Basic Concepts of Ecology

UNIT 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY*

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ecology
1.3 Scope of Ecology
1.4 Eco-sensitivity
1.5 Adaptations
1.6 Eco-sensitivity Adaptation
1.7 Acclimation
1.8 Acclimatization
1.9 Changes that occur during Acclimation and Acclimatization
1.10 Ecosystem
1.10.1 Abiotic (non living) or Physical factors
1.10.2 Biotic or living factors
1.11 Summary
1.12 References
1.13 Answers to Check Yours Progress
Learning Objectives
After going through this unit, you would be able to:
understand what is Ecology and Scope of Ecology;
describe the Eco-sensitivity Adaptation, Acclimation and Acclimatization;
and
know the important feature biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystem.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The world in which we live consists of living organisms and non-living
things. Often, the relationships between living and non-living things are clearly
visible. Relationship between organisms and their environment are not only much
complex but also interdependent, mutually reactive and interrelated. Ecology,
deals with the various principles which govern such relationships between
organisms and their environment (Sharma, 1996). In this unit we will learn basic
concepts of ecology. Ecological concepts are general understandings (or facts)
about ecosystems and ecosystem management.

1.2 ECOLOGY
In 1859, the French Zoologist, Isodore Geoffroy St. Hilaire (Encyclopaedia
Universalis; 2010) had proposed the term ethnology for “The study of the relations
of the organisms within the family and society in the aggregate and in the
community”. At about the same time the English naturalist, St. George Jackson
Mivart coined the term hexicology, which he defined in 1894 as “devoted to the
* Contributed by Ajeet Jaiswal, Associate Professor, Department of Epidemiology and Public
Health, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruarur 11
Fundamentals of Human study of the relations which exist between the organisms and their environment
Ecology
as regards the nature of the locality they frequent, the temperatures and the
amounts of light which suit them, and their relations to other organisms as enemies,
rivals, or accidental and involuntary benefactors”. The term ecology is made up
of two Greek words, oikos (meaning ‘house ’or ‘dwelling place’) and logos
(meaning ‘the study of’) to denote such relationships between the organism and
their environment. Thus, literally, ecology is the study of organisms ‘at home’.

There is some controversy about the author who coined the term ecology and
first used it in literature. For instance, Kormondy (1969) tried to give credit for
the first use of the term ecology to Henry David Throreau on 1858 (Reiter, 1885;
Macmillan, 1897). There are, however, references in literature in favour of German
Biologist, H. Reiter also who is said to have used this term for the first time in
1868 (Reiter,1885; Macmillan,1897).

Although, there is uncertainty about the original coining of the term, there is
consensus that the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel first gave substance to this
term. Haeckel, although appears to have first used the term in 1886 (Sharma,
1996) and he regarded the ecology of an organism as “….the knowledge of the
sum of the relations of organism to the surrounding outer world, to organic and
inorganic conditions of existence….” Ecology as a distinct discipline grew out
of natural history early in this century as natural historians began to collect their
observations into a body of theory. In this process, vital was the work of Charles
Darwin. Although his book on THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES was published in
1859, before the term was coined it contained many seeds that could grow to
dominate modern ecology. Ecology has been defined in various ways by different
authors. Warming (1905) who actually employed this science for the study of
plants, defined oekology as “the study of organisms in relation to their
environment”. American ecologist Frederick Clements (1916) considered ecology
to be “the science of the community,” whereas British Ecologist Charles Elton
(1927) defined ecology as “scientific natural history” concerned with the
“sociology and economics of animals” (Chase and Leibold, 2003).

Woodbury (1954) treated ecology as “a science which investigates organisms in

relation to their environment, and a philosophy in which the world of life is
interpreted in terms of natural processes.” Taylor (1936) defined ecology as “the
science of all the relations of all organisms to their environments.” Andrewartha
(1961) and Krebs (1972) defined it as “the scientific approach to the study of
environmental interactions which control the welfare of living things; regulating
their distribution, abundance, reproduction and evolution.” (Birch and Browning,
2011)

However, the recent development in the study of ecology has been the recognition
of the fact that the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of nature
are not only interrelated but both of these components function in an orderly
manner as a definite system. Thus, structure and function should be studied
together for fuller understanding of this vast nature.

In Haeckel’s definition of ecology, he refers to the “surrounding outer world”,

which we now call the environment of an organism. His ‘organic and inorganic
conditions’, we call biotic and abiotic environmental factors, respectively. Biotic
factors are the other organisms, whether of the same or different species. Abiotic
factors are the physical and chemical conditions such as temperature, moisture,
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respiratory gases, and substrate. Odum (1963, 1969, 1977) with such an approach Basic Concepts of Ecology
put forth a anew definition of ecology, and in his own (1969) words “as you
know ecology is often defined as the study of interrelationships between organisms
and environment”. I feel that this conventional definition is not suitable; it is too
vague and too broad. Personally, I prefer to define ecology as ‘the study of the
structure and function of ecosystems’, or we might say in a less technical way
‘the study of structure and function of nature’. With more or less similar concept,
put about the triangle of nature, Mishra (1967) defined ecology as ‘interaction of
form, functions and factors.’ These three interacting aspects i.e. form, function
and factors integrate together to construct the triangle of nature. Krebs (1985)
defined ecology in simple modern comprehensive way as ‘ecology is the scientific
study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of
organism.’

1.3 SCOPE OF ECOLOGY

Ecology is the science that need minimum time and labour for its introduction to
a layman. Present day problems of varied nature in human life are directly or
indirectly very much related to ecology, as their solution needs an ecological
knowledge. These days ecology has been contributing very much to social,
economic, political, and other similar policies of the world. It is so common to
find references of ecology in social and economic writings, magazines, weeklies
and daily news papers. There are interdependencies not only between ecology
and biological areas of plant and animal sciences, but also between ecology and
physical as well as social sciences.

Ecology indeed plays an important role in human welfare. This is primarily a

field subject and modern ecology is concerned with the functional
interdependencies between living things and their environment. Taylor (1936),
in an attempt at define ecology, has very rightly pointed out the scope of ecology
by stating that “ecology is the science of all the relations of all organisms to all
their environments.” Ecology plays an important role in agriculture (crop rotation,
weed control etc.) management of grasslands (range management), forestry,
biological surveys, pest control, fisher biology, and in the conservation of soil,
wildlife, forest, water supplies, etc. the international problem of environmental
pollution also needs ecological assistance (Sharma, 1996; Jaiswal, 2013).

In essence, ecologists seek to explain: life processes, interactions,

interrelationships, behaviors, and adaptations of organisms, the movement of
materials and energy through living communities, the successional development
of ecosystems and, the abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity
in the context of the environment (Jaiswal, 2013).

1.4 ECO-SENSITIVITY
Eco-sensitivity is related to rare of an organism or biological trait: influenced by
a particular environment or habitat. It also discuss about Vulnerable to
environmental damage or destruction; ecologically fragile. And also about
Characterized by awareness of environmental issues; environmentally friendly.
The concept of an ecologically sensitivity or eco-sensitivity is appealing but
difficult. Consequently, eco-sensitivity is among the most widely used terms
with no unequivocally accepted definition. In fact, eco-sensitivity is often
13
Fundamentals of Human considered synonymous to: environmentally sensitive areas (Saxena, et.al, 2011;
Ecology
Hemkumara, 2009; MacDonald, 2000; Steiner, et.al, 2000; Capuzucca, and Hill,
2001), environmentally sensitive zones (Anon, 2008), ecologically sensitive
ecosystem (Lin, 2006), ecologically sensitive sites etc., depending upon the
context and the area or location of conservation interest. In most of these situations,
the terms used are without any specific definition or with variable meanings
(Gadgil et.al, 2011). For this reason, while it is possible only to list a set of
criteria that characterise eco-sensitivity, all of them will not be applicable in all
situations.
One such criterion is that eco-sensitivity is expected to have low levels of
resilience, and hence is difficult to be recovered or restored if perturbed by external
influences. Ecology Expert Panel, set up by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, 2010, noted that, world over a number of features
are being used for identifying ecologically sensitivity or eco-sensitivity in different
contexts. In fact, several of these criteria refer more to the significance, either
ecological or economic, than to the resilience of the locality (Gadgil et.al, 2011).
Given that the ultimate purpose of identifying ecologically sensitivity or eco-
sensitivity is to promote environment-friendly management regimes and
conservation of the ecological wealth of the sites, it is evidently necessary to
consider features that define ecological and economic values, along with the
resilience of the locality while identifying ecologically sensitivity or eco-
sensitivity area. Therefore, following a country-wide consultation among experts
and interested stakeholders, Ecologist has attempted to re-evaluate the concept
of eco-sensitivity area, redefine it for the purpose at hand and develop a consensus
protocol for scoring levels of ecological significance and sensitivity, leading
eventually to a mapping of eco-sensitivity area (Jaiswal, 2017).

1.5 ADAPTATIONS
Adaptation refers to traits of an organism that increase its fitness to survive and
reproduce. The environment is ever changing. It is the evolutionary process
whereby an biotic organism becomes better able to live or survive in its habitat
or habitats. In order to survive in the rigours of new circumstances, the organisms
should either change accordingly or follow the path of extinction. Therefore, a
succession of environmental changes is paralleled by the development of adaptive
features, morphological and physiological including food and feeding habits,
way of living, reproductive and defensive mechanisms and protection against
bad weather etc ((Moran, 1979; Jaiswal, 2013, 2015).

1.6 ECO-SENSITIVITY ADAPTATION

Shifting weather patterns as a result of climate change, affecting rainfall and
temperature, are likely to impact the ecosystem goods and services such as clean
water and food on which people rely. Eco-sensitivity Adaptation or Ecosystem-
based Adaptation, involving the conservation, sustainable management and
restoration of ecosystems can help people adapt to the impacts of climate change
(Moran, 1979).
Eco-sensitivity Adaptation or Ecosystem-based Adaptation is a nature-based
solution that harnesses biodiversity and ecosystem services to reduce vulnerability
14 and build resilience to climate change (Moran, 1979).
Check Your Progress Basic Concepts of Ecology

1) What is ecology?
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1.7 ACCLIMATION
Acclimation involves physiological, anatomical, or morphological adjustments
within a single organism that improve performance or survival in response to
environmental change. The extent of this acclimation is constrained by the genome
of the individual. In turn, adaptation involves the acquisition or recombination
of genetic traits that improve performance or survival over multiple generations.

Acclimation is the process by which an organism adjusts to a change in

its environment .It generally refers to the ability of living things to adjust to
changes in climate, and usually occurs in a short time of the change (Ford, 1982).

1.8 ACCLIMATIZATION
Acclimatization is the compensatory adjustment of organism to change in the
environment, in nature or natural condition is known as acclimatization.
Adjustment to seasonal changes in temperature comes under acclimatization.

Scientists distinguish between acclimation and acclimatization because the latter

adjustment is made under natural conditions when the organism is subject to the
full range of changing environmental factors. Acclimation, however, refers to a
change in only one environmental factor under laboratory conditions.

Acclimatization usually involves a number of interacting physiological processes.

For example, in acclimatizing to high altitudes, the first response of human beings
is to increase their breathing rate. After about 40 hours, changes have occurred
in the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, which makes it more efficient in
extracting oxygen at high altitudes. As this occurs, the breathing rate returns to
normal (Athalye, ý2015).

1.9 CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING

ACCLIMATION AND ACCLIMATIZATION
There are various changes that take place in Acclimation and Acclimatization
that include physiological changes like glycolysis, electron transport cycle and
Kreb’s cycle.

In cold acclimation protein and enzyme secretion is more as compared to hot

acclimation. All the changes during acclimation are not understood except the
following –
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Fundamentals of Human Normally changes occur in –
Ecology
Protein and phospholipid synthesis and turnover.
Synthesis of isozymes suitable for new environment.
Modification of membrane lipids. Normally membrane lipids become
unsaturated fats so that they remain fluid in cold condition.
Likewise animals show behavioural responses

Cold Acclimation: When birds or mammals are kept at low temperature in

laboratory, initially their body temperature falls down but then they show rise in
metabolic rate, rise in O2 consumption. This change is proportional to change in
temperature.

As oxidation is faster, the food intake rises. The enzymes in liver, muscles and
mitochondria rise. Glucose, pentose, fatty acid pathways are mobilised. They
become faster. Adrenal and thyroid secretion rises. Most important is that the
peripheral circulation rises to keep skin warm (Athalye, 2015).

Cold Acclimatization: This is a slow process and is seasonal. The change is

prolonged and gradual and hence the compensatory changes are different. In
nature when change occurs, the animal shows changes in thickness of fur coat.
They reduce the peripheral circulation and both these prevent heat loss.

This is because in environment with approach of winter there is scarcity of food.

It is found that the thickness of fur rises in large animals. In them, fat is mobilised
and unsaturated fat gets deposited in joints and extremity so that the flexibility is
maintained. Their Central Nervous System, tissue, nerves gradually gain
resistance to stand the cold. Sensitivity of tissues is increased. There is higher
sensitivity of the tissues to neurotransmitter or the transmitter substance. Along
with these the animal shows behavioural changes in them (Athalye, 2015).
Check Your Progress
2) Define Acclimatization?
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1.10 ECOSYSTEM
Ecological studies are made at ecosystem level, which is considered as a recent
development in ecology. An ecosystem is overall integration of whole mosaics
of interacting organisms and their environment. It is normally an open system
with a continuous, but variable, influx and loss of material energy. It is a basic
functional unit with no limits of boundaries, consisting of both biotic and abiotic
components interacting with each other, both necessary for maintenance of life
on earth. Thus, an ecosystem represents highest level of ecological integration
which is energy based and this functional unit is capable of energy transformations,
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accumulation and circulation. Its main function in ecological sense is to emphasize Basic Concepts of Ecology
obligatory relationships, interdependence and causal relations (Moran, 1979;
Jaiswal, 2015).

An ecosystem is the whole biotic community in a given area along with its abiotic
environment. It therefore includes the physical and chemical nature of the
sediments, water and gases as well as all the organisms (Barrows, 1923).
The environment factors fall into two categories;
Abiotic (non living) or Physical factors
Biotic or living factors

1.10.1 ABIOTIC (Non Living) or Physical factors

The Physical environment includes medium and climate

A) Medium: there are four types of media in which the animal and plants live.

These are: 1. Soil; 2. Water; 3. Air; 4. the bodies of other organisms in case of
parasites.

Soil- it is the upper part of the surface layers of the earth. It is formed by the
weathering of underlying rocks in association with organic matter4 and with
living organisms. Soil contains a variety of inorganic salts and organic compounds
in addition to gravels, solid sills of stone, finely divided particles of mineral
matter such as sands, silts or clays depending upon the texture. Micro-organisms,
plants and burrowing animals are found abundantly in the soil. Bacteria are very
useful and the most numerous inhabitant of the soil.

Water- it covers 73% of the earth’s surface and provides the most extensive
medium for a majority of the animals. It constitutes the major portion of the
protoplasm and is a primary controlling factor of the organisms.

Air- Air forms the atmosphere of the earth. It consists mainly of oxygen (20%),
nitrogen (79%) and carbon dioxide (0.3%). water and minute traces of inert gases
(He, Ne, Kr and Ar) are also present in the atmosphere. Organic matter, dust and
micro-organism are also held in suspension. Except the inert gases all the main
components of air serve as raw materials and each plays an important role in the
life of organisms.

The bodies of other organisms- Certain organisms live as parasites or in the

body of other organisms. They derive their nourishment from the body of host
without causing its death. The parasites undergo various morphological,
anatomical and physiological modifications to suit the conditions of the host.

B. Climate: It is the average of the atmosphere over a given area. The main
climatic factors are temperature, humidity, light, wind, rainfall and snow.

C. Chemicals factors: Besides physical factors of the environment certain

chemical factors are also of ecological importance. These are gases like
oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ion concentration, hydrogen sulphide
and nutrients etc.

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Fundamentals of Human
Ecology
1.10.2 BIOTIC or Living Factors
The living or biotic factors, deals with the interaction among different organism
of the same or different species. The interaction among the individuals of the
same species is known as intraspecific relationship. This relationship among the
members of the same species is for reproduction, assistance and competition for
food and space (Levin, 1998).

The interaction among the individuals of different species is known as interspecific

relationship. Such relationship may be beneficial or harmful to both the
individuals, beneficial to one and harmful to the other or neutral in respect to the
other.

The interspecific relationships are of two types. 1) Symbiosis and 2) Antagonism.

In symbiosis one or both the partners are benefitted, while in antagonism at least
one of the species is harmed. Symbiotic relations are divided into two categories-
i) Mutualism and ii) Commensalism. In mutualism both the partners are
benefitted while in commensalism only one of the partners is befitted.
Check Your Progress
3) What do you mean ecosystem?
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1.11 SUMMARY
Ecology, relatively a new science, deals with the various principles which govern
such relationships between organisms and their environment. Ecology is the study
of organisms ‘at home’ Ecology is the science that need minimum time and labour
for its introduction to a layman. Ecology indeed plays an important role in human
welfare. The concept of an ecologically sensitivity or eco-sensitivity is appealing
but difficult. The environment is ever changing. In order to survive in the rigours
of new circumstances, the organisms should either change accordingly or follow
the path of extinction. Eco-sensitivity Adaptation or Ecosystem-based Adaptation,
involving the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of
ecosystems can help people adapt to the impacts of climate change. Acclimation
involves physiological, anatomical, or morphological adjustments within a single
organism that improve performance or survival in response to environmental
change. Acclimatization is the compensatory adjustment of organism to change
in the environment, in nature or natural condition. Ecological studies are made
at ecosystem level development in ecology. The Abiotic (non living) includes
medium and climate. The living or biotic factors, deals with the interaction among
different organism of the same or different species.
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 Basic Concepts of Ecology
1.12 REFERENCES
Andrewartha, H.G. (1961). The Distribution and Abundance of Animals. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
Anon. P. (2008). Environmentally Sensitive Zones ESZ. Maharashtra Pollution
Control Board MPCB, 2008; www.mpcb.gov.on
Athalye, R.P. ý(2015). Acclimation and Acclimatization.
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Encyclopaedia Universalis. (2010). Histoire de l’éthologie,11-15.
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Barrows H. H. (1923). Geography as Human Ecology. Annals of the Association
of American Geographers. 1-14.
Birch L. C. and Browning T. O. Herbert George Andrewartha 1907–
1992 Archived 2 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Biographical Memoirs,
Historical Records of Australian Science, vol.9, no.3, 1993. 259–268
Capuzucca, J., Federal Hill. (2001). An Extraordinarily Environmentally Sensitive
and Historically Significant Area. Executive Summary, August 2001;
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Chase, J.M. and M.A. Leibold. (2003). Ecological Niches. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
Clement, F.E. (1916). Plant Succession. Washington, D.C.: Publications of the
Carnegic Institute, Reprint 1928. 242-247.
Darwin, C. (1859). The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. Reprint,
1998, New York:Modern Library.
Elton, C.S. (1927). Animal Ecology. London: Sidgwick and Jackson. 11-19.
Emilio F. Moran. (1979). Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological
Anthropology. Duxbury Press, 104-121.

Ford, M. J. (1982). The Changing Climate: Responses of the Natural Fauna and
Flora. Boston: G. Allen and Unwin.

Gadgil Madhav, R. J. Ranjit Daniels, K. N. Ganeshaiah, S. Narendra Prasad, M.

S. R. Murthy,C. S. Jha, B. R. Ramesh and K. A. Subramanian. (2011). Mapping
ecologically sensitive, significant and salient areas of Western Ghats: proposed
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Gadgil, M. and Meher-Homji, V. M. (1986). Role of protected areas in

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Hemkumara, G. P. T. S. (2009). GIS based analysis on environmental sensitive

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Jaiswal, A. (2013). Human Origin and Variation: A Comparative Treatment of
Biophysical Anthropology, Heritage Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Jaiswal, A. (2013). Human Genetics and Applied Biophysical Anthropology: A
Comparative Treatment of Biophysical Anthropology, Heritage Publishers, New
Delhi, India.
Jaiswal, A. (2013). Glossary of Biophysical Anthropology Terms: A Comparative
Treatment of Biophysical Anthropology, Heritage Publishers, New Delhi, India.
Jaiswal, A. (2017). Ecosystem and eco-sensitivity: Human Ecology PG e-Pathsala,
(An Ministry of Human Resource Development Project under its National Mission
on Education through ICT (NME-ICT).
Krebs, C.J. (1972). A Review of the Chitty Hypothesis of Population regulation.
Canadian Journal of Zoology. 56: 2463-2480.
Krebs, C.J. (1972). Ecology: The Experimental Analysis of Distribution and
Abundance. BIOS, 56, No. 4: 236-238.
Kormondy, E.J. (1969). Concept of Ecology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice
Hall. 11-15.
Lin, M. (2006). Changing landscapes: monitoring ecologically sensitive
ecosystems in a dynamic semi-arid landscape using satellite imagery: a case
study in Ejin Oasis, Western China. In Agriculture and Hydrology Applications
of Remote Sensing (eds Kuligowski, R. and Parihar, J. S.).
Levin Simon A. (1998). Ecosystems and the Biosphere as Complex Adaptive
Systems, Ecosystem Springler, Verlag
MacDonald, A. (2000). Assessment of risk and identification of environmentally
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Misra, S.B. (1967). “Late Precambrian fossils from southeastern
Newfoundland”. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 80 (11): 2133–2140.
Mivart, St. George. (1894). Difficulties of the Theory of Natural Selection”. The
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Moran, Emilio F. (1979. Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological
Anthropology. Boulder,Colorado: Westview Press.
Odum, E. P. (1963). Primary and Secondary energy flow in relation to ecosystem
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of Zoology. 336-338.
Odum, E. P. (1969). The Strategy of Ecosystem Development. Science 164:242-
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Saxena, M. R., Kumar, R., Saxena, P. R., Nagaraja, R. and Jayanthi, S. C. (2007). Basic Concepts of Ecology
Remote sensing and GIS based approach for environmental sensitivity studies.
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Sharma, P.D. (1996). Ecology and Environment, Seventh edition. Rastogi
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Steiner, F., Blair, J., McSherry, L., Guhathakurtha, S., Marruffo, J. and Holm,
M., (2000). A watershed at watershed: the potential for environmentally sensitive
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1.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK PROGRESS

1) Ecology, relatively a new science, deals with the various principles which
govern such relationships between organisms and their environment.
2) Acclimatization is the compensatory adjustment of organism to change in
the environment, in nature or natural condition is known as acclimatization.
Adjustment to seasonal changes in temperature comes under acclimatization.
3) An ecosystem is overall integration of whole mosaics of interacting
organisms and their environment. It is normally an open system with a
continuous, but variable, influx and loss of material energy. It is a basic
functional unit with no limits of boundaries, consisting of both biotic and
abiotic components interacting with each other, both necessary for
maintenance of life on earth.

21