Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære

Roskilde Universitet

Noter til human anatomi og vævslære

1. Kursusgang
Essentials A&P: Chap 1 (23-42), 3 (82-96, 108-113, 120-128) - 46 sider
Histology: Chap 1 (1-10, 12-17), 4 (106-110), 5 (116-126) - 32 sider

1.1. Kropsplaner
Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

1.1 An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology (p. 30-31 in pdf)

Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of the structure, or physical form, of the body. The function, or
physiology, of each body part and the body as a whole is dependent on the anatomy of those
parts; in other words, structure determines function.

Physiology
Physiology is the study of how the body and its parts work or function. Neurophysiology
explains the workings of the nervous system, and cardiac physiology studies the function of
the heart.

1.2 Levels of Structural Organization (p. 31-36 in pdf)

Name the six levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain how
they are related.
Chemical level - atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules.
Cellular level - cells
Tissue level - Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function.
Organ level - An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a
specific function for the body.
Organ system level - An organ system is a group of organs that work together to accomplish
a common purpose.
Organismal level - is the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.

Name the organ systems of the body, and briefly state the major functions of each system.
Identify and classify by organ system all organs discussed.
Integumentary System - is the external covering of the body, or the skin, including the hair
and fingernails.
Skeletal System - consists of bones, cartilages, and joints. It supports the body and provides
a framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause movement.
Muscular System - The muscles of the body have only one function— to contract, or shorten.
The mobility of the body as a whole reflects the activity of skeletal muscles, the large, fleshy
muscles attached to bones.
Nervous System - is the body’s fast-acting control system. It consists of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sensory receptors

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Endocrine System - controls body activities, but it acts much more slowly. Endocrine glands
produce hormones and release them into the blood to travel to relatively distant target organs.
Cardiovascular System - primary organs are the heart and blood vessels. delivers oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and other substances to the cells and picks up waste, such as carbon
dioxide.
Lymphatic System - Its organs include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid
organs such as the spleen and tonsils. When fluid is leaked into tissues from the blood,
lymphatic vessels return it to the bloodstream so that there is enough blood to continuously
circulate through the body.
Respiratory System - consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
lungs. The job is to keep the body supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide.
Digestive System - is basically a tube running through the body from mouth to anus. The
system include the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and
rectum plus a number of accessory organs (liver, salivary glands, pancreas, and others). The
liver is considered a digestive organ because the bile it produces helps to break down fats.
The pancreas, which delivers digestive enzymes to the small intestine, has both endocrine
and digestive functions.
Urinary System - removes the nitrogen-containing wastes from the blood and flushes them
from the body in urine. This system, often called the excretory system, is composed of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
Reproductive System - male reproductive system structures are the scrotum, penis, accessory
glands, and the duct system, which carries sperm to the outside of the body. The female
ovaries produce eggs, or ova; the female duct system consists of the uterine tubes, uterus, and
vagina.

1.3 Maintaining Life (p. 36-41 in pdf)

List eight functions that humans must perform to maintain life.
Maintaining Boundaries - “inside” remains distinct from its “outside.” Every cell of the
human body is surrounded by an external membrane. The body as a whole is also enclosed by
the integumentary system (skin).
Movement - includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling
ourselves from one place to another. Movement also occurs inside the body.
Responsiveness - or irritability, is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment
and then to react to them.
Digestion - is the process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can then
be absorbed into the blood.
Metabolism - is a broad term that refers to all chemical reactions that occur within the body
and all of its cells. Like digestion and using nutrients and oxygen to produce molecules of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Excretion - is the process of removing excreta (wastes) from the body. The digestive system
rids the body of indigestible food residues in feces, the urinary system disposes of
nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in urine, and the skin disposes of various waste
products as components of sweat.
Reproduction - can occur on the cellular or organismal level. The function of the
reproductive system is regulated very precisely by hormones of the endocrine system.
Growth - can be an increase in cell size or an increase in body size that is usually
accomplished by an increase in the number of cells.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

List the five survival needs of the human body.

Nutrients - Carbohydrates are the major energy providing fuel for body cells. Proteins and, to
a lesser extent, fats are essential for building cell structures
Oxygen - All the nutrients in the world are useless unless oxygen is also available.
Water - accounts for 60 to 80 percent of body weight, depending on the age of the individual.
It is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body and provides the fluid base for
body secretions and excretions.
Normal body temperature - must be maintained. If body temperature drops below 37°C
(98.6°F), metabolic reactions become slower and slower and finally stop.
Atmospheric pressure - Breathing and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
lungs depend on appropriate atmospheric pressure.

1.4 The Language of Anatomy (p. 41-47 in pdf)

Verbally describe or demonstrate the anatomical position.

Anatomical position - To avoid confusion, we always assume that the body is in a standard
position called anatomical position. In this position, the body is erect with the feet parallel
and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing forward.

Use proper anatomical terminology to describe body directions, surfaces, and body planes.
Commonly used directional terms are defined and illustrated in Table 1.1 (p. 42 in pdf).
The anatomical position and regional terms Figure 1.4 (p. 43 in pdf).
Body planes - Because the body is three-dimensional, we can refer to three types of planes or
sections that lie at right angles to one another.
- A sagittal (saj′˘ı-tal) section is a cut along the lengthwise, or longitudinal, plane of the
body, dividing the body into right and left parts.
● Median (midsagittal) section - If the cut is down the median plane of the body
and the right and left parts are equal in size.
● All other sagittal sections are parasagittal sections (para = near).
- A frontal section - is a cut along a lengthwise plane that divides the body (or an
organ) into anterior and posterior parts. It is also called a coronal (ko-ro’ nal,
“crown”) section.
- A transverse section - is a cut along a horizontal plane, dividing the body or organ
into superior and inferior parts. It is also called a cross section.

Locate the major body cavities, and list the chief organs in each cavity.
Body Cavities - Anatomy and physiology textbooks typically describe two sets of internal
body cavities, called the dorsal and ventral body cavities, that provide different degrees of
protection to the organs within them.
- The dorsal body cavity - has two subdivisions, which are continuous with each other.
● The cranial cavity - is the space inside the bony skull. The brain is well
protected because it occupies the cranial cavity.
● The spinal cavity - extends from the cranial cavity to the end of the spinal
cord.
- The ventral body cavity - is much larger than the dorsal cavity. It contains all the
structures within the chest and abdomen, that is, the visceral organs in those regions,
divided into two.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

● The superior thoracic cavity - is separated from the rest of the ventral cavity
by a dome-shaped muscle, the diaphragm. The organs in the thoracic cavity
(lungs, heart, and others) are protected by the rib cage. A central region called
the mediastinum (me″de-as-ti′num) separates the lungs into right and left
cavities in the thoracic cavity.
● The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is the abdominopelvic cavity. Some
prefer to subdivide it into a superior abdominal cavity containing the stomach,
liver, intestines, and other organs, and an inferior pelvic cavity containing the
reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum.
- Abdominopelvic cavity can be divided into four more or less equal
regions called quadrants, right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower
quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower quadrant
(LLQ).
Or they can be divided into nine separate regions by four planes.
- The umbilical region is the centermost region, deep to and
surrounding the umbilicus (navel).
- The epigastric (ep″˘ı-gas′trik) region is located superior to the
umbilical region (epi = upon, above; gastric = stomach).
- The hypogastric (pubic) region is inferior to the umbilical region
(hypo = below).
- The right iliac (inguinal) region and left iliac (inguinal) region are
lateral to the hypogastric region (iliac = superior part of the hip bone).
- The right lumbar region and left lumbar region lie lateral to the
umbilical region (lumbus = loins) and spinal column between the
bottom ribs and the hip bones; see Figure 1.4b).
- The right hypochondriac (hi″po-kon′dre-ak) region and left
hypochondriac region flank the epigastric region and contain the
lower ribs (chondro = cartilage).

Other Body Cavities -In addition to the large closed body cavities, there are several smaller
body cavities. Most are in the head and open to the body exterior.
- Oral cavity and digestive cavity. The oral cavity, or the mouth, contains the teeth and
tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the digestive organs, which open to
the exterior at the anus.
- Nasal cavity. Located within and posterior to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the
respiratory system.
- Orbital cavities. The orbital cavities (orbits) in the skull house the eyes and present
them in an anterior position.
- Middle ear cavities. The middle ear cavities carved into the skull lie just medial to the
eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the
hearing receptors in the inner ears.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

1.2. Celler og væv

Chapter 3 Cells and Tissues
PART I: CELLS
3.1 Overview of the Cellular Basis of Life (p. 91-92 in pdf)
Name and describe the four concepts of the cell theory.
A cell - is the structural and functional unit of the human body. Cells carry out the chemical
activities needed to sustain life, and they divide to form or repair tissues.
Cell theory:
- A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. So, when you
define cell properties, you are in fact defining the properties of life.
- The activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its cells.
- According to the principle of complementarity, the activities of cells are dictated by
their structure (anatomy), which determines function (physiology).
- Continuity of life has a cellular basis.

List four elements that make up the bulk of living matter.

Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

3.2 Anatomy of a Generalized Cell (p. 92-93 in pdf)

Define generalized cell.
Generalized cell - demonstrates most of these typical features in the cell. In general, all cells
have three main regions or parts—a nucleus, a plasma membrane, and the cytoplasm.

Identify on a cell model or diagram the three major cell regions (nucleus, cytoplasm, and
plasma membrane). List the structures of the nucleus, and explain the function of chromatin
and nucleoli.
The nucleus - has the genetic material/DNA. The nucleus has three recognizable regions or
structures:
- The nuclear envelope/membrane - double membrane with a space between. At
various points, the two layers of the nuclear envelope fuse, generating openings called
nuclear pores, allowing substances to pass through.
- Nucleolus - The nucleus of a cell contains nucleoli, small round bodies where
ribosomes are assembled.
- Chromatin - when a cell is not dividing, its DNA is carefully wound around proteins
called histones to form a loose network of “beads on a string” called chromatin.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

3.3 The Plasma Membrane (p. 93-95 in pdf)

Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane, and relate it to membrane
functions.
Plasma membrane - is a fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and
separates them from the surrounding environment.
Structure of the plasma membrane - consists of two phospholipid (fat) layers arranged “tail
to tail,” with cholesterol and floating proteins scattered among them. The polar “heads” of the
lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecules are hydrophilic. Their nonpolar fatty acid “tails,”
being hydrophobic. The cholesterol helps to both stabilize the membrane and keep it flexible.

Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.
Cell Membrane Junctions - some types of cells are ‘footloose’ in the body others are knit
into tight communities. Typically bound together in three ways:
- Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an adhesive or cellular glue.
- Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove
fashion.
- Special cell membrane junctions are formed (Figure 3.3). These junctions vary
structurally depending on their roles. They are divided into three types of junctions:
● Tight junctions - encircle the cells and bind them together into leakproof
sheets. sFuse together tightly like a zipper and prevent substances from
passing through the extracellular space between cells.
● Desmosomes - scattered like rivets along the sides of adjacent cells. They
prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart.
● Gap junctions - function mainly to allow communication. Common in the
heart. the neighboring cells are connected by hollow cylinders composed of
proteins (connexons).

3.4 The Cytoplasm (p. 96-103 in pdf)

Identify the organelles on a cell model or describe them, and indicate the major function of
each.
Cytoplasm - is the cellular material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane.
Has the most cellular activities, with three major components: the cytosol, inclusions, and
organelles.
- Cytosol - is semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements. Dissolved in the
cytosol, which is largely water, are nutrients and a variety of other solutes.
- Inclusions - are chemical substances that may or may not be present, depending on
the specific cell type. Most inclusions are stored nutrients or cell products floating in
the cytosol.
- Organelles - are specialized cellular compartments that are the metabolic machinery
of the cell.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Mitochondria - wall consists of a double membrane, equal to two plasma membranes placed
side by side. Enzymes dissolved in the fluid within the mitochondria. As the foods are broken
down, energy is released. Because the mitochondria supply most of this ATP, they are the
“powerhouses” of the cell.
Ribosomes - Ribosomes are the actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - is a system of fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that coil and
twist through the cytoplasm. It is continuous with the nuclear envelope and accounts for
about half of a cell’s membranes. Carries substances (primarily proteins) from one part of the
cell to another.
- The rough endoplasmic reticulum is so called because it is studded with ribosomes.
All of the building materials of cellular membranes are formed either in it or on it.
- The smooth endoplasmic reticulum communicates with the rough variety, it plays no
role in protein synthesis, because it lacks ribosomes. Functions in lipid metabolism
(cholesterol and fat synthesis and breakdown) and detoxification of drugs and
pesticides.
Golgi Apparatus - Its major function is to modify, package, and ship proteins (sent to it by
the rough ER via transport vesicles) in specific ways, depending on their final destination.
Lysosomes - appear in different sizes, are membranous “bags” containing powerful digestive
enzymes.
Peroxisomes - are membranous sacs containing powerful oxidase enzymes that use molecular
oxygen to detoxify a number of harmful or poisonous substances, including alcohol and
formaldehyde.
Cytoskeleton - acts as a cell’s “bones and muscles” by furnishing an internal framework that
determines cell shape, supports other organelles, and provides the machinery for intracellular
transport and various types of cellular movements. Made up of:
- Microfilaments - are most involved in cell motility and in producing changes in cell
shape.
- Intermediate filaments - strong and stable. Made up of fibrous subunits.
- Microtubules - are made up of repeating subunits of the protein tubulin.
Centrioles - lie close to the nucleus. Best known for their role in generating microtubules and
also for directing the formation of the mitotic spindle during cell division.
Cilia and Flagella - Cilia are whiplike cellular extensions that move substances along the
cell surface. Flagella is a tail.
Microvilli - are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane that project from an
exposed cell surface.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

3.5 Cell Diversity (p. 103-105 in pdf)

Apply the principle of complementarity to different cell types by comparing overall shapes,
internal structures, and special functions.
Cells that connect body parts, Fibroblast - elongated shape, abundant rough ER and a large
Golgi apparatus to make and secrete the protein building blocks of these fibers. Erythrocyte
(red blood cell) - carries oxygen in the blood. Biconcave disc shape provides extra surface
area for the uptake of oxygen.
Cells that cover and line body organs, Epithelial cell - Hexagonal shape that allows
epithelial cells to pack together in sheets.
Cells that move organs and body parts, Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle cells -
Elongated and filled with abundant contractile filaments, so they can shorten forcefully and
move the bones, pump blood, or change the size of internal organs to move substances
around the body.
Cell that stores nutrients, Fat cells - produced by a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm.
Cell that fights disease, White blood cells such as the macrophage - crawl through tissue to
reach infection sites.
Cell that gathers information and controls body functions, Nerve cell - receiving messages
and transmitting them to other structures in the body.
Cells of reproduction - Oocyte (female) - largest cell in the body, this egg cell contains
several copies of all organelles. Sperm (male) - Long and streamlined, built for swimming to
the egg for fertilization.

PART II: BODY TISSUES

Name the four major tissue types and their chief subcategories. Explain how the four major
tissue types differ structurally and functionally. Give the chief locations of the various tissue
types in the body.
The four primary tissue types—epithelial (covering), connective (support), nervous
(movement), and muscle tissues (control).
Epithelial tissue (p. 117-122 in pdf)
Covers all free body surfaces, both inside and out, and contains versatile cells. The
epithelium of the skin protects against bacterial and chemical damage, and the epithelium
lining the respiratory tract has cilia, which sweep dust and other debris away from the lungs.
Absorb substances line some digestive system organs such as the stomach and small intestine.
Hallmarks of Epithelium:
- Epithelial cells, excluding glandular epithelium, closely form continuous sheets.
- The membranes always have one free (unattached) surface or edge (apical surface)
exposed to the body’s exterior or to the cavity of an internal organ.
- The anchored (basal) surface of epithelium rests on a basement membrane, a
structureless material acting as glue to hold the epithelium in place.
- Epithelial tissues have no blood supply of their own.
- If well nourished, epithelial cells regenerate themselves easily.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Classification of Epithelia:
- Simple epithelium - One layer of cells. Most concerned with absorption, secretion,
and filtration. Because simple epithelia are usually very thin, protection is not one of
their specialties.
● Simple Squamous Epithelium - The cells fit closely together, much like floor
tiles. This type of epithelium usually forms membranes where filtration or
exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs.
● Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - one layer of cuboidal cells resting on a
basement membrane.
● Simple Columnar Epithelium - is made up of a single layer of tall cells that
fit closely together.
● Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium - rest on a basement membrane.
However, some of its cells are shorter than others, and their nuclei appear at
different heights above the basement membrane.
- Stratified epithelium - More than one layer of cells. Function primarily in protection.
● Stratified Squamous Epithelium - is the most common stratified epithelium in
the body. Consist of many cell layers. Free edge are squamous cells.
● Stratified Cuboidal and Stratified Columnar Epithelia - typically has just
two cell layers with (at least) the surface cells being cuboidal in shape. Both of
these epithelia are fairly rare in the body.
● Transitional Epithelium - is a highly modified, stratified squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of only a few organs—the urinary bladder, the
ureters, and part of the urethra.
● Glandular Epithelium - A gland consists of one or more cells that make and
secrete a particular product. This product, a secretion, typically contains
protein molecules in an aqueous fluid.
Muscle Tissue (p. 127-129 in pdf)
Are highly specialized to contract, or shorten, which generates the force required to produce
movement.
Skeletal muscle - tissue is packaged by connective tissue sheets into organs called skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton. Can be controlled voluntarily.
Cardiac muscle - is found only in the heart wall. As it contracts, the heart acts as a pump to
propel blood through the blood vessels. Intercalated discs - cells that fit tightly together (like
clasped fingers) at junctions. Containing gap junctions that allow ions to pass freely from cell
to cell.
Smooth (visceral) muscle - The individual cells have a single nucleus and are tapered at both
ends. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, uterus, and
blood vessels.
Nervous Tissue (p. 129 in pdf)
Nervous tissue - All neurons receive and conduct electrochemical impulses from one part of
the body to another; thus, irritability and conductivity are their two major functional
characteristics.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Describe the process of tissue repair (wound healing).

Tissue Repair (p. 129-132 in pdf)
The skin and mucous membranes, cilia, and the strong acid produced by stomach glands are
just three examples of body defenses exerted at the tissue level.
Inflammation - is a general (nonspecific) body response that attempts to prevent further
injury.
The immune response - in contrast, is extremely specific and mounts a vigorous attack
against recognized invaders, including bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
Tissue repair, or wound healing, occurs in two major ways:
- Regeneration - is the replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.
- Fibrosis - involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue, that is, by the
formation of scar tissue.
Tissue injury sets the following series of events into motion:
- Inflammation sets the stage - Release inflammatory chemicals. Allows fluid rich in
clotting proteins and other substances to seep into the injured area from the
bloodstream.
- Granulation tissue forms - delicate pink tissue composed largely of new capillaries
that grow into the damaged area from undamaged blood vessels nearby.
- Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair - As the surface epithelium begins
to regenerate, it makes its way between the granulation tissue and the scab. The scar is
either invisible or visible as a thin white line.

Histology: Chap 1 (1-10, 12-17), 4 (106-110), 5 (116-126) - 32 sider

1.3. Generel histologi

Chapter 1 Methods
TISSUE PREPARATION (p. 23 in pdf)
Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining with Formalin Fixation

The first step in preparation of a tissue or organ sample is fixation to preserve structure.
Fixation - The first step in preparation of a tissue or organ sample. Usually by a chemical or mixture
of chemicals, permanently preserves the tissue structure for subsequent treatments. Fixation is used to:
- terminate cell metabolism.
- prevent enzymatic degradation of cells and tissues by autolysis (self-digestion).
- kill pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses.
- harden the tissue as a result of either cross-linking or denaturing protein molecules.
Formalin - a 37% aqueous solution of formaldehyde, at various dilutions and in combination with
other chemicals and buffers, is the most commonly used fixative.

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Roskilde Universitet

In the second step, the specimen is prepared for embedding in paraffin to permit sectioning

Specimen preparation involves infiltration with an embedding medium for thin slicing, then the
specimen undergoes washing, dehydration in alcohol, and clearing with organic solvents, xyol and
toluol. Melted paraffin is used for infiltration, and the cooled block is trimmed, sliced with a
microtome, and mounted on glass slides with a permanent mounting medium.

In the third step, the specimen is stained to permit examination.

Paraffin is colorless. To stain the tissue we need to dissolve paraffin with xylol or toluol and stain
hematoxylin and eosin.

HISTOCHEMISTRY AND CYTOCHEMISTRY

- Eosin Staining -

Chemical Basis of Staining (p. 26 in pdf)

Acidic Dyes - such as eosin, carries a net negative charge on its colored portion and is described by
the general formula [Na+dye-].
Basic Dyes - carries a net positive charge on its colored portion and is described by the general
formula [dye+Cl-].
Hematoxylin - does not meet the definition of a strict basic dye but has properties that closely
resemble those of a basic dye. Is not, strictly speaking, a basic dye. It is used with a mordant (i.e., an
intermediate link between the tissue component and the dye).

1.4. Epitel
OVERVIEW OF EPITHELIAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (137 pdf)
Epithelium is a vital tissue with diverse functions in the human body. It covers external surfaces, lines
internal cavities and tubes, and forms the secretory part of glands. Composed of closely apposed cells,
epithelium exhibits polarity with distinct surface domains. The cells adhere through specific junctions
and anchor to a basement membrane. In unique cases, epithelioid tissues lack a free surface but share
characteristics with epithelium. Epithelium serves as a selective barrier between the external
environment and underlying tissues, playing a crucial role in regulating substance passage. Notably, it
is found in endocrine glands and acts as a protective barrier in various body compartments.

● Epithelium: Tissue that covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and constitutes glands.
● Avascular tissue: Highlighting the absence of blood vessels in epithelium.
● Cell-to-cell adhesion molecules: Describing the mechanism by which epithelial cells adhere
to each other.
● Functional and morphologic polarity: Emphasizing the distinct surface domains of epithelial
cells.
● Basement membrane: A noncellular layer supporting the basal surface of epithelial cells.
● Epithelioid tissues: Describing situations where epithelial cells lack a free surface.

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Roskilde Universitet

● Endocrine glands: Mentioning specific examples like the interstitial cells of Leydig, lutein
cells, islets of Langerhans, adrenal gland parenchyma, and anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
● Selective barrier: Referring to the role of epithelium in regulating the passage of substances
between external and internal environments.
● Covering and lining epithelium: Highlighting the sheet-like cellular investment that separates
connective tissue from external and internal environments.
● Epithelioid patterns: Describing how certain tissues, cells, and tumors exhibit characteristics
similar to epithelium even without a free surface.
● Connective tissue macrophages: Mentioning their role in forming epithelioid patterns in
response to injury and infections.

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM (138 pdf)

Epithelium, a tissue covering surfaces and lining cavities in the body, is traditionally classified based
on the number of cell layers and the shape of surface cells. Simple epithelium consists of one layer,
while stratified epithelium has two or more layers. Cell shapes include squamous (flat), cuboidal
(cube-shaped), and columnar (elongated). Specialized epithelia like pseudostratified and transitional
have unique characteristics.

Pseudostratified epithelium appears layered but is actually a simple epithelium. Transitional

epithelium lines the lower urinary tract and can stretch. Specific names are given to epithelia in
certain locations, such as endothelium in blood vessels and mesothelium in body cavities. These are
typically simple squamous epithelia.

Epithelial cells serve various functions, including secretion, absorption, transportation, mechanical
protection, and receptor function. Epithelia involved in secretion or absorption are typically simple or
pseudostratified, with cell height reflecting activity levels. The classification system aids in
understanding the structure and function of different epithelial tissues in the body.

● Epithelium: A tissue covering surfaces and lining cavities in the body.

● Simple Epithelium: One cell layer thick.
● Stratified Epithelium: Two or more cell layers.
● Cell Shapes: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
● Pseudostratified Epithelium: Appears layered but is a simple epithelium.
● Transitional Epithelium: Lines the lower urinary tract and can stretch.
● Endothelium: Epithelial lining of blood and lymphatic vessels.
● Mesothelium: Epithelium lining closed body cavities.
● Functions of Epithelial Cells: Secretion, absorption, transportation, mechanical protection,
receptor function.
● Cell Turnover: Balanced by stem cells in some pseudostratified epithelia.

CELL POLARITY (139 pdf)

Epithelial cells possess distinct polarity with three domains: apical (facing exterior or a cavity), lateral
(communicating with adjacent cells), and basal (resting on basal lamina). Biochemical characteristics
and cell arrangement determine functional polarity. Polarity is crucial for creating a functional barrier
between cells, achieved through junctional complexes in the apical region. These complexes facilitate

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Roskilde Universitet

tight adhesions, regulate para-cellular solute movements, and separate apical from basal and lateral
domains, enabling specialization and response to different molecular signals.

● Apical domain, Lateral domain, Basal domain: Describing the distinct polarity of epithelial
cells.
● Biochemical characteristics: Referring to specific features associated with each cell surface.
● Functional polarity: The arrangement and characteristics determining the function of cell
domains.
● Junctional complexes: Molecular mechanisms responsible for establishing polarity.
● Tight cell adhesions: Important for creating a functional barrier between adjacent cells.
● Para-cellular movements of solutes: Regulated by junctional complexes.
● Basal lamina: The foundation that anchors cells to underlying connective tissue.
● Molecular signals: Different signals recognized by apical, basal, and lateral domains.
● Epithelial barrier: The functional outcome of the establishment of polarity.

THE APICAL DOMAIN AND ITS MODIFICATIONS (141 pdf)

Microvilli (141 pdf)
Microvilli are finger-like projections on the surface of most epithelial cells, varying in appearance and
correlating with the cell's absorptive capacity. In fluid-transporting epithelia, such as the intestine and
kidney tubules, they form a striated border or brush border. Microvilli contain a core of actin filaments
cross-linked by proteins like villin, providing support. The actin bundle extends into the apical
cytoplasm, interacting with a terminal web of actin filaments stabilized by spectrin. Myosin I and II,
tropomyosin, and other proteins contribute to the structural and functional aspects of microvilli,
influencing their rigidity, contractility, and spacing.

● Microvilli: Finger-like projections on epithelial cells' surface.

● Apical surface: The top surface of a cell.
● Absorptive capacity: Correlation between microvilli number/shape and a cell's ability to
absorb substances.
● Striated border/Brush border: Distinctive patterns of microvilli in fluid-transporting epithelia.
● Actin filaments: Core of microvilli, cross-linked for support and rigidity.
● Villin: Actin-bundling protein anchoring actin filaments at the microvillus tip.
● Terminal web: Horizontal network of actin filaments below microvilli, stabilized by spectrin.
● Myosin I and II: Proteins contributing to the contractility of the terminal web.
● Tropomyosin: Protein influencing the diameter of the apex of the cell.
● Intermicrovillus space: Space between microvilli influenced by contractile ability.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Stereocilia (142 pdf)

Stereocilia are specialized structures found in specific tissues, such as the epididymis, proximal part of
the male reproductive ductus deferens, and the sensory cells of the inner ear. They are unusually long
and immotile microvilli, resembling pointed bundles like the hairs of a paintbrush. Stereocilia in
genital ducts aid in absorption, while those in the inner ear function as sensory mechanoreceptors for
mechanical vibrations.

These structures develop from microvilli through the addition and elongation of actin filaments.
Unlike microvilli, stereocilia are anchored to the plasma membrane by ezrin and contain α-actinin in
the stem portion. Stereocilia in the ear have unique characteristics, forming ridged bundles with a
staircase pattern and lacking ezrin and α-actinin.

Stereocilia are continuously renewed to maintain their structure, involving the constant addition and
removal of actin monomers, creating a treadmilling effect. This process is crucial for the lifetime
function of stereocilia. Overall, stereocilia exhibit distinct structural and functional features compared
to microvilli and cilia.

● Stereocilia: Unusually long, immotile microvilli found in specific tissues.

● Microvilli: Tiny, hair-like projections on cell surfaces.
● Epididymis: Part of the male reproductive system.
● Ductus deferens: Part of the male reproductive system.
● Inner ear: Part of the sensory system involved in hearing.
● Actin filaments: Protein structures providing support to stereocilia.
● Fimbrin: Protein involved in cross-linking actin filaments.
● Ezrin: 80 kDa actin-binding protein anchoring actin filaments to the plasma membrane.
● α-Actinin: Cross-bridge-forming molecule found in the stem portion of stereocilia.
● Villin: Absent at the tip of stereocilia, distinguishing them from microvilli.
● Espn: Protein critical for the structure and function of stereocilia in the inner ear.
● Mechanoreceptors: Structures sensitive to mechanical vibrations.
● Treadmilling effect: Constant renewal of stereocilia structure involving the addition and
removal of actin monomers.
● Fluorescent-labeled actin molecules: Used in research to study the dynamic structure of
stereocilia.

Cilia (143 pdf)

Cilia are hair-like extensions on cell surfaces, consisting of an axoneme with microtubules. They are
classified as motile, primary, or nodal based on function. Motile cilia move fluid and particles, while
primary cilia act as sensors in various cellular processes. Nodal cilia play a crucial role in early
embryonic development. Motile cilia have a 9 + 2 axonemal organization with motor proteins, while
primary cilia lack these proteins. The axoneme has microtubules with dynein arms, radial spokes, and
central sheath projections, enabling ciliary movement. Basal bodies anchor cilia and have associated
structures like alar sheets, basal feet, and striated rootlets. The basal body is a modified centriole with
microtubule triplets. Alar sheets tether basal bodies to the plasma membrane, basal feet coordinate
ciliary movement, and striated rootlets anchor basal bodies within the cell cytoplasm.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

● Cilia: Hair-like extensions on cell surfaces.

● Axoneme: Microtubule-based internal structure of cilia.
● Motile cilia: Move fluid and particles, have a 9 + 2 axonemal organization with motor
proteins.
● Primary cilia: Act as sensors, lack microtubule-associated motor proteins.
● Nodal cilia: Found in early embryonic development, capable of rotational movement.
● Microtubules: Compose the axoneme, arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern.
● Dynein arms: Microtubule-associated motor proteins along the A microtubule.
● Radial spokes: Extend from doublets, contribute to ciliary oscillations.
● Basal bodies: Modified centrioles, anchor cilia in cell cytoplasm.
● Alar sheets: Transitional fibers tethering basal bodies to the plasma membrane.
● Basal feet: Accessory structures coordinating ciliary movement.
● Striated rootlet: Longitudinally aligned protofilaments anchoring basal bodies.
● LM (Light Microscopy): Used to observe motile cilia as short, fine structures.
● EM (Electron Microscopy): Provides detailed views of ciliary structures at high resolution.
● Tissue morphogenesis: Essential role of primary cilia in developing tissues.
● Microtubule organization center (MTOC): Basal body functions as a centriole-derived
MTOC.
● Chemosensors, osmosensors, mechanosensors: Functions of primary cilia.
● Oviducts, tracheobronchial tree: Examples of locations where cilia play specific roles.

Noter til undervisningen:

Organisering af kroppen
1) Chemical/molecular
2) Cell
3) Tissue
4) Organ
5) Organ system
6) Organism

The Integumentary System - Huden

Hud, ydre overflade, hår, svedkirtler, negle
Hormon der udskilles fra huden: D-Vitamin
Hvilken funktion har huden: Fysisk barrier, beskyttelse, Fungere som panser så de forskellige
mikroorganismer ikke kommer ind i systemet.
Når man løber, sveder man og bliver rød for at blodet kan komme af med varmen.
Ligger er vandlag ud …

The Skeletal System - Skelettet

Skelettet støtter vores krop.
Vi er vertebrater og har et indvendigt skelet, som holder os oprejst. Hvorimod at invertebrater har et
exoskeleton der beskytter udefra.
Skelettets funktion: produktion af røde blodlegemer. Fungerer som beskyttelse for organer (hjerne,
lunger, osv.)

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

The Muscular System - Muskelsystemet

Muskulatur er over det hele og sørge for at vi kan bevæge os, er i hele kroppen (lunger så vi kan
trække vejret) Laver hormoner når vi bevæger os og løber.

The Cardiovascular System - Det cardiovascular system

Kroppens motorvej, der tager ilt ind CO2 ud, transporterer alt det vi skal have rundt i kroppen. Den
store pumpe er hjertet.

The Nervous System - Nervesystemet

Centralnervesystemet hovedcomputeren.
Fra rygmarven og op i hjernen.

The Endocrine System - Det endokrine system

Producerer hormoner. Vækst, reproduktion, næring til kropscellerne.
Når man spiser, frigives insulin.

The Lymphatic System - Det lymfatiske system

Rydder op i kroppen.
F.eks. indre blødninger tilbage til blodkarrene.
Indeholder hvide blodlegemer som frigives ved immunresponset.

The Respiratory System - Åndedrætssystemet

Iltoptagelse af ilt til lungerne. Lungesystemet, lunger, næse, luftrør, bronkier.
Udskillelse af CO2.
Ilten gives ud til blodet gennem lungerne.

The Digestive System - Fordøjelsessystemet

Nedbryde mad, hvilket skaber næring til blodet, som føres ud til cellerne. Næringen optages i vand i
kroppen. Mund, spiserør, mave, tyndtarm, tyktarm, rectum, anus.

The Urinary System - Urinvejssystemet

Blodet renses i nyrerne og affaldsstoffer udskilles gennem urin.

The Reproductive System - Det reproduktive system

Hos kvinden er det ægget, som er produceret, når man er født.
Hos manden er det sædceller som hele tiden bliver produceret.

Kropsplaner
Sagitale plan - Spejlingsakse mellem øjne og ned mellem benene, så vi ud over hjerter har to ens
stykker.
Cornoal Plan/Frontal - Skær tværs igennem, front og bag.
Transverse plan - Skær over maven, deler koppen i en over og nedre del.

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Cephalic
Cervical
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
Pubic
Upper limb
Manus
Lower limb
Pedel
Cephalic
Cervical
Back

Orientation and Direction Term

Kropshuler - cavities
Cranial cavity - Kraniehulen
Spinal cavity - Rygmarvshulen
Thoracic cavity - Brysthulen
Abdominopelvic cavity - Bughulen

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Celle Anatomi
Epitel celler deler sig ikke, de er låst.

Blodceller har ingen kerne :)

We consist of cells, and they consists of:

– Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
• Organelles
– Plasma membrane
• Cell membrane

Polær celler, luftrør, en masse microvilli (fimrehår) der kan skubbe luft.

Epitel celler har som udgangspunkt cilia

Mitochondria - Producere energi ATP, har deres eget DNA, det er tidligere bakterier som cellen har
optaget, i det den har ATP, dette gør at den har 2 cellemembranerne.

ER - Smooth and rougth

Celle Hierarki
- Totipotent - Kan blive til alt
- Pluripotent - Kan blive til næsten alt
- Multipotent - Kan blive til noget

1. Epithelial tissue - Epiteliale væv

Plader
Polar - Apical overfalde ud mod … basal overflader der binder til bindevævet og sidder fast, og
cellerne erstattes hurtigt, f.eks. tarmen eller huden
Regenerere sig hurtigt.

Lag af epitelceller:
• Simpelt en-laget epithel
• Kube epital
• Pseudo-fler-laget epithel

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Natasha og Sandie Human anatomi og vævslære
Roskilde Universitet

Yderligere epitel:
• Cylinderepitel
• Flerlaget plade epithel
• Stratificeret pladeepitel
• Stratificere kubisk
• Straticiferet cylinder

2. Connective tissue - Knoglevæv inkl. brusk

3. Muscular tissue
4. Neural tissue

Histology
• The study of the structure and function of tissues
• Often requires
– Fixation e.g. with formaldehyde Preserves cellular ultrastructure Prevents autolytic degeneration
– Processing Embedding tissue in paraffin wax or epoxy resin allows sectioning
– Special staining techniques
– Light or electron microscopy

H&E farvning

Cryosections - hurtigere metode

Water-rich tissues are hardened by freezing and cut frozen; sections are stained and examined with a
light microscope. This technique is much faster than traditional histology (5 minutes vs. 16 hours).

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