ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY 2

Lecture 2

The Cardiovascular system 2

Or
Circulatory system 2

‫ هوازن أمحد ملفون‬/‫أس تاذ دكتور‬

)‫أس تاذ عمل الفس يولويج (فس يولويج الغدد الصامء واملناعة‬

PROF. DR. HAWAZEN AHMAD LAMFON

Professor of Physiology (Endocrine physiology)

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THE BLOOD

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The blood:
 Body contains 5-6 L of blood that makes up 6–8% of total body
weight. Adult males average about 5 to 6 liters of blood. Females
average 4–5 liters.

 Blood is a connective tissue, it is made up of cellular elements and

an extracellular matrix.

 The cellular elements include

1. red blood cells (RBCs),
2. white blood cells (WBCs),
3. and cell fragments called platelets.

 The extracellular matrix, called plasma, makes blood unique

among connective tissues because it is fluid. This fluid, which is
mostly water, suspends the formed elements and enables them to
circulate throughout the body within the cardiovascular system.

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Composition of Blood:
The blood is made up of cells that are suspended in liquid called
plasma.

 Plasma makes up 55% of the blood.

Plasma is made of 90% water and 10% proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
amino acids, antibodies, hormones, waste, salts, and ions.

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  Blood cells make up the remaining
45% of the blood.
Red blood cells make up 99% of the blood cells.
White blood cells and platelets make up the other 1%.

Blood Plasma:
 Plasma is composed of about 92 percent water.

 Dissolved or suspended within this water is a mixture of

substances:

1. most of which are proteins.

2. Nutrients
3. Salts (metal ions)
4. Respiratory gases
5. Hormones
6. Waste products

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Plasma Proteins:
 About 7 percent of the volume of plasma is made of proteins.
 These include several plasma proteins, plus a much smaller
number of regulatory proteins, including enzymes and some
hormones.

 The three major groups of plasma proteins are as follows:

1. Albumin is the most abundant of the plasma proteins.
Manufactured by the liver, and regulates osmotic pressure of blood.
Albumin normally accounts for approximately 54 percent of the
total plasma protein content, in clinical levels of 3.5–5.0 g/dL
blood.

2. Globulins there are three main subgroups known as alpha, beta,

and gamma globulins. The gamma globulins are proteins involved
in immunity and are better known as
an antibodies or immunoglobulins and produced by specialized
leukocytes known as plasma cells. Globulins make up
approximately 38 percent of the total plasma protein volume, in
clinical levels of 1.0–1.5 g/dL blood.

3. Fibrinogen is produced by the liver. It is essential for blood

clotting. It accounts for about 7 percent of the total plasma protein
volume, in clinical levels of 0.2–0.45 g/dL blood.

Albumin:

*Albumin is also the most significant contributor to the osmotic

pressure of blood; that is, its presence holds water inside the blood
vessels and draws water from the tissues, across blood vessel walls,
and into the bloodstream. This in turn helps to maintain both blood
volume and blood pressure.

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 cellular elements of blood:

Each type of blood cell performs different functions.

 Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

 White blood cells (Leukocytes)

 Platelets (Thrombocytes).

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Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
• Make up about 99% of the blood’s cellular component (4
million – 6 million per microliter of blood).
• Formed in the bone marrow
• Mature forms do NOT have a nucleus
• Shaped as biconcave disks and 6-8 micrometers in diameter.
• Hemoglobin (iron protein)is found in the RBC.

 Hemoglobin carries oxygen as oxyhemoglobin from the lungs to

the rest of the body and carbon dioxide binds to the RBC as
carbaminohemoglobin and is taken to the lungs to be exhaled.

 Hemoglobin is a complex protein made up of four protein strands,

plus iron-rich heme groups. Each hemoglobin molecule can carry
four oxygen atoms. The presence of oxygen turns hemoglobin
bright red.

 The normal range for hemoglobin is:

1. For men, 13.5 to 17.5 grams per deciliter
2. For women, 12.0 to 15.5 grams per deciliter

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RBC lifespan:
• RBCs live about 4 months (120 days). Iron from hemoglobin is
recycled in the liver and spleen.

• The hormone erythropoeitin, made by the kidneys, stimulates the

production of RBCs in red bone marrow.

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White blood cells (WBC) Leukocytes:

 Largest sized blood cells.

 Lowest numbers in the blood.

 (4,500 – 11,000 per microliter).

 Formed in the bone marrow and some in lymph glands.

 Primary cells of the immune system.

 Fights disease and foreign invaders.

 Contain nuclei with DNA, the shape depends on type of

cell.

 Certain WBCs produce antibodies.

 Life span is short and measured in hours or days .

 Size is 8-20 micrometers in diameter

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Types of leukocytes:
leukocytes could be divided into two groups, according to whether their
cytoplasm contained highly visible granules:

1. Granular leukocytes contain abundant granules within the

cytoplasm. They include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
They typically have a lobed nucleus and are classified according to
which type of stain best highlights their granules.

2. Agranular leukocytes include monocytes, which mature into

macrophages that are phagocytic, and lymphocytes, which arise
from the lymphoid stem cell line.

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Granulocytes:
• Neutrophils
– Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
– Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

• Eosinophils
– Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
– Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic worms.

• Basophils
– Have histamine-containing granules
– Initiate inflammation

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Agranulocytes:
• Lymphocytes
– Nucleus fills most of the cell
– Play an important role in the immune response

• Monocytes
– Largest of the white blood cells
– Function as macrophages
– Important in fighting chronic infection

Platelets (thrombocytes):
 A platelet a fragment of the cytoplasm of a cell called a
megakaryocyte that is surrounded by a plasma membrane.

 Platelets are relatively small, 2–4 µm in diameter, but numerous,

with typically 150,000–160,000 per µL of blood. After entering the
circulation, approximately one-third migrate to the spleen for
storage for later release in response to any rupture in a blood
vessel.

 They then become activated to perform their primary function,

clotting, which is to limit blood loss.

 Platelets remain only about 10 days, then are phagocytized by

macrophages.

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 Blood Clotting:

Clumping of
Break in Capillary Wall Platelets Clot Forms
Thrombin converts
Platelets clump at fibrinogen into
.Blood vessels injured the site and release fibrin, which causes
thromboplastin. a clot. The clot
Thromboplastin prevents further loss
converts of blood..
prothrombin into
..thrombin
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 Platelets and blood clotting:

Platelets: help blood

form a clot at the site of
a wound. A clot seals a
cut and prevents
excessive blood loss

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Hemostasis:
Hemostasis has three major steps:
1) vasoconstriction.

2) temporary blockage of a break by a platelet plug.

3) blood coagulation, or formation of a fibrin clot. These processes seal

the hole until tissues are repaired

 When a blood vessel is injured, the walls of the blood vessel

contract to limit the flow of blood to the damaged area. Then,
the platelets stick to the site of injury and spread along the
surface of the blood vessel to stop the bleeding.

 At the same time, chemical signals are released from the

platelets that attract other cells to the area and make them
clump together to form what is called a platelet plug.

 On the surface of these activated platelets, many different

clotting factors work together in a series of complex chemical
reactions (known as the coagulation cascade) to form a fibrin
clot. The clot acts like a mesh to stop the bleeding.

Coagulation factors circulate in the blood in an inactive form. When a

blood vessel is injured, the coagulation cascade is initiated and each
coagulation factor is activated in a specific order to lead to the formation
of the blood clot.

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Coagulation (Clotting)
• Injured tissues release thromboplastin (Thrombokinase).

• Thromboplastin, blood protein clotting factors, and calcium ions

interact to trigger a clotting cascade.

• Thrombokinase or thromboplastin converts prothrombin to

thrombin (an enzyme).

• Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like fibrin.

• Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot).

Thrombokinase
Prothrombin Thrombin
2
Ca+

Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin

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Undesirable Clotting:

• Thrombus
– A clot in an unbroken blood vessel.

– Can be deadly in areas like the heart.

• Embolus
– A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the
bloodstream.

– Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain.

Bleeding Disorders:
• Thrombocytopenia
– Platelet deficiency.

– Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small

blood vessels that require platelets for clotting.

• Hemophilia
– Hereditary bleeding disorder.

– Normal clotting factors are missing

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