and her
manager Musa. Musa is not sure whether a pay bonus will motivate
Helen to perform better. Using the expectancy theory, Musa would
predict that Helen’s motivation to work hard would be low if:
• Expectancy is low: Helen feels that she really can’t achieve the
bonus level of performance.
• Instrumentality is low: Helen is uncertain about whether excellent
performance will result in the bonus money.
• Preference is low: Helen doesn't value receiving the bonus.
• Any combination of 1,2 or 3.
• The expectancy theory of motivation requires a manager such as Musa
to know three things when applying the theory.
• First, what are the person’s beliefs about working hard and achieving a
particular level of performance (expectancy)?
• Second, does the person believe that various outcomes (positive or
negative) will result from the achievement of the particular level of
performance (instrumentality)?
• And third, how much value does a person assign to outcomes
(preferences)?
• In one study, 1000 employees were asked to rank-order 10 work-
related factors. If Musa reviewed this type of research, he would
understand how the sex, age, income level, job type, and
organizational level influence expectancy and preferences. Not
everyone prefers a promotion or job security.
• Applying The Expectancy Theory In Management.
• Managers can influence expectancies by selecting (hiring) individuals
with particular skills and abilities, training people to improve their skills
 and abilities, and providing individuals with the leadership support to
influence instrumentalities by being supportive, realistic, and offering
advice.
• The manager can influence preferences by listening to employee
needs, guiding employees to help them accomplish desired outcome,
and providing proper resources to achieve the desired performance.
• Managers must understand the vital role of perception in motivation.
one's expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences depend on his or
her perceptions.
• The importance of perceptual differences among workers with similar
skill levels is made obvious by the expectancy theory.
• Different levels of motivation among people with similar skills could be
explained in perceptual differences.
• Criticism Of Expectancy Theory
• Many critics believe the expectancy theory to be more complex than
either Maslow’s or Herzberg’s theory.
• There also are problems of measuring and studying the main variables
in the model. How should preferences be determined? How should
expectancy be determined?
• However despite the lack of tested validity, the expectancy model still
adds insight into the role that perception plays in choices, expectancy,
and preferences.
• Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory is another widely discussed theory of motivation.
• Reinforcement theory considers the use of positive or negative
reinforcement to motivate or create an environment of motivation.
• This theory of motivation based largely on the work of B.F. Skinner, is
not concerned with needs or why people make choices.
• Instead, this theory focuses on the environment and its consequences
for the person.
• That is, behavior is considered to be environmentally caused.
• Suppose John, a hardworking employee, is given a US$ 100 bonus for
doing a good job. In the future, John continues to work hard expecting
another bonus payment. Why does John continue to work hard? When
John first worked hard, his behavior was reinforced by US$ 100 bonus.
• This reinforcement is an environmental consequence of good
performance.
• The explanation of why John continued to work, according to
reinforcement theory, centers on Thorndike’s law of effect, which
states that behavior that results in a pleasing outcome will likely be
 repeated. Behavior that results in a unpleasant outcome is not likely to
be repeated.

• Operant conditioning is a powerful tool used for changing employee

behavior.
• The term operant conditioning in the management literature applies to
controlling work behavior by manipulating the consequences.
• It is based on the research work of psychologist B.F Skinner and is
built on two principles: (1) Thorndike’s law of effect and (2) properly
scheduled rewards influence individual behavior.
• Behavior modification is the contemporary term that describes
techniques for applying the principles of operant conditioning to control
individual behavior.
• Applying Reinforcement Theory In Management
• Suppose you are a manager, and your employee, Mary, is often late
with required budget reports.
• You could use four types of reinforcement:
– First, you could focus on reinforcing the desired behavior (which,
in this example, is preparing budget report on time). You could
use positive or negative reinforcement.
– Positive reinforcement would include rewards such as praise,
recognition, or a pay bonus.
– Negative reinforcement also focuses on reinforcing the desired
behavior.
– However, instead of providing a positive reward, the “reward” is
that the employee avoids some negative consequences.
– Thus, Mary would complete the report on time to avoid the
negative consequences of being reprimanded by her manager.
• Alternatively, the manager might focus on reducing the tardiness of
submitting the budget report by use of extinction (withholding positive
reinforcement).
• Mary might unlearn her bad habit of submitting late reports.
• Another method that reduces the frequency of undesired behavior is
punishment.
• In this case, punishment could involve the public reprimand of Mary by
the manager for submitting a late report.
• Positive desired behaviors. On the other hand, unlearning undesired
behaviors involves the use of extinction or punishment.
• Criticisms Of Reinforcement Theory
• Some critics state that the idea of rewarding or reinforcing performance
is bribery and it is used to manipulate one person to fit a manager’s
concept of the ideal employee.
• Others argue that motivating employees through behavior modification
relies solely on extrinsic reward such as pay.
• What about intrinsic reward, such as feeling the challenge of doing a
good job?
• Other issues of concern include: Which reinforcers should be used?
For whom? How long will reinforcers be successful? Can reinforces be
effectively used with employees who are independent, creative, and
self-motivated?
• Reinforcement Options Available To Managers.
• In applying positive reinforcement to motivate desired behaviors,
managers can use different schedules.
• A continuous reinforcement schedule involves administering a
reward each time a desired behavior occurs, e.g. every time a
budget report is submitted on time. Mary would be rewarded.
• An intermittent reinforcement schedule involves rewarding desired
behavior only periodically.
• According to research result:
• Continuous reinforcement schedules usually result in the
fastest learning.
• Intermittent reinforcement schedules result in slower learning
but stronger retention of what is learned.
• It is helpful to keep these criticism in mind when considering the
managerial use of reinforcement theory.
• They help illustrate some of the problems associated with this
approach.
• Word of caution: Reinforcement theory (like any of the motivation
theories) is not a solution to every motivation problem.
• Ten Keys to Motivating Others
• Know your subordinates: know their needs, values and goals.
• Set up conditions that enable subordinates to meet their needs,
values and goals.
• Set goals/objectives that are obtainable but have a degree of
difficulty.
• Include subordinates in the goal/objective setting process.
• Tell your subordinates what they must do (behaviors) to be
rewarded.
• Ten Keys to Motivating Others
• Tell your subordinates what behaviors do not meet your standards.
• Reward behaviors (not intentions) that you want to continue.
• Be objective and fair in dealing with subordinates (equity).
• Do not punish any subordinate in front of another.
• Avoid setting up conflicting situations such that behaviors cannot
possibly lead to goal/reward attainment.